3830 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO.

4, JULY 2018

Hybrid AC–DC Microgrid: Systematic

Evaluation of Control Strategies
Ajay Gupta, Student Member, IEEE, Suryanarayana Doolla, Senior Member, IEEE,
and Kishore Chatterjee, Member, IEEE

Abstract—Hybrid ac–dc microgrid architecture is attracting A microgrid can be viewed as a small-scale power system
special attention since it combines the benefits of both ac and comprising of generators, loads and storage. AC microgrids
dc systems. Control of hybrid microgrid presents a significant have been investigated widely since early 2000s because of
research and engineering challenge and hence needs increased
research efforts. This paper attempts to review control strategies their natural interface with the utility grid. However, most
that are reported in the literature for the hybrid ac–dc microgrid. of the renewable energy sources and modern loads have dc
At first, typical and emerging hybrid microgrid power topolo- interface thus integrating them onto a dc bus is more advan-
gies are presented briefly. Various types of interlinking converters tageous. A more practical but complex network known as
proposed for connecting ac and dc subgrids are discussed subse- hybrid ac-dc microgrid combines the benefits of both ac and
quently. Following this, a detailed discussion on control strategies
for satisfying various control objectives is taken up. Control dc systems [3], [4]. The distinct ac and dc subgrids are
strategies have been systematically reviewed focusing on each interconnected by one or more “interlinking converter” (IC)
of the broad aspects of control namely modeling, power man- as shown in Fig. 1 forming a hybrid microgrid (HMG).
agement, coordinated control, stability analysis, power quality, The ac and dc components (sources, loads and storages)
and protection strategies. Finally, the research gaps observed are segregated and connected to respective subgrids primar-
during the review process and possible solution approaches
are outlined. ily to reduce the number of power conversion stages, thus
increasing the overall efficiency. The hybrid ac-dc power archi-
Index Terms—AC-DC microgrid, active power control, coor- tecture thus improves the reliability and power quality of the
dinated control, distributed generation, energy management,
hybrid microgrid, hybrid power systems, interlinking converter, overall system. The ac subgrid of the HMG consists of ac gen-
microgrid control, power management. erators such as induction generator interfaced wind turbines,
synchronous generators fed by diesel, small-hydro, etc. as well
as ac loads such as pumps and fans. The dc subgrid includes
I. I NTRODUCTION
power sources having dc output such as photovoltaic (PV)
HE CONVENTIONAL electric grid has been planned
T and structured for centralized generation of electricity
predominantly from fossil fuels. The current trend is towards
modules, fuel cells, etc., and dc loads such as LEDs and digi-
tal computers. Appropriate ac/dc storages are interfaced either
on ac/dc buses or inside the IC to overcome the effect of
distributed generation of electricity especially from renewable stochastic generation and load profile.
energy sources such as solar and wind energy. Generating HMG finds its place in applications where reliability and
and consuming electricity locally is more economical, reli- quality of power are of high priority viz., data centers [5],
able and efficient, especially for electrification of off-grid or telecom towers, etc. Besides these type of systems, the dc
remote communities. This approach has led to a concept of subsystem of the HMG can be used for improving the power
interfacing autonomous and smart electrical networks with ride-through capability [6] and for the improvement of volt-
bidirectional power flow capability popularly referred to as age profile [7] of the ac distribution network. HMG can also
“microgrids” [1], [2]. Integration of microgrids can improve improve the power quality by serving as a “virtual” active
grids performance and provide increased flexibility to its power filter [8] or by performing reactive power compensa-
operation. tion [9]. The dc subgrid can also serve as charging stations for
electric vehicles [10], [11]. HMG can also provide a defined
Manuscript received March 28, 2017; revised June 22, 2017; accepted
June 30, 2017. Date of publication July 14, 2017; date of current version level of reliability to different customer nodes by appropriate
June 19, 2018. This work was supported by the Department of Science and distributed energy resource (DER) allocation (type, site and
Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India, under the Indo-Dutch size) [12].
Cooperation on Smart Grids Research under Grant 14DSTID002. Paper no.
TSG-00430-2017. (Corresponding author: Suryanarayana Doolla.) Control strategies for ac and dc microgrids have been
A. Gupta and S. Doolla are with the Department of Energy Science and extensively researched and reviewed over the past two
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India decades [13]–[15]. However, research on HMG has picked
(e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]).
K. Chatterjee is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, up during the last five years and is being pursued actively by
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India (e-mail: researchers. Very few review studies are available currently
[email protected]). on HMG, for example, covering power topologies [16] and
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. control strategies [17], [18] in general and power manage-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2017.2727344 ment strategies in particular [19]. Furthermore, a substantial
1949-3053 c 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3831

Fig. 1. HMG Conventional Power Architecture and Hierarchical Control Architecture.

