Chapter 1

Parametrized curves and surfaces

In this chapter the basic concepts of curves and surfaces are introduced,
and examples are given. These concepts will be described as subsets of R2 or
R3 with a given parametrization, but also as subsets defined by equations.
The connection from equations to parametrizations is drawn by means of the
implicit function theorems (Theorems 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).

1.1 Curves
It is well known from elementary geometry that a line in R2 or R3 can be
described by means of a parametrization t !→ p + tq where q ̸= 0 and p are
fixed vectors, and the parameter t runs over the real numbers. Likewise, a
circle in R2 (say with center 0) can be parametrized by t !→ (r cos t, r sin t)
where t ∈ R. The common nature of these examples is expressed in the
following definition.
Definition 1.1. A parametrized continuous curve in Rn (n = 2, 3, . . . ) is a
continuous map γ: I → Rn , where I ⊂ R is an open interval (of end points
−∞ ≤ a < b ≤ ∞).

y
γ

a b x

The image set C = γ(I) ⊂ Rn is called the trace of the curve. It is

important to notice that we distinguish the curve and its trace. Physically,
a curve describes the motion of a particle in n-space, and the trace is the
trajectory of the particle. If the particle follows the same trajectory, but
with different speed or direction, the curve is considered to be different.
For example, the positive x-axis is the trace of the parametrized curve
γ(t) = (t, 0) where t ∈ I =]0, ∞[, but it is also the trace of γ̃(t) = (et , 0) with
t ∈ R.
Notice also that we do not require the parametrization to be injective. A
point in the trace, which corresponds to more than one parameter value t, is
2 Chapter 1

called a self-intersection of the curve. For example, in the above parametriza-

tion of the circle, all points are self-intersections because values t + 2πk cor-
respond to the same point for all k ∈ Z.
In these notes we will mainly be concerned with plane curves (n = 2) and
space curves (n = 3), but in order to treat both cases simultaneously it is
convenient not to specify n. We do not assume n ≤ 3 for the time being,
since it does not lead to any simplifications.
A parametrized continuous curve, for which the map γ: I → Rn is dif-
ferentiable up to all orders, is called a parametrized smooth curve. Recall
that a map f into Rn is differentiable if each of its components f1 , . . . , fn
is differentiable. The class of continuous curves is wide and the requirement
of smoothness is a strong limitation. For example, the bizarre Peano curve,
which is defined on [0, 1] and has the entire unit square as trace, is continu-
ous but not smooth. In these notes we will only study smooth curves, and
we therefore adopt the convention that from now on a parametrized curve is
smooth, unless otherwise mentioned.
We have already seen that lines and circles can be parametrized as smooth
curves. Here are some further examples.
Example 1.1.1. The constant curve given by γ(t) = p, t ∈ I, where p ∈ Rn
is fixed and I some open interval, is a parametrized curve.
Example 1.1.2. The map γ(t) = (a cos t, b sin t), where a, b > 0 are con-
2 2
stants, parametrizes the ellipse C = {(x, y) | xa2 + yb2 = 1}.
y

Example 1.1.3. Let γ(t) = (a cosh t, b sinh t) where a, b > 0 and (see
Appendix E)
et + e−t et − e−t
cosh t = , sinh t = .
2 2
Using the equation cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 we see that γ is a parametrization
2 2
of the hyperbola (branch) C = {(x, y) | xa2 − yb2 = 1, x > 0}.
y

x
Parametrized curves and surfaces 3

Example 1.1.4. The space curve γ(t) = (λt, r cos(ωt), r sin(ωt)), where
r > 0 and λ, ω ̸= 0 are constants, is called a helix. It is the spiraling motion
of a point which moves along the x-axis with velocity λ while at the same
time rotating around this axis with radius r and angular velocity ω.
y

1.2 Surfaces

Definition 1.2. A parametrized continuous surface in R3 is a continuous

map σ: U → R3 , where U ⊂ R2 is an open, non-empty set.

v z
σ σ(U )
U σ(p)
p
u y
x

It will often be convenient to consider the pair (u, v) ∈ U as a set of

coordinates of the point σ(u, v) in the image S = σ(U ). However, since σ is
not assumed to be injective, the same point in S may have several pairs of
coordinates.
We call a parametrized continuous surface smooth if the map σ: U → R3
is smooth, that is, if the components σi , i = 1, 2, 3, of

