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CHAPTER 6
FOURIER SERIES
Introduction

Fourier series were discovered by J.Fourier (21 March 1768 - 16 May 1830), a French man who
was a mathematician among other things. In fact, Fourier was Napoleon’s scientific advisor
during France’s invasion of Egypt in the 1800’s. Fourier series arose in the study of two simple
physical problems, the motion of a vibrating string and heat conduction in solids. Fourier, sine
series, and cosine series are all expansions for a function ( ), much in the same way that a
Taylor series + ( − ) + ( − ) + … is an expansion. Both Fourier and Taylor
series can be used to approximate ( ).There are at least three important differences between the
two types of series. (1) For a function to have a Taylor series it must be differentiable, whereas
for a Fourier series it does not even have to be continuous. (2) Another difference is that the
Taylor series is typically not periodic (though it can be in some cases), where as a Fourier series
is always periodic. (3) Finally, the Taylor series (when it converges) always converges to the
function ( ), but the Fourier series may not.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 define and determine the period and amplitude of a periodic function.

 demonstrate the orthogonality of the trigonometric functions sin(nx) and cos(nx)
for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
 obtain the Fourier coefficients and hence the Fourier series of a periodic function.
 find the value of the Fourier series at a point of discontinuity of the periodic function.
 identify even and odd functions and their products.
 find the Fourier cosine series and Fourier sine series of a given function.
 derive half range Fourier series
 apply the concept of Fourier series to solve practical and real life problems.

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6.1 Periodic Functions

Introduction
In physical world around us, we encounter many phenomena which repeat after certain interval
of time. Any activity that repeats on a regular time interval can be described as periodic. In
mathematics, the notion becomes the same. The periodicity of a function is not limited to time.
We look for repetition of function values with respect to independent variable.
Periodic functions appear in a variety of real life situations, alternating currents, the vibrations of
a spring, sound waves, heartbeat, and the motion of a pendulum are examples of periodic
functions.

Objectives: At the end of this section you will be able to

 define a periodic function

 find the fundamental period of a periodic function
 identify trigonometric series
 define orthogonality of trigonometric series

6.1.1 Period and Trigonometric Series

Definition 6.1.1 A function ( ) in its domain is called periodic if there is some positive
number such that ( + ) = ( ). This number is called a
period of ( ). The least number possessing this property is often
called the primitive period or the smallest period or the
fundamental period of the function f ( ) .

Note: If P is the period of f(x), then np for n=2,3,4,… are also periods of f(x).

Example 6.1.1 sin is periodic with period 2 , 4 , 6 , … but 2 is the smallest period.

Example 6.1.2

( ) sin cos tan cot sec csc

Smallest period 2 2 2 2

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Example 6.1.3 A constant function is a periodic function where any positive number is its
period and no smallest period.

Example 6.1.4 , , , are examples of non-periodic functions.

Theorem 6.1.1 If and are periodic functions with period , then for any , ∈ ℜ,

ℎ( ) = ( ) + ( ) for all in the domain of ℎ is a periodic function of period .

Proof: ℎ( + )= ( + )( + )

= ( + )+ ( + )

= ( )+ ( ) (∴ )

= ℎ( )

⇒ is the period of ℎ.

Theorem 6.1.2 1. If ≠0, ≠ 0 , then each of the functions

= sin , = cos , = sec = csc has

fundamental period
| |

2. If ≠0, ≠ 0 , then each of the functions

= tan = cot has fundamental period

| |

Theorem 6.1.3 If are periods of respectively, then the period

of ( )+ ( ) where and are constants, is the least common
multiple of .

Example 6.1.5 Find the smallest period of the following functions

a) sin 2 b) cos c) tan 5

d) 4 csc 3 e) cot f) sec

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Solution: a) b) 2 c) d) e) f) 4

Example 6.1.6 Find the smallest period of cos −2 +

Solution: cos −2 + = cos(−2 ) cos − sin(−2 ) sin 2

= 0 − sin(−2 ) (∵ cos = 0, sin = 1)

= sin 2

∴ period =

Example 6.1.7 Find the smallest period of ( ) = sin 2 + 3 tan .

Solution: ( ) = sin 2 + 3 tan .

Let ( ) = sin 2 ( ) = 3 tan

Now period of ( )= and period of ( )=

Multiples of are { , 2 , 3 , 4 , … }

Multiples of are , , 2 , , …

Least common multiple of and is 2

∴ The period of ( ) = sin 2 + 3 tan is 2 .