TABLE I
H YBRID M ICROGRID P OWER T OPOLOGIES

Fig. 2. Publication Trend: Control of Hybrid Microgrid. different IC topologies. The discussion on topologies has been
kept brief since the focus of this review is on control strategies.
Section IV presents various control strategies grouped and
progress in research on control strategies has been reported in reviewed according to different control sub-areas. Section V
the literature (refer Fig. 2) since the last review study reported contains the discussion on the research gaps observed during
in [18]. the review process followed by conclusion.
It was observed that these review studies had focused more
on explaining the ac and dc subgrid’s individual control rather
than delving more into the overall hybrid mode of operation. II. P OWER T OPOLOGIES
Furthermore, these reviews have major discussion revolv- HMG in general consists of distinct ac and dc subgrids
ing around power management strategies in particular. Major bridged by one or more ICs. The power topologies reported in
aspects of microgrid control such as network modeling, coor- the literature can be classified roughly into three variants. The
dinated control, stability analysis, power quality and protection conventional topology is wherein an IC along with its filter
strategies have not been dealt independently in any of these connects a three phase ac subgrid and a dc subgrid. This type
reviews. In this paper, an attempt has been made to system- of HMG topology is suitable in case of greenfield installations
atically survey the literature focusing on each of these broad owned by a single owner. The second group of topology can
aspects of control for HMG. This approach of literature review be termed as multi-microgrid or community microgrid wherein
can assist researchers to know the state of the art reached there are usually different owners of the ac subgrid and the dc
in each of these sub-areas and to quickly locate the relevant subgrid. These neighboring microgrids were operating inde-
research articles. pendently before their integration into a multi-microgrid for
The literature has been carefully aggregated and classified synergistic technical and economic benefits. The third archi-
based on different control objectives. Later, all the papers tecture consists of solid state transformer (SST) as an IC for
related to a particular control objective were studied together interfacing ac subgrid, dc subgrid, and the main utility grid.
and were critically evaluated. This process was repeated for Table I summarizes the references dealing with different types
each of the control objectives to provide an independent per- of power topologies. It also gives an overview of typical ac/dc
spective and to identify research gaps in each of the control side voltage levels reported corresponding to these topologies.
sub-areas. The conventional topology as shown in Fig. 1 has been
The structure of this paper is as follows: Section II presents used in [8] and [20]–[55], mainly for low voltage networks.
various HMG power topologies and Section III discusses The variation among these topologies is mainly in terms of

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 3832 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO. 4, JULY 2018

Fig. 5. Hybrid Multi-microgrid: Multiple ac Subgrids.

Fig. 3. Hybrid Multi-microgrid: An Example.

Fig. 6. SST Based Hybrid Microgrid: Three Stages.

dc-dc converter and a LV inverter [60]. In SST based HMG,

the HV ac port is used for grid connection, the LV dc port
is used for dc subgrid integration and the LV ac port is
used for interfacing ac subgrid. Thus, SST based HMG can
Fig. 4. Hybrid Multi-microgrid: Multiple dc Subgrids.
coordinate power exchange among existing neighboring ac
and dc microgrid [62], [63] and provide ancillary services to
use of different ICs (discussed in Section III) and in terms the grid [59]. Single phase SST based HMG, in particular,
of location of the storage element. For example, storage has are suitable for integrating smart housing communities [61].
been integrated into the dc subgrid in [22] and [23] whereas Apart from the discussed three major power topology
configuration of [21] does not include a storage element. classes, researchers have proposed some unconventional
Loh et al. [24] and Wang et al. [25] have connected stor- topologies such as a three-level hierarchical power architec-
age at the dc link inside the two-stage IC. Storage can also be ture in [65] and [66] wherein all the DER whether ac or dc
placed strategically in the ac subgrid to mitigate the effect of are connected to the lowermost dc link as shown in Fig. 7.
stochastic generation from wind source [26]. Individual dc links are then further connected upstream to the
Multi-microgrid or community microgrid refers to the ac link using inverter stages. Finally, many such inverters con-
hybrid network which consists of two or more independent nected in parallel form the topmost level of the microgrid. The
neighboring ac/dc microgrids tied to each other to further advantage of such an arrangement is that each level presents
boost their performance in terms of backup, reliability, effi- itself as a controllable unit to the next level.
ciency, economic optimization and power quality. For exam- Existing or new dc microgrids can also be integrated with
ple, Che et al. [56] have used a common ac bus to interface the ac distribution network (thus forming a HMG) to provide
multiple ac and dc microgrids for islanded mode of operation ancillary services to grid [7], [71]. Another typical configu-
as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore, each of these microgrids can ration reported in [69] is the formation of a dc energy pool
switch to grid connected mode of operation. Loh et al. [57] which interfaces the sources, loads and the main grid using
have presented hybrid networks consisting of multiple dc sub- a dc bus. Distinct from the discussed configurations so far,
grids as shown in Fig. 4 and multiple asynchronous ac subgrids Chandrasena et al. [20] have proposed the use of hybrid
as shown in Fig. 5. network consisting of single phase ac subgrid for low power
The conventional hybrid topology as well as applications such as nano homes.
multi-microgrids usually utilize single stage converters
such as voltage source converter (VSC) or other two stage III. I NTERLINKING C ONVERTERS
converters as ICs with separate isolation transformer and The IC can act as a rectifier or an inverter depending on the
filters. SST integrates all of these elements namely, the direction of power flow needed at each instant. The IC typi-
converter stage, transformer and the filter into one compact cally controls the dc bus voltage when the HMG is connected
device. SST can act as an energy router as well as perform all to the grid. In islanded mode of operation, it can provide a
the functions of a conventional transformer. A typical SST as slack bus either to the ac or dc subgrid [51]. Different con-
shown in Fig. 6 consists of an HV rectifier, a high-frequency verter topologies and configurations can act as IC to facilitate