σ(u, v) = (σ1 (u, v), σ2(u, v), σ3 (u, v))

have continuous partial derivatives with respect to u and v, up to all or-

ders. We adopt the convention that a parametrized surface is smooth, unless
otherwise mentioned.
Example 1.2.1. Plane. Let p, q1 , q2 ∈ R3 be fixed vectors and let

σ(u, v) = p + uq1 + vq2

for (u, v) ∈ U = R2 . Then σ is a parametrized surface. If q1 , q2 are linearly

independent, the image σ(U ) is a plane. Otherwise it is a line or a point.
4 Chapter 1

Example 1.2.2. Sphere. Let

σ(u, v) = (cos u cos v, cos u sin v, sin u)

where (u, v) ∈ R2 . This is a standard parametrization of the unit sphere

S 2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}.

The parameters u and v are called latitude and longitude, and together they
are called spherical coordinates.
z

σ(u, v)

u
y
v
x

This parametrization covers the total sphere, but it is not injective. On

the other hand, if we request, for example, that u ∈] − π2 , π2 [ and v ∈] − π, π[,
then σ is injective, but it is not surjective, since a half-circle on the ‘back’ of
the sphere will be outside the image of σ.
Example 1.2.3. Cylinder. Let r > 0 and put

σ(u, v) = (r cos v, r sin v, u)

where (u, v) ∈ R2 . The image S of σ is the cylinder {(x, y, z) | x2 + y 2 = r 2 }

of radius r.
z

As before we have to restrict to a smaller set U if we want σ to be injective,

for example by requiring v to belong in a fixed open interval of length 2π.
Parametrized curves and surfaces 5

Example 1.2.4. Cone. Let λ > 0 and

σ(u, v) = (λu cos v, λu sin v, u)

where (u, v) ∈ R2 , then the image of σ is the cone {(x, y, z) | x2 +y 2 = λ2 z 2 }.

z

y
x

1.3 Graphs
By definition, the graph of a map h: A → B, where A and B are arbitrary
sets, is the set of all pairs (x, h(x)) ∈ A × B, where x ∈ A.
Let h: I → R be a smooth function, where I ⊂ R is an open interval. The
map t !→ (t, h(t)) from I to R2 parametrizes the graph and makes it into a
parametrized plane curve. We shall always regard the graph as being this
parametrized curve.
y
γ(t) = (t, h(t))

x
I
Likewise we shall regard the graph of a smooth function h: I → R2 as the
parametrized curve t !→ (t, h(t)) = (t, h1 (t), h2 (t)) in R3 .
Example 1.3.1. The graph of an affine linear function h(t) = at+b, R → R
(where a, b ∈ R), is the line in R2 parametrized by (t, at + b). All lines which
are not perpendicular to the x-axis can be parametrized in this fashion.
Similarly the graph of an affine linear function h(t) = at + b, R → R2
(where a = (a1 , a2 ), b = (b1 , b2 ) ∈ R2 ), is the line in R3 parametrized by
(t, a1 t + b1 , a2 t + b2 ). All lines of direction not perpendicular to the x-axis
can be parametrized in this fashion.
Example 1.3.2. The helix in Example 1.1.4 with λ = 1 is the 3-dimensional
graph of the map h: R → R2 defined by h(t) = (r cos(ωt), r sin(ωt)).
6 Chapter 1

We shall also consider surfaces, which are graphs. If h: U → R is a smooth

function defined on an open set U ⊂ R2 , then the graph of h is the set

{(u, v, h(u, v)) | (u, v) ∈ U } ⊂ R3 .

Equipped with the map

σ(u, v) = (u, v, h(u, v)), (u, v) ∈ U,

the graph is clearly a parametrized smooth surface.

Example 1.3.3. The graph of an affine linear function R2 → R is a plane in
R3 . Say h(u, v) = au+bv+c where a, b, c ∈ R, then σ(u, v) = (u, v, au+bv+c).
All planes, except those which are perpendicular to the xy-plane, can be
parametrized in this fashion.
√
Example 1.3.6. The graph of the function h(u, v) = 1 − u2 − v 2 , defined
on the unit disk U = {(u, v) ∈ R2 | u2 + v 2 < 1} is a half-sphere.