An infinite series of the form


+  ( cos + sin ) = + cos + sin
n 1

+ cos 2 + sin 2 + cos 3 + sin 3 + , … (1)

Where are constants for n = 0,1,2, … is generally reffered to as a trigonometric

series.

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We first consider the evaluation of the following integrals

1. ∫ cos = ( ≠ 0)

( )
= −

= +

= 0 ( sin = 0)

2. ∫ sin = ( ≠ 0)

( )
= +

= + (∵ cos(− ) = cos )

= 0

3. ∫ cos = ∫ cos =

= + ( ≠ 0)

( )
= + − +

= + + +

= (∵ sin 2 = 0)

4. ∫ sin = ∫ ∵ sin =

= − , ≠0
−
( )
= − − − +

= (sin 2 = 0)

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5. ∫ cos cos = ∫ [cos ( + ) + cos ( − ) ]

( ∵ cos cos = [cos ( + ) + cos ( − )]

( ) –
= + , ( ≠ )

1 ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
= + − −
2

= 0

6. ∫ sin sin = ∫ [cos ( − ) − cos ( + ) ]

∵ sin sin = [cos ( − ) − cos ( + )]

– ( )
= − ( ≠ )

1 ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
= − − +
2

= 0

7. ∫ cos sin = ∫ [sin ( + ) − sin ( − ) ]

1
cos sin = [sin( + ) − sin( − )]
2

( ) –
= + ,( ≠ )

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
= + + −

= 0

and for = , ∫ cos sin = ∫ cos sin

= ∫ sin 2 (∵ sin 2 = 2 sin cos )

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( )
= +

= 0

Summary

1. ∫ cos = 0

2. ∫ sin = 0
1 =
3. ∫ cos cos = where =
0 ≠
( ℎ )
4. ∫ sin sin =

5. ∫ cos sin = 0

6.1.2 Orthogonality of Trigonometric Series

Definition 6.1.2 Let be functions defined on [ , ]. are said to be

Orthogonal on [ , ] iff ∫ ( ) ( ) = 0

Note: g1, g2, g3,… is an orthogonal system on [ , ]if and only if ∫ g ( ) g ( ) = 0 for m ≠ n.

The trigonometric system 1, cos , sin , cos 2 , sin 2 , cos 3 , sin 3 , … is orthogonal on
the interval – , (hence on any interval of length 2 ). By the above definition, the integral of

the product of any two different of these functions over – , is zero. i.e for any integers
where ≠

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We have 1. ∫ cos cos = 0 4. ∫ cos = 0

2. ∫ sin sin = 0 5. ∫ sin = 0

3. ∫ cos sin = 0

Exercise 6.1.3

Find the smallest period of the following functions

1. ( ) = cos 4

2. ( ) = sec 8 + tan 2

3. ( ) = sin + cos + tan

4. ( ) = cos
5. ( ) = |sin |

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6.2 Fourier series

Introduction:
Let f(x) be defined in the interval (-L, L) and outside of the interval by f(x + 2L) = f(x),
that is f(x) is 2L periodic. It is through this avenue that a new function on an infinite set
of real numbers is created from the image on [-L, L]

Objectives:
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 define a Fourier series
 find the Fourier coefficients
 state the Euler formulas
 find the sum of the Fourier series
 draw the graph of periodic functions
 find the Fourier series of a periodic function of any period P = 2L
 identify the Fourier series of even and odd functions
 define half- range expansions
 identify even and odd half- range expansions

Given that certain conditions are satisfied then it is possible to write a periodic function of period
2 as a series expansion of the orthogonal periodic function discussed. That is, if ( ) is
defined on the interval – ≤ ≤ where ( + 2 )= ( ) then

( )= +  ( cos + sin ) … (1) .
n 1

This is the Fourier series expansion of ( ) where the and are constants called the
Fourier coefficients. The question is how do we find the value of these constants?

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6.2.1 Euler’s Formula for the Fourier Coefficients

Now integrating on both sides of (1) from − to we have:


∫ ( ) = ∫ +  ( cos + sin
n 1

If term by term integration is allowed, we have


∫ ( ) = ∫ +∫  [( cos + sin )]
n 1


= [ ] +  ∫ ( cos + sin )
n 1


= [ − (− )] +  ∫ cos + ∫ sin
n 1

= 2 ∴ ∫ cos = 0 = ∫ sin

1
= ( )
2

Next, we have to find , , …, , … of the cosine terms. To find we multiply both

sides of (1) by cos and integrate from – to with respect to .