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3833

Fig. 7. Hierarchical Power Architecture based Hybrid Microgrid.

power exchange among multiple dc/ac subgrids and the main

grid.
IC topology selection depends primarily on the control
objectives needed to be fulfilled by it. There is an increasing
demand for executing additional functions other than the pri-
mary function of power management using a single IC rather Fig. 8. VSC as an IC.
than employing multiple ICs or additional active/passive com-
ponents. Additional control objectives include, but are not lim-
ited to, storage coordination, stability improvement, managing
power and voltage unbalances among phases, grid current con-
trol, harmonics mitigation, islanding detection, synchroniza-
tion, fault limiting, etc. This demand for multi-functional ICs
has led to an investigation of various plausible IC topologies. Fig. 9. Two stage IC with battery at dc Link.
The IC topologies have been classified in this paper into
three types based on the number of converter stages and
their locations viz., single stage, two stage and advanced is proposed as an IC in [83]. On a similar note, a mod-
ICs. Table II provides an overview of various IC topologies/ ular multilevel converter with individual batteries integrated
configurations reported in the literature. It also maps these ICs into each of its modules is employed as an IC thus reduc-
to their typical control objectives as well as to different control ing energy exchange between the subgrids and increasing the
architectures (as explained in Section IV-C) controlling them. overall efficiency [82].

A. Single Stage ICs B. Two Stage ICs

The most suitable single stage IC for conventional HMG Two stage ICs reported in literature either have cascade or
topology is a pulse width modulated (PWM) bidirectional VSC parallel combination of different type of converters. These type
as shown in Fig. 8. VSC can be controlled in voltage con- of ICs provide additional power ports as well as allow more
trolled mode (VCM) to regulate the ac or dc bus voltage or it degree of freedom in control. A typical two-stage IC for stor-
can operate in current controlled mode (CCM) to regulate the age integration [84] is as shown in Fig. 9. It consists of a
power flow. VSC as an IC controlled in CCM is most common storage connected at the common dc port of the boost converter
since it allows use of P-f and Q-V droop control in respective stage and the inverter stage. A similar configuration is imple-
subgrids. Furthermore, multiple VSCs can be paralleled for mented in [24] and [25] for integrating a bus of storages. On a
exchanging higher amount of power [30], [88]. similar note, a back to back (BtB) converter having two VSC
Single stage converters other than VSC have also been stages can provide an additional port to interface the dc subgrid
used as an IC owing to their distinct advantages. For exam- at its dc link [70]. BtB converter can also be used to interface
ple, a bidirectional quasi-Z-source inverter which has features ac microgrids having different frequencies [56], [57], such as
such as maximum constant boost and reduced switch stress shown in Fig. 5. Furthermore, a combination of diode recti-
is proposed and modeled as an IC in [34]. Similarly, a fier in parallel with a three-level neutral point clamped (NPC)
bidirectional switched boost converter which has advantages converter acting as an active front end has been proposed as
such as better stability and less number of reactive components an IC in [85].

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 3834 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO. 4, JULY 2018

TABLE II
I NTERLINKING C ONVERTERS

C. Advanced ICs
Most of the ICs discussed so far have been employed mainly
for power management. Advanced ICs refer to use of either
advanced control strategies or atypical IC configurations for
achieving multiple control objectives. For example, power flow
control and simultaneous improvement in power quality have
been demonstrated using a multifunctional VSC in [89]. The
scheme presented in [70] in addition to controlling power flow
and the dc bus voltage, decides an appropriate response to
faults occurring either on dc or ac side. On similar lines, the
control strategy of [74] has integrated fault limiting feature in
its IC control.
Fig. 10. ICs interfacing dc subgrid with ac subgrid and with main grid.
Abdelsalam et al. [67] and Radwan and Mohamed [68] have
proposed the use of individual ICs for interfacing the dc sub-
grid with the ac subgrid and with the main grid as shown
detection, etc. This section systematically evaluates various
in Fig. 10. This type of IC configuration can allow ac sub-
control strategies reported so far for HMG control.
grid to operate at a different frequency than that of main grid.
The existing literature on control of HMG has been classi-
Karabiber et al. [86] have proposed a complex IC configura-
fied in this paper using the Venn diagram approach as shown
tion which interfaces an “all distributed generator (DG)” dc
in Fig. 11 wherein each circle represents a sub-area of control.
bus and the main grid to an “all load” ac bus. This configu-
The common areas pertaining to these circles represent papers
ration allows continuous mixing of power from the grid and
handling multiple control sub-areas. Such a visualization can
local DGs, thus ensuring reliable and controllable power for
be very useful to locate research papers wherein multiple con-
the loads.
trol objectives have been dealt with, for example, [31] deals
with power management, power quality and stability analysis.
IV. C ONTROL OF H YBRID M ICROGRID It can also be inferred from Fig. 11 that the research focus
so far has been on power management strategies and coordi-
Control of HMG presents a significant research and engi- nated control. The Venn diagram also shows the areas needing
neering challenge and hence demands sustained research more research effort, for example, proposing coordinated con-
efforts. Various sub-areas of control include components trol strategies for power quality improvement. Table III can be
and system modeling, power management strategies, coordi- referred to as a list of papers dealing with different sub-areas
nated control and communication architecture, stability anal- of the HMG control.
ysis, power quality enhancement, and protection techniques.
Specific control objectives can be power control, bus voltage
control, storage energy management, improving steady state A. Modeling
and transient response, increasing stability margin, managing Accurate modeling of the system is of utmost importance
unbalances among phases, grid current control, harmonic mit- for developing and testing control strategies. Power manage-
igation, achieving unity power factor (UPF) operation, fault ment strategies proposed for HMG till now have usually used

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3835

TABLE III
OVERVIEW OF H YBRID M ICROGRID C ONTROL

Fig. 11. Hybrid Microgrid Control Literature Survey: Venn Diagram. Fig. 12. Power Management Control Sub-areas: Venn Diagram.

Newton-Raphson power flow method to study a heteroge-

aggregated models for the ac and dc subgrids [36], [73]. neous network consisting of multiple unbalanced ac sections
However, these aggregated models are not useful for study- and multiple dc sections. Continued research efforts are still
ing aspects such as power quality at various points inside needed to develop and test complete and accurate models of
the subgrids, power scheduling/dispatch, distribution network various subsystems and of HMG as a whole.
planning, etc., for which detailed modeling of subsystems is
needed.
B. Power Management
Eajal et al. [90] have proposed a generic power flow algo-
rithm for islanded HMGs solved using Newton trust region Power management primarily refers to active/reactive power
method. Individual subsystems such as the DGs, distributed control, ac/dc bus voltage control and storage power control.
storages, loads, IC, distribution cables, buses, etc., have been Fig. 12 provides an overview of references pertaining to differ-
modeled. Hamad et al. [51] have proposed a sequential power ent control objectives within the area of power management.
flow algorithm for steady-state analysis of islanded HMG 1) Active Power Control: The active power needs to be bal-
solved using Newton-Raphson method. Li et al. [37] have anced among the subgrids and its flow through the IC needs
modeled and analyzed a droop controlled HMG employing to be decided at each instant. The frequency of the ac sub-
“virtual impedance” concept [91] for achieving proportional grid and voltage magnitude of the dc subgrid represents the
power sharing. All of these algorithms have been tailored for overall loading condition of the respective subgrids [76]. The
HMGs containing droop based DGs in both the subgrids and basic droop controllers applicable for ac subgrid and dc sub-
the power exchange being governed by IC control strategy grid [13]–[15] needs to be combined to decide the active power
developed in [57]. setpoint for the IC. As a first step, as depicted in Fig. 13, the ac
Radwan and Mohamed [68] have proposed admittance side frequency and dc side voltage magnitude are normalized
based modeling of hybrid network. This approach allows to and brought to a common per unit (fpu ,Vdc−pu ) in [21] and [57].
include the steady-state equations of the converters (invert- Following expressions have been used for the normalization:
ers as well as ICs) along with the network parameters into f − 0.5(fmax + fmin )
fpu = (1)
the system Y-bus matrix. Furthermore, they have modified 0.5(fmax − fmin )

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 3836 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO. 4, JULY 2018