∫ ( ) cos = ∫ [ cos + ( cos + sin ) cos ]

= ∫ cos + ∫ ( cos + sin ) cos

= ∫ ( cos cos + sin cos ) ∫ cos =0

= ∫ cos + ∫ sin cos

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= ∫ cos ∫ sin cos =0

= ∫

= +

Hence
= ∫ ( ) cos

In a similar way, can be obtained by multiplying (1) by cos 2 and then integrate from –
to with respect to .

∫ ( ) cos 2 = ∫ [ + cos 2 + sin 2 ] cos 2

= ∫ cos 2 + ∫ cos 2 cos 2 + ∫ sin 2 cos 2

= ∫ cos 2 ∵ ∫ cos 2 = 0, ∫ sin 2 cos 2 = 0,

= ∫

= +

Hence
= ∫ ( ) cos 2

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In general is obtained by multiplying (1) by cos and then integrating from – to

with respect to we have:


∫ ( ) cos = ∫ +  ( cos + sin ) cos
n 1

 
= ∫ cos + 
n 1
∫ cos cos + 
n 1
∫ sin cos

 
= (0) +  +  (0)
n 1 n 1

Hence
= ∫ ( ) cos

To find the coefficients , ,… , , … we use the same procedure as above. In general to

find we multiply both sides of (1) by sin and then integrating from – to with
respect to we have:


∫ ( ) sin = ∫ +  ( cos + sin ) sin
n 1

 
= ∫ sin + 
n 1
∫ cos sin + 
n 1
∫ sin sin

 
= (0) +  (0) +  (0)
n 1 n 1

= ∫ ( ) sin

Hence

Writing n in place of we have Euler’s formulas

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(a) = ∫ ( )

(b) = ∫ ( ) cos = 1, 2, 3, …

(c) = ∫ ( ) sin = 1, 2, 3, …

These formulas are called the Fourier Coefficients of ( ).

The trigonometric series


+  ( cos + sin )
n 1

is called the Fourier series of ( ).

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6.2.2 Convergence and Sum of Fourier Series

Definition 6.2.1 A function f is said to be pecewise continous on the interval [ , ] if f (a+) and f (b-)
exist, and f is defined and continous on (a , b) except at a finit number of points in

( a , b) where the left and right limits exist.

Remark: ( ) = lim x
( ); ( ) = lim 
( )
x  x 0 x  x 0

Example 6.2.1
( ), − < <−
Let: f(x) = ( ), − < <
( ), < <

f 1 ( x)

)
(x
f2

 q 

f 3 ( x)

Figure 6.1 Piece wise continuous function over a period

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Theorem 6.2.1 Let ( ) be a periodic function with period 2 and such that ( ) and ’( ) are
piecewise continuous on the interval− ≤ ≤ . Then ( ) has a Fourier series.


( )= +  ( cos + sin ) …………………………… (2)
n 1

whose coefficients are given by the Euler formulas

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) cos

1
= ( ) sin

The Fourier series (2) converges to ( ) at all points where is continuous, and to

[ ( )+ ( )] at all points of jump discontinuity of .

[

−1 , − < < 0
Example 6.2.2 Let ( )= ; ( +2 )= ( )
1, 0< <

be a periodic function of period 2 . Then

a) Sketch the graph of ( ) on [−4 , 4 ].

b) Find the Fourier coefficients of ( )
c) Find the Fourier series of ( ) , and deduce that = 1 − + − + − + …

d) Calculate the sum of the series at = 0

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Solution a)
y

0 x
 4  3  2   2 3 4

-1

Figure 6.2 (square wave)

b) = ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ − + ∫ 1

= {− | + | }

= {− + }

= 0

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos +∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ −cos +∫ cos

= | + |

= {0}

= 0

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= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ ( ) sin +∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ −sin + ∫ sin

= | − |

( )
= − − +

= – (∵ cos = cos(− ) = (−1) )

= {1 − cos }

= (1 − (−1) )

0 , =
=
, =


c) ( )= +  ( cos + sin )
n  0

0, =
but = 0 , = 0, =
, =

Thus ( ) =  sin
n 1


= 
n  1 , 3 , 5 , ...
sin


( )
= 
n 1


( )
=
n 1

= + + + …

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From the graph we can see that is continuous at = .