against such intermittencies [23], [29] and to achieve energy

balance [35], [45], [49]. In HMGs, storage can be situated
either in ac or dc subgrids. The natural choice for dc stor-
age such as batteries and ultracapacitors is the dc side due
to the presence of dc interface. In the case of ICs with
accessible dc links such as BtB converters, batteries can
also be placed in parallel with the dc link capacitor. Storage
Fig. 13. Normalization of Subgrids and IC Operation.
is generally connected in dc subgrid to maintain dc bus
voltage (grid forming role) during islanded mode of opera-
Vdc − 0.5(Vdc−max + Vdc−min ) tion [23], [29], [35], [48]. Furthermore, the presence of such
Vdc−pu = (2) multiple grid forming units in both ac and dc subgrids can lead
0.5(Vdc−max − Vdc−min )
to a lower requirement of storages as well as improved power
The error between the per unit values (Vdc−pu − fpu ) is then quality [102].
fed to a PI controller whose output then corresponds to Loh et al. [24] have proposed an EMS utilizing stor-
the active power setpoint for the IC. In this way, the load age for minimized energy flow [76]. A decentralized EMS
change in any of the subgrids is shared proportionally among consisting of droop based battery banks has been proposed
DGs of both the subgrids. This decentralized IC control con- in [10] and [25] for power sharing during light and heavy
cept can very well be applied for power exchange among loading conditions. A centralized EMS proposed in [48] max-
multiple ac microgrids by considering per unit value of their imizes utilization of non-fossil based DGs and minimizes the
frequencies [57]. However, this strategy causes active power use of storage. The option of integrating electric vehicles (EV)
to flow through the IC even for very low difference in loading into the network as storage devices has also been explored
condition of ac/dc subgrids. in [10] and [11].
Loh et al. [24], [76] have reduced the overall HMG losses 4) AC/DC Bus Voltage Control: In islanded mode, the dc
as compared to control strategy of [57] by initiating the power subgrid’s bus voltage is usually controlled by an energy stor-
transfer between the subgrids only if either of the subgrids is age interfaced by a boost converter and ac subgrid’s voltage
under loaded and avoiding the energy flow during all other is controlled by droop based inverter DGs [25], [29]. The dc
conditions. Furthermore, authors have defined the threshold subgrid voltage can also be regulated by the IC by controlling
limits for initiating the power flow based on the allowable the square of its value [55]. In grid-connected mode, IC is gen-
variation in ac side frequency and dc side voltage. However, erally responsible for maintaining the dc bus voltage. Similar
sensing subtle variations in frequency and voltage is difficult methods for bus control in islanded and grid connected mode
and may lead to poorer performance and lower system sta- have been reported in [11], [34], [35], [70], [72], and [77].
bility. To overcome this issue, Baharizadeh et al. [31] have The conventional droop based IC control for power
used dc subgrid voltage and power flowing through the IC for exchange between subgrids such as in [57] leads to significant
deciding the power exchange. frequency variation, poorer voltage quality and lower stability
Liu et al. [50] have proposed a Vdc /Vac droop control for for the HMG [31]. Ambia et al. [6] and Baharizadeh et al. [31]
PV DGs which tries to avoid frequent active power setpoint have proposed control strategies based on VCM to improve
fluctuation although at the cost of wider variations in voltage. voltage quality on ac side. Wang et al. [72] have proposed
Xia et al. [55] have proposed an IC control taking into account a decentralized method for dc bus control by employing a
the relative strengths of the subgrids and the relative presence disturbance observer based controller. Zhang et al. [78] have
of critical loads in those subgrids. proposed a data-driven model free voltage controller for IC
2) Reactive Power Control: Reactive power flow is not a which makes it capable of controlling both ac and dc bus
major concern for the IC since it is demanded only by the voltages.
ac subgrid. The IC should contribute to the reactive power Simultaneous bus control and accurate proportional power
demand only when the active power flow is from dc to ac sharing are difficult to achieve solely by droop control [78].
side whereas the reactive power setpoint should be set to zero Loh et al. [57] have performed a tradeoff between keeping bus
when the active power flow is from ac to dc side. Such a deviations small and having accurate power sharing. Fulfilling
nonlinearity in control leads to limit cycle occurrence or sus- both objectives simultaneously is possible using centralized
tained oscillations in the HMG [94]. The IC can very well act or hierarchical control [11], [81]. Coordination among DGs is
as a static compensator (STATCOM) when the reactive power performed in [23] and [77] to achieve simultaneous bus and
generation is insufficient in the ac subgrid [50]. The reactive power control. P/Vdc droop control is applied to the dc side
power capability of an IC can be dynamically set by vectori- storage to control the dc bus voltage variations and maintain
ally subtracting active power from the kVA rating of the IC. the bus stability. In the case of a single phase ac subgrid, the IC
However, Eghtedarpour and Farjah [73] have expressed con- controls active power flow using droop control and regulates
cern that dynamic change in reactive droop coefficient may both the ac and dc bus voltages using a central controller [20].
also lead to system instability. 5) Parallel Interlinking Converter Control: Multiple ICs
3) Storage Control: DGs such as solar PV and wind should be connected in parallel to allow larger power exchange
exhibit intermittency in power output. Energy management between the subgrids. DGs in droop controlled ac microgrid
systems (EMS) utilize storages to maintain power balance do not share the reactive power according to their rating due to