Hence = + + + …

⇒ 1 = 1 − + − + …

∴ = 1 − + − + …

d) The function is discontinuous at = 0

Hence the sum of the series = [ (0 ) + (0 ) ]

But (0 ) = lim ( ) = 1 (0 ) = lim ( ) = −1

x  0 x  0

∴ The sum of the series = [ 1 − 1] = 0

Example 6.2.3 Find the Fourier series of the function ( ) with period 2 where

0,− < ≤ 0
( ) = ; ( +2 )= ( )
, 0 < ≤


And finally deduce that = 
n 1
( )

Solution

 5  4  3  2   2 3 4 5

Figure 6.3

A sketch of the function ( ) over the interval [−5 , 5 ] is shown in fig 6.3

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= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( )

= ∫

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos + ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos

= | − ∫ sin (Integration by parts)

= + cos |

= 0 + −

= [(−1) − 1]

0 , =
=
, =

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ ( ) sin + ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ sin

= | + ∫ cos

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π
= + |

= +0

= −

( )
= −

− , =
=
, =


∴ ( )= +  ( cos + sin )
n 1

 
= +
n 1
 cos +
n 1
 sin

 
= −  +  (−1)
n  1, 3 ,5 n 1

 
( )
= −  +  (−1)
( )
n 1 n 1


Put = 0 , then (0) = −  (∴ cos 0 = 1 , sin 0 = 0)
( )
n 1


⇒ 0 = −
n 1
 ( )


⇒ 
n 1
( )
=


⇒ 
n 1
( )
=

Remark: If ( ) is a periodic function with period2 , then

∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) no matter what the

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Proof: ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( )

Now ( −2 )= ( ) put = − 2 for all & .

∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )

In particular, taking = − , = we get

∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) 

From the remark it follows that when computing Fourier coefficients we can replace the interval
of integration – , by the interval of integration [ , + 2 ] , that is we can put

+2
= ∫ ( )

+2
= ∫ ( ) cos , = 1, 2, 3, …

+2
= ∫ ( ) sin , = 1, 2, 3, …

Example: 6.2.4 Expand in a Fourier series the function f(x) with period 2 π, which is given on
the interval 0 < x < 2 π by the equation f(x) = x.

Solution: set =0

= ∫ ( )

= ∫

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λ π
= π ∫λ f(x) cos nx dx
π
= ∫ x cos nx dx ; put u = x , dv = cosnx dx , du = dx, V =
π

= −∫ dx
π

= 0

bn = ∫ ( )

= ∫ ; = , = sin , = , =

–
= + ∫

–
= +


∴ ( )= +  (a n cos nx  b n sin nx )
n  1


sin nx
= −2 
n 1 n

Example 6.2.5 Compute the Fourier series of the function

0, − ≤ <
( )= ; ( +2 )= ( )
1, ≤ <

Solution = ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( )

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= ∫

= [ ]|

= [ − ]

= [ ]

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos + ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos

= |

= –

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ ( ) sin + ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ sin

= |

= cos − cos

( )
=

Hence the Fourier series of is

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
( ) = +  ( cos + sin )
n 1

 ( )
= + 
n 1
cos + sin

 ( )
= + 
n 1

Exercises 6.2.2.1

Find the Fourier series of each function f(x) of period 2 .

1. ( ) = x, | | < 6. ( ) = x2, | | <

2, − < < 0
2. ( ) = 7. ( ) = ex, | | <
1, 0 ≤ <

0, − < < 0 + , − < <0

3. ( )= 8. ( ) =
, 0 < < ,0 < <

1, 0 ≤ <
4. ( )= 9. ( )= ,− < <π
0, < < 2

0 ,− ≤ ≤ 0
5. ( ) = Coshx, − ≤  10. ( )=
2 − , 0< ≤

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6.2.3 Functions of Any Period =

Theorem 6.2.2 Let ( ) be a periodic function with period 2 and such that ( ) and
’( ) are piecewise continuous on the interval – ≤ ≤ . Then ( ) has
a Fourier series

( ) = +  + . . . (1)
n 1

whose coefficients are given by the Euler formulas

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) , = 1, 2, 3, …

= ∫ ( ) , = 1, 2, 3, …

The Fourier series (1) converges to ( ) at all points where is continuous,

and to [ ( ) + ( ) ] at all points of jump discontinuity of .

Example 6.2.6 Obtain the Fourier series for

−1< ≤0
( ) = ; ( + 2) = ( )
+2 0< ≤1

Solution Here 2 =2 ⇒ = 1

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) + ∫ ( )

= ∫ + ∫ ( + 2)

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= | + +2 |

= + +2

= 1

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos + ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos + ∫ ( + 2) cos

= ∫ cos + ∫ cos + 2 ∫ cos

= | − ∫ + |

− ∫ + 2 | (Using integration by parts)

= | + |

( )
= − + −

= 0

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ ( ) sin ( )

= ∫ ( ) sin ( ) + ∫ ( ) sin ( )

= ∫ sin ( ) + ∫ ( + 2) sin ( )

( )
= | + ∫ + ∫ sin + 2 ∫ sin ( )

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(Using integration by parts)

( ) ( ) ( )
= + | + |

( ) ( )
+ ∫ + |

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= − + | − +

( )
= − +

( )
= −

= [1 − 2(−1) ]

; =
=
; =

∴ The Fourier series is


( ) = +  cos + sin
n 1


f(x) = 1 +  [1 − 2(−1) ] sin . 
n 1

Example 6.2.7 Find the Fourier series of the function defined by

, 0< <
( ) = ; ( +2 )= ( )
0 , < <2

Solution 2 = 2 ⇒ =

= ∫ ( )

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= ∫ ( )

= ∫ cos + ∫ (0)

= [sin ] |

= 0

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos cos ∵ ( )= 0 ( , 2 )

= ∫ [cos ( + 1) + cos(1 − ) ]

( ) ( )
= + |

= 0 ≠1

so = 0 when ever ≠ 1 . If n = 1 , then

= ∫ =

Again = ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ ( ) sin ( )

= ∫ cos sin ( ) ∵ ( )= 0 ( , 2 )

= ∫ [sin( + 1) + sin ( − 1) ]

( ) ( )
= − |

( )
= ( )
≠ 1

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( ( ) )
= ( )
≠ 1

=
= ( )
0 =

If = 1 , then = ∫ cos sin = 0

Hence the Fourier series of is given by


( )
( )= cos +  sin
( )
n 2

Example 6.2.8 Find the Fourier series of the function defined by

0 , −5 < < 0
( ) = ; ( + 10) = ( )
1 , 0 < < 5

Solution 2 = 10 ⇒ = 5

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ (∵ ( ) = 0 (−5, 0))

= [ ]|

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos (∵ ( ) = 0 (−5, 0))

= sin |

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= 0

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ sin

= ∫ sin (∵ ( ) = 0 (−5, 0))

= cos |

( )
=

, =
=
0 , =

Hence the Fourier series of is given by


( )
( )= +  sin
n 1

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Exercises 6.2.3.1

I. Prove the following results when m and n are positive integers.

1. =0

0 ≠
2. =
=

0 ≠
3. =
=

II. Find the Fourier series of each functions ( ) of period 2L.

4. ( )= ,0 < <2, = 1

5. ( )= ,| | < 1, =1
,0 < <1
6. ( ) , =1
1, 1 < <2
7. ( )= , −3 ≤ ≤3, =3
−4 , − ≤ ≤ 0
8. ( )= , =
4,0 < ≤
9. ( )= − x + 3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 , L = 2
1,− ≤ < 0
10. ( ) = ; =
2,0 ≤ ≤

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6.2.4 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions

Definition 6.2.2; A function ( ) is said to be even if ( )= (− ) and ( ) is said

to be odd if (− ) = − ( ) for every in the domain of .

Example 6.2.9 The following are examples of even function , cos ,| |

Example 6.2.10 The following are examples of odd function , sin , tan ,

Theorem 6.2.3 a) The product of two even function is even.

b) The product of two odd functions is even

c) The product of an even and odd function is odd.

Proof a) Let ( ) and ( ) be an even function, Then

( ) (− ) = (− ) (− ) = ( ) ( ) = ( )( )

∵ is even . 

b) Let ( ) and ( ) be an odd function. Then

( )(− ) = (− ) (− ) = − ( ). – ( )

= ( ) ( ) = ( )( )

∵ is even . 

c) Let ( ) be an even function and g(x) be an odd function. Then

( )(− ) = (− ) (− ) = ( ). – ( ) = −( )( )

∵ is odd . 