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3837

unequal line impedances [13]. Similarly, DGs in droop con-

trolled dc microgrid do not share power proportionally due
to unequal line resistances [14], [15]. Eajal et al. [53] have
demonstrated that a similar issue of unequal power sharing
occurs in the case of parallel ICs controlled using the concept
proposed in [57] due to unequal voltages sensed by them.
They have proposed an optimization routine in [54] to share
the power exchange proportionally among the parallel ICs
although equalized loading of subgrids is not achieved.
Parallel ICs would lead to circulating currents, error in reac-
tive power sharing and dc power sharing [90]. ICs have usually
been controlled using the centralized or hierarchical control
Fig. 14. Centralized Control for Power Management.
to overcome these issues [26], [30], [80], [81]. The specific
problem of zero sequence circulating currents arising for paral-
lel ICs has been eliminated using harmonic elimination PWM
technique in [79] and by inserting a virtual resistance in the bandwidth of controllers, amount of data flow required, the
zero sequence inner current control loop in [55]. direction of data flow, reliability and redundancy expecta-
tions, etc. Thus, power management functions such as power
sharing and voltage control would demand real-time commu-
C. Coordinated Control nication without delays whereas economic dispatch would be
Control functions can be distinguished into primary, sec- implemented on a slower time scale.
ondary and tertiary levels as shown in Fig. 1 depending upon Wired links (such as fiber optic cable, Ethernet) usually
the time scale in which these tasks are to be executed and have higher bandwidth and thus are more suitable for exchang-
the location of their control loop implementation; whether ing variables related to primary control. Wireless links such
device level, local area level or supervisory level [103]. The as GSM (Global System for Mobile) can be used as low
primary level consists of the fastest control loops while sec- bandwidth links for slower secondary and tertiary control
ondary and tertiary levels contain slower control loops. Control tasks.
structures are classified into decentralized, distributed and cen- Zhu et al. [96] have used Ethernet link plus modbustcp pro-
tralized architecture depending upon the flow and the extent tocol for status and CAN (Controller Area Network) bus plus
of information shared among the controlled entities [104]. CANopen protocol for commands. Liang et al. [107] have
Decentralized control which does not use communication proposed a three-layer communication model for tertiary level
is preferred for primary control whereas centralized or dis- optimization of a HMG. The lowermost layer assigns dif-
tributed control [105] utilizing communication are preferred ferent protocols namely RS485, RS232, TCP/IP and CAN
for secondary and tertiary control tasks such as energy man- 2.0 to different components depending on their bandwidth
agement [23], [35], [45], [49], demand side management and requirements.
optimal dispatch [103]. IEC 61850-7-420 standard [108] presents a structured
1) Decentralized Control: Decentralized techniques such as approach for defining logical nodes along with data objects
droop control as discussed in earlier subsections are preferred for various types of DERs as well as defining communication
for executing primary control tasks such as power sharing, bus services according to the application of the DERs. Researchers
voltage and frequency regulation. Control actions are decided can map various applications such as control (status and
based on local information only thus employing no communi- commands), power scheduling, forecasting, file transfer, etc.
cation among control entities. However, steady-state deviation related to a particular DER using this standard [109].
from the nominal values in frequency of ac subgrid and volt- 3) Centralized Control: Centralized controller uses bidi-
age of dc subgrid occur by using decentralized methods [36]. rectional communication with system components to collect
Coordinated control of system components using low band- their status and send setpoints to them as shown in Fig. 14.
width communication can solve such issues. Communication Centralized control architecture is usually applied for tasks
based control architectures can also perform system-wide requiring system-wide information such as accurate power
monitoring, control, optimization and scheduling. management [36], [93] and optimal energy exchange between
2) Communication Architecture: Communication among subgrids [25], [36]. Master-slave control, a form of central-
microgrid components helps in acquiring system-wide infor- ized control consists of one of the DGs acting as a master
mation thus making functions such as energy management and and rest of the DGs following the references generated by
optimization possible. The real time data acquired can also be the master [38]. Radwan and Mohamed [36] have demon-
used for other purposes such as health monitoring of power strated primary power sharing among ICs and have added a
components, updating settings of protective relays, etc. secondary control layer for correcting the steady-state devia-
Communication design consists of selecting suitable com- tions in power sharing. Jin et al. [93] have proposed modified
munication network topology, protocols and links for each normalization equations to eliminate these deviations and to
controllable component [106]. These selections primarily achieve the local (among DGs) as well as global (among sub-
depend on the power network topology, control objectives, grids) power sharing. A three layered centralized control has

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 3838 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO. 4, JULY 2018