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Exercise 6.2.4.1

State whether each of the following is an odd function, an even function or neither.

a) sin 2
b) cos 2 sin
c)
d) ( + 1) sin
e) +
f) ℓ
 Let ( ) be an even function. Then for any number L

( ) = ( ) + ( )

Let y = -x , dy = -dx

( ) = (− )(− )

= − (− )

= − ( ) ,

= − ( )

( ) = ( ) + ( )

=− ( ) + ( )

= ( ) + ( )

=2 ( )

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To have, ∫ ( ) = 2∫ ( )

Further if ( ) is an odd function

( ) = ( ) + ( )

= − , = −

( ) = (− )(− )=− (− )

= − (− )

= − (− )

= − − ( ) ,

= ( )

= ( )

= − ( )

( ) = ( ) + ( )

=− ( ) + ( )

= 0

To have, ∫ ( ) = 0

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Theorem6.2.4 The Fourier series of an even function of period 2 is a “Fourier cosine


series” ( ) = +  cos with coefficients
n 1

= ∫ ( ) and = ∫ ( ) cos , 1, 2, 3, … .

The Fourier series of an odd function of period 2 is a “Fourier sine


series” ( ) =  sin with coefficients
n 1

= ∫ ( ) sin

Remark 1) If ( ) is even, the series contains cosine terms only (including )

2) If ( ) is odd, the series contains sine terms only.

Remark : In graphical representation, an even function is symmetrical with respect to the

y-axis, where as an odd function is symmetrical with respect to the origin of the
coordinate system.

Example6.2.11 Find the Fourier series for

−2 ; − < < 0
( ) = ; ( +2 )= ( )
2 ; 0 < <

Solution The graph of ( ) is given in fig 6.4

x
 4  3  2   2 3 4

-2

Figure 6.4

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Since the graph is symmetrical about the origin, the function is an odd function. There fore
= = 0.

Hence we need to calculate

but 2 = 2 ⇒ =

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ 2 sin

= |

= +

= [ 1 − cos( )]

= [ 1 − (−1) ]

0 , =
=
, =


Thus ( ) =  sin
n 1


=  [1 − (−1) ] sin( )
n 1

= 
n  1, 3 , 5 , ...
sin

= 
n  1, 3 , 5 , ...


( )
= 
n 1

Example 6.2.12 Find the Fourier series of ( ) = | | for ∈ [−1, 1] with a period of 2 or
( + 2) = ( )

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y
Solution
2

x
-6
-6 -4
-4 -2
-2 2 4 6

-2
-2

Figure 6.5 Triangular wave with a period of 2,

Now (− ) = |− | = | | = ( ) and hence ( ) is an even function there fore = 0.

We need to calculate and .

= ∫ ( ) , but 2 = 2 ⇒ = 1

= ∫

= |

= ∫ ( ) cos

= 2 ∫ cos ( )
( )
= | − ∫ sin( ) (Using integration by parts)

= [cos ( ) − 1]

= ((−1) − 1)

Hence, the Fourier series of ( ) can be written as


( )
( )= + 2  cos( )
n 1

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Example: 6.2.13 The charge q(t) on the plates of a capacitor at time t is as shown in fig. 6.6
Express q(t) as a Fourier series expansion.

 2   2 3 4

Figure 6.6
Solution: Since q(t) is an even function, its Fourier expansion is

( )= + a n cos nt
n 1

With 0 = ∫ =

n = ∫

= +

= (cos n - 1)
0 , n = even
=
, n = odd

Thus, the Fourier expansion of q (t) is


( )
q(t) = Q − 
n 1
( )

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Exercise 6.2.4.2

Find the Fourier series of the given functions, assuming that they are periodic. Pay particular

attention to whether each function is even or odd.