been proposed in [11] for EV-energy storage systems wherein as due to change in control parameters in any of the hierar-
the first layer manages the dc subgrid while the second and chical control levels [30] or due to change in the value of
the third layer controls the active and reactive power of the ac droop constants [97] or line inductance [31] or due to change
subgrid respectively. in load parameters [24], etc. Small signal / linear stability is
Centralized control architecture is very well suited for usually studied using state space modeling [73], [97]. Small
optimization functions such as day-ahead scheduling/unit com- signal stability in dc bus voltage has been evaluated in [10]
mitment [35], [43], [44], [110] and short-term optimal or for a HMG charging station.
economic dispatch [39], [58], [101]. Economic dispatch can An overall stable network may become unstable when a
be performed based on the forecasted data and real-time newer subsystem is integrated into it. One of the causes of the
power pricing for dispatchable DGs [43]. Caramia et al. [101] instability can be the mismatched input and output impedances
have performed optimization of energy cost and real-time of subsystems [68]. Radwan and Mohamed [68] have used
harmonic voltage compensation of the AC bus. On the admittance based model of the hybrid network for determin-
demand side, central controllers can optimally respond to real- ing system stability using Nyquist admittance ratio criterion.
time grid prices by controlling dispatchable loads (demand Linear active compensators have been used to increase the
response) [35], [44], [71]. Dispatchable loads can be deferred stability margin.
to the time of lower energy prices thus reducing peak Communication-based coordinated control enhances HMG’s
demand [71] or unimportant loads can be curtailed in response performance. However, evaluating stability against changes
to real-time grid pricing signals and available power from the in communication network parameters such as delays, loss
DGs [35]. The power exchange with the grid can be also of data packets, reconfiguration, etc., is challenging. To this
be optimized according to real-time prices by coordinating effect, a study has been performed in [36] to assess the stability
charge/discharge of electric vehicles [44]. of the controller in relation to communication delay.
4) Distributed Control: Distributed control is charac-
terized by sparse communication among neighbors and
arriving at a consensus over global variables [105]. E. Power Quality
Toro and Mojica-Nava [46] have used consensus algorithm for One of the aims behind tying ac and dc subgrids into
secondary control of the frequency of ac subgrid. A real-time a HMG is to achieve improved power quality for both the
control algorithm for power management of HMG operating in subgrids. Power management strategies have typically been
both grid connected and islanded mode is implemented in [22] proposed assuming balanced loading condition. However,
using distributed multi-agent system. unbalance among phases is fairly common but undesirable
5) Hierarchical Control: A structured approach using cen- during islanded mode of operation. Unbalance in ac sub-
tralized or distributed control called as hierarchical con- grid can induce 100 Hz ripples on the dc bus [34] and can
trol [104] has been extensively investigated for ac and dc also cause third harmonic currents on the ac side itself [98].
microgrids. HMG being heterogeneous and complex to con- Sun et al. [88] have investigated control of parallel ICs
trol, is surely a good candidate for applying hierarchical operating under unbalanced grid condition.
control. Hierarchical control architecture assigns control tasks Voltage unbalances at the point of common coupling (PCC)
to primary, secondary and tertiary levels according to the in grid connected mode is a critical issue. The conven-
required control bandwidth as shown in Fig. 1. EMS proposed tional power-sharing strategy for HMG proposed in [57]
in [45] achieves optimized active power control using a asks for allowing larger variations in frequency and volt-
hierarchical control structure. Authors have implemented pro- age [31]. Moreover, controlling IC in CCM leads to further
portional power sharing using the decentralized control in poorer voltage quality. Shahnia et al. [99] have proposed
primary layer whereas voltage and frequency drift from nomi- a compensator powered by a fuel cell which injects cur-
nal values are corrected using a secondary layer. Tertiary layer rent to the grid such that PCC voltage remains balanced and
generates power setpoints for different types of DGs based contains no harmonics. Guo et al. [98] have suggested volt-
on their marginal costs of generation. Che et al. [56] have age unbalance compensation using a super-capacitor on the
proposed a three-level hierarchical control for power exchange dc bus.
among multi-microgrid. Active power is exchanged in a decen- Power quality features such as harmonics mitigation and
tralized way using the concept of [57], resultant f/V deviations UPF are desirable. These features can be achieved to a certain
are corrected using secondary layer and economic operation extent using parallel ICs with multifunctional operation [81].
is achieved using tertiary optimization. It is also possible to use FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission
System) devices in the network to mitigate harmonics, improve
power factor and balance reactive power [67]. On the other
hand, Wang et al. [77] have proposed the use of multiple res-
D. Stability Studies onant controllers in the IC control. Caramia et al. [101] have
Stability of HMG against changes in system or control implemented harmonic voltage compensation to improve the
parameters as well as against dynamic changes in genera- voltage quality of the ac bus. Khederzadeh and Sadeghi [8]
tion/loading is of utmost importance. However, there are very have controlled the dc subgrid along with the IC to behave
few studies related to stability assessment of HMGs. Instability like a “virtual” active power filter. The dc subgrid appears as
in an islanded microgrid can occur due to various reasons such a “virtual” storage to the grid.

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3839

F. Protection Strategies 2) IC sizing design can be investigated taking into account

Reference [74] is the only study available in the literature data related to critical loads, stochastic generation and
related to the protection of HMG. Authors have discussed vari- the amount of storage available in respective subgrids.
ous faults which can occur in both subgrids and have proposed 3) Newer IC control strategies should be investigated, for
their detection methods. Information regarding zero sequence example, on the lines of synchronverters [95] to enhance
currents has been used for ac side fault detection and value the dynamic response of the HMG.
of the rate of change of the capacitor current has been used
for dc side fault detection. It was found that filter on the ac C. Power Management
side was helpful in limiting fault currents to 2−4 per unit. 1) Decentralized technique of normalizing frequency and
However, authors have not proposed any strategy to mitigate voltage for ac and dc subgrid respectively for active
the effect of faults. power control is of limited use if the subgrids are gov-
erned by non-droop techniques. Hence, other improved
V. R ESEARCH G APS AND S OLUTION A PPROACHES techniques are needed.
2) Accurate proportional power sharing among parallel ICs
A brief review of HMG’s power and IC topologies and
using decentralized control needs to be investigated.
a comprehensive review of control strategies has been per-
3) There exists a need for a reactive power sharing strategy
formed in this paper. The research on control of HMG till now
which does not lead to instability concerns and does not
has mostly been focused on power management using decen-
vary droop values considerably.
tralized or coordinated control strategies. However, for HMG
4) The reactive power flow strategy can include reactive
concept to be ready for practical implementation, other equally
power compensation for improving ac bus voltage profile
important aspects such as ensuring stable operation, improv-
and the voltage at the PCC.
ing power quality, robustness against faults, optimal dispatch,
5) An analytical study can be performed to decide the
etc., should be actively explored. Research gaps observed dur-
threshold for power exchange considering parameters
ing the review process and plausible research statements for
such as stability margin, instantaneous losses, converter
future work are presented further in this section.
power reserve, its efficiency, etc.
6) Storage control to simultaneously maintain power bal-
A. Power Topologies ance and regulate the ac/dc bus voltages can be investi-
1) A standard HMG topology if defined on the lines of gated.
IEEE 13/39 bus networks or on the lines of CIGRE 7) IC operation during the transition between its rectifier
network will facilitate comparison of control strategies and inverter mode of operation has not been investigated
with each other. so far.
2) Advantages and challenges in integrating dc subgrid
topologies such as dual bus, ring bus, zonal dc bus and D. Coordinated Control
multi-terminal dc bus into a hybrid network should be 1) Control strategies for fulfilling multiple objectives such
explored [111]. as power management, power quality, economic dis-
3) HMG topology having grid connection from both ac/dc patch, etc., can be investigated. A hierarchical control
subgrid can be investigated to facilitate separate power architecture appears to be best suited to accomplish
pricing contracts between main grid and ac/dc subgrid. multiple control objectives simultaneously.
4) The assessment of short circuit capability or the ratio 2) A coordinated control structure for seamless transition
of constant power loads to total system load and other between the grid connected and islanded mode of oper-
such parameters can be proposed for deciding whether ation for HMG can be investigated (refer [19] for more
to interconnect an ac and dc networks into a hybrid one. details). Robust islanding detection and synchronization
5) Voltage (dips, surges) and power profile (efficiency, units [112] should be a part of the control structure.
congestion) improvement for hybrid active distribution 3) Achieving optimal power flow using distributed control
network can be investigated. framework can be investigated.
6) There is an ample scope for research in hybrid multi- 4) A scalable and optimized communication architecture
microgrids since only active and reactive power transfer consisting of a minimum number of links and protocols
has been investigated so far. conversions can be investigated to minimize end to end
7) Increased research efforts should be directed to single delays [109] and improve the reliability of data.
phase hybrid networks since their application in low
power smart homes is imminent. E. Stability Analysis
1) Identifying different conditions under which the HMG
B. Interlinking Converters will become unstable is a tough proposition and should
1) It would be worthwhile to explore for effective three port be investigated.
ICs for interfacing ac subgrid, dc subgrid, and main grid. 2) Less emphasis has been placed by researchers on ver-
Various SST topologies can be investigated to work as ifying stable operation of the HMG while testing their
an IC. proposed control strategies.

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 3840 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 9, NO. 4, JULY 2018

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 GUPTA et al.: HYBRID AC–DC MICROGRID: SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION OF CONTROL STRATEGIES 3843

Ajay Gupta (S’16) was born in Mumbai, India, Kishore Chatterjee (M’10) was born in Kolkata,
in 1986. He received the B.Tech. degree in electri- India, in 1967. He received the B.E. degree in elec-
cal engineering from Veermata Jijabai Technological trical engineering from the Maulana Azad National
Institute, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, in 2008. Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India, in 1990, the
He was an Electrical Drives System Engineer with M.E. degree in electrical engineering from the Indian
the Metals Technologies Division of Siemens Ltd., Institute of Engineering Science and Technology,
Mumbai, from 2008 to 2014. He was a Research Howrah, India, in 1992, and the Ph.D. degree from
Assistant for a brief period with National Centre the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur,
for Photovoltaic Research and Education, Indian India, in 1998.
Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay, Mumbai. From 1997 to 1998, he was a Senior Research
He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with Associate with the Indian Institute of Technology
IIT Bombay. His current research interest includes control of power elec- Kanpur. Since 1998, he has been with the Department of Electrical
tronic interfaces for distributed generation and control architecture for smart Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India, where
microgrids. he is currently a Professor. In 2004, he was a Visiting Fellow with ETS,
University of Quebec, Montreal, QC, Canada, for one year. He has been lead-
ing the Power Electronic Group, National Centre for Photovoltaic Research
and Education being hosted at IIT Bombay since 2009. His current research
interests are power evacuation strategies from solar photovoltaic systems,
Suryanarayana Doolla (SM’15) received the modern VAr compensators, active power filters, utility-friendly converter
M.Tech. degree in energy systems and engineering topologies, and induction motor drives.
from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
India, in 2002 and the Ph.D. degree in power
systems from the Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, India, in 2007. He was with Power Research
and Development Consultants, Bengaluru, in 2009
and Machine 2 Machine, Hyderabad, from 2006 to
2008. He joined the Energy Science and Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
as an Assistant Professor in 2009, where he is cur-
rently an Associate Professor and he teaches and directs research in power
electronics and power systems application in smart microgrids as a Faculty
Member.
He is currently serving as an Associate Editor for Electric Power
Components and Systems, the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRIAL
A PPLICATIONS and the IEEE Electrification Magazine. He is also an Editorial
Board Member for the International Journal of Sustainable Energy (Taylor &
Francis Journals), Electrical Power Components and Systems, and the IEEE
E LECTRIFICATION M AGAZINE. He is a member of board of Studies of sev-
eral technical Universities in the Country. He served as the publication chair
for several IEEE International Conferences.

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