1. f(x)= x 3 , x < ; Period = 2

+ 3 , −3 < <0
2. f(x) = ; Period = 6
− +3,0 < <3

( + 1) , −1 < < 0
3. f(x)= ; Period = 2
( − 1) , 0 < < 1

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6.2.5 Half -Range Expansion

In many problems of engineering there is a practical need to apply a Fourier series to a non-
periodic function ( ) that is defined only on the interval 0 < < . Because of
mathematical considerations, it may be permissible to extend ( ) over the interval
– < < , making it periodic of period 2 . Figure 6.7 illustrates two such extensions. The
odd extension in figure 6.8 (b) has a Fourier sine series; the even extension in figure 6.9 (c) has a
Fourier cosine series.

x
L

Figure 6.7
(a) original function

x
-3 L -2 L L L 2L 3L

figure 6.8
(b) Odd extension

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x
-3 L -2 L L L 2L 3L

Figure 6.9
(c) Even extension
Example 6.2.14 Let ( )= (0, ) y




x
 4  3  2   2 3 4



Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11

(a) Original function (b) Odd extension

y

x
 3  2  0  2 3

Figure 6.12
(b) Even extension

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Theorem 6.2.5; - Let ( ) be a function defined on the interval 0 ≤ ≤ . Then an even

half - range expansion of ( ) is given by

( )= +  cos
n 1

where = ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) cos

And an odd half-range expansion is given by ( )=  sin
n 1

where = ∫ ( ) sin

Example 6.2.15 Obtain the half-range sine series for ( ) = 2 in 0 < < .

Solution Given =

= ∫ ( ) sin

= ∫ 2 sin( )

= ∫ sin( )

( )
= |

0 , =
=
, =

Hence the half- range sine series is given by


( ) =  sin
n 1


=  sin( )
n  1 , 3 , 5 , ...

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
( )
= 
n 1

Example 6.2.16:- Obtain the half-range cosine series for ( ) = 0 ≤ ≤ and

use this series to verify the identities

a) = 
n 1


( )
b) = 
n 1


c) = 
n 1
( )

Solution Given =

= ∫ ( )

= ∫

= |

= ∫ ( ) cos

= ∫ cos

= | − ∫ sin (Using integration by parts)

= ∫ sin

= | + ∫ cos (Again using integration by parts)

= cos

( )
=

Hence the half- range cosine series is given by

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
( ) = +  cos
n 1


( )
+ 4 cos
n 1


( )
i.e = + 4  cos … (∗)
n 1

Put = in (∗) , we get


( )
= + 4 cos
n 1


( )
⇒ − = 4 (−1)
n 1


( )
⇒ = 4
n 1


⇒ =  … (∗∗)
n 1

Again put = 0 in (∗) , we get


( )
0= + 4 cos 0
n 1


( )
⇒ = −4 
n 1


( ) ( )
⇒ = 4
n 1


( )
⇒ =  … (∗ ∗ ∗ )
n 1


Adding (∗ ∗ ) and (∗ ∗ ∗ ) it follows that = 
n 1
( )

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Example 6.2.17 A tightly stretched flexible uniform string has its ends fixed at the point
= 0 and = ℓ . The midpoint of the string is displaced a distance , as
shown in Figure 6.13. If ( ) denotes the displaced profile of the string,
express ( ) as a Fourier series expansion consisting only of sine terms.

f (x)

x
0 1 

2

Figure 6.13
ℓ
, 0< <
ℓ
Solution: ( ) = (ℓ ) ℓ
, < <
ℓ


Fourier sine series expansion is ( ) =  sin ℓ
n 1

with
ℓ ℓ
= ∙ ∫ sin + ∫ℓ (ℓ − ) sin
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ

ℓ ℓ ℓ
= cos + ( )
sin
ℓ ℓ ℓ

ℓ
ℓ ℓ
+ (ℓ − ) cos − sin
ℓ ( ) ℓ ℓ

ℓ
= ( )
sin
ℓ

= ( )
sin


Hence ( ) =  sin sin
( ) ℓ
n 1

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Exercise 6.2.5.1

Write the Fourier cosine series and the Fourier sine series of the function on the given interval.

1. f(x) = 4, 0 ≤ ≤ 3
2. f(x) = x , 0 < x < 

3. A function f(x) is defined by f(x) =  x – x3, for 0  x   . show that f(x) can be
2 
cos 2n
represented by the Fourier cosine series given by f(x) =
6
 
n 1 n2
valid for the

interval 0  x   .

4. For the function defined in exercise 3 above, show that the Fourier sine series, valid for
8  sin( 2n  1) x
the interval 0  x   , is given by f(x) = 
 n 1 ( 2n  1) 3

2 1 1 1
Deduce that 1  3  3  3  ........
12 3 5 7

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6.3 Unit Summary

 An infinite series of the form


+  ( cos + sin ) = + cos + sin
n 1

+ cos 2 + sin 2 + cos 3 + sin 3 , … (1)

Where are constants, is generally reffered to as a trigonometric series.

 Let ( ) be a periodic function with period 2 and such that ( ) and ’( ) are
piecewise continuous on the interval− ≤ ≤ . Then ( ) has a Fourier series.


( )= +  ( cos + sin ) …………………………… (2)
n 1

Whose coefficients are given by the Euler formulas

= ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) cos

1
= ( ) sin

The Fourier series (2) converges to ( ) at all points where is continuous, and to

[ ( )+ ( )] at all points of jump discontinuity of .

 Let ( ) be a periodic function with period 2 and such that ( ) and ’( ) are
piecewise continuous on the interval – ≤ ≤ . Then ( ) has a Fourier series

( ) = +  + . . . (1)
n 1

Whose coefficients are given by the Euler formulas

= ∫ ( )

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= ∫ ( ) , = 1, 2, 3, …

= ∫ ( ) , = 1, 2, 3, …

The Fourier series (1) converges to ( ) at all points where is continuous, and to
[ ( ) + ( ) ] at all points of jump discontinuity of .

 A function ( ) is said to be even if ( )= (− ) and ( ) is said to be odd if

(− ) = − ( ) for every in the domain of .
 The Fourier series of an even function of period 2 is a “Fourier cosine

series” ( ) = +  cos with coefficients
n 1

= ∫ ( ) and = ∫ ( ) cos , 1, 2, 3, … . The

Fourier series of an odd function of period 2 is a “Fourier sine series” ( ) =



 sin with coefficients = ∫ ( ) sin

n 1

 Let ( ) be a function defined on the interval 0 ≤ ≤ . Then an even half

range expansion of ( ) is given by

( )= +  cos
n 1

Where = ∫ ( )

= ∫ ( ) cos

and an odd half-range expansion is given by ( )=  sin
n 1

Where = ∫ ( ) sin

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6.4 Review Exercises

1. Find the smallest period of the following functions.

a. f(x) = cos( ) b) f(x) = sin x

c. f(x) = sin2x + cos3x d) f(x) = cos( ) - sin ( )

e. f(x) = sin 7 f) f(x) = 2sin x cosx

2. State whether each of the following functions are odd, even or neither.
a. x2 b. x3 c. x + x3 d. nx
e x  ex
e. f. sinx + cosx g. sin x
2

h. cos x i. 1 x  x2 - 1 x  x2

1 x 
j. n   k. x3cos 2x l. x2e2x
1 x 
m. (x+5) cos2x n. sin2 x cosx o. sin2x sin3x
3. Sketch the graph and find the Fourier series of the given functions, assuming that they are
periodic.
+ 4, − 4 < <0
a. f(x) =
− + 4, 0< <4
1, 0≤ <
b. f(x) =
0, ≤ <2
4. Extend each of the functions as both an even and an odd periodic functions, and compute
their corresponding Fourier cosine or sine series.
a. f(x) =3, 0 < x < 1
b. f(x) = x3, 0 < x < 1
1, 0< <1
c. f(x) =
0, 1< <2
5. A function f(x) is defined by f(x)= − ,0 < < and f(x + 2 ) = f(x). Express the
function.
a. as a half- range cosine series
b. as a half- range sine series

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6. A function f(x) is defined by

0, −2 < < 0
f(x)= ; f(x+4) = f(x)
, 0< <2
Determine its Fourier series.
7. Consider the clipped sine wave

⎧ 
, 0 < <
⎪ L 2
f(x) = ; f(x+ )=f(x)
⎨  L
⎪0, < <0
⎩ L
Which is obtained by passing a sinusoidal voltage K sin Lx through a half-wave
rectifier (see figure 13). Then determine its Fourier series.

 3  2   2 3
 4
L L L L
L L
L

8. Determine the Fourier series for a periodic function such that

1, −2 < < −1
f(x) = 0, − 1 < < 1 ( + 4) = ( )
−1, 1 < < 2

| |
9. Let f(x) = for − π < < . If f(x) is a periodic function of period 2 π. Then find its
Fourier series.
10. The function f(x) =1-x2 is to be represented by a Fourier series expansion over the finite
interval 0 < x < 1. Obtain.
a. Full-range series expansion.
b. Half-range sine series expansion.
c. Half-range cosine series expansion.

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