1.4 Level sets

Very often a plane curve is described, not by means of a parametrization,
but by an equation. For example, a line is represented by an equation of the
form ax+by = c with a, b, c ∈ R and (a, b) ̸= (0, 0), and a circle is represented
by an equation of the form (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = r 2 with r > 0.
Similarly a surface can be described by an equation. For example, a plane
in R3 is the set of solutions to an equation ax + by + cz = d, where (a, b, c) ̸=
(0, 0, 0), and a sphere is represented by (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 = r 2 .
We shall now give a general definition which covers both situations.
Definition 1.4.1. Let Ω ⊂ Rn be open and let f : Ω → R be a continuous
function. The level sets for f are the sets

C = {x ∈ Ω | f (x) = c}

of solutions in Ω to the equation f (x) = c, where c ∈ R is a fixed constant.

In this course the function f will be assumed to be smooth. However, the
smoothness alone does not ensure that the level sets for f can be parametrized
as smooth curves or surfaces (in case n = 2 or 3). For example, a level set for
the trivial function f = 0 on R2 , that is, the set of solutions to an equation
0 = c, is either the empty set or the full set R2 . Some extra condition will
be needed on f in order that the set is a curve.
Definition 1.4.2. Let f : Ω → R be smooth, where Ω ⊂ Rn is open. A point
p ∈ Ω is called critical if
∂f ∂f
(p) = · · · = (p) = 0.
∂x1 ∂xn
Parametrized curves and surfaces 7

Let us consider some examples in the plane case n = 2. It will be seen

in all the examples that if we exclude critical points, the level sets can be
parametrized as curves. A precise statement to this effect is given in the
corollary in Section 1.5.
Example 1.4.1. Consider the linear equation ax + by = c whose solutions
comprise a level set for f (x, y) = ax + by. If (a, b) ̸= (0, 0) then there
are no critical points. In this case the set of solutions form a line, hence
can be parametrized as a curve. On the other hand, if (a, b) = (0, 0) then
f (x, y) = ax + by is the trivial function and all points are critical.
Example 1.4.2. Let f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , then ∂f ∂f
∂x = 2x and ∂y = 2y, so (0, 0)
is the only critical point. The level sets for c > 0 contain no critical points.
They are circles, hence can be parametrized as smooth curves. The level set
for c = 0 consists only of the critical point (0, 0) and it is exactly in this case
the circles degenerate to a point.
Example 1.4.3. Consider the equation f (x, y) = xy = 0. Here ∂f /∂x = y
and ∂f /∂y = x, and hence the origin (0, 0) is the only critical point. In fact,
the level set given by f (x, y) = 0 is the union of the two axes, which exactly
fails to be a ‘reasonable’ curve at the origin.

1.5 The implicit function theorem, two variables

The implicit function theorem describes conditions under which a given
equation in two variables can be solved to obtain one of the variables as
a function of the other variable. For some simple equations, for example
y 2 − 2xy + 1 = √ 0, explicit solutions √are easily obtained by simple algebra,
here y = x + x2 − 1 and y = x − x2 − 1, but for other equations such
explicit solutions cannot be derived. The reason for this need not be lack of
algebraic skill on our side, since a solution may not exist at all. The implicit
function theorem expresses a simple condition which guarantees the existence
of a function h, such that the solution is y = h(x).
Theorem 1.5. Let f : Ω → R be a smooth function, where Ω ⊂ R2 is open.
Let
C = {(x, y) ∈ Ω | f (x, y) = c}
be the set of solutions to the equation f (x, y) = c. Let p = (x0 , y0 ) ∈ C be
given, and assume that ∂f∂y
̸= 0 at p.
Then there exist open intervals I and J around x0 and y0 , respectively,
such that the rectangle W = I × J is contained in Ω, and a smooth map
h: I → J such that
C ∩ W = {(x, h(x)) | x ∈ I}, (1)
that is, in the neighborhood W of p, C is the graph of h.
8 Chapter 1

y0 W
p
C

x0

Proof. Assume for simplicity that c = 0, and that the value of ∂f ∂y

at p is
positive. These properties can be arranged by a simple replacement of f
which does not affect the set C. Choose δ > 0 such that the neighborhood
{(x, y) | |x − x0 | ≤ δ, |y − y0 | ≤ δ} of p lies inside Ω, and such that ∂f
∂y
≥ a on
this neighborhood, for some constant a > 0 (continuity of ∂f ∂y is used). Then
y !→ f (x, y) is strictly increasing on the interval [y0 − δ, y0 + δ], for each fixed
x with |x − x0 | < δ.
In particular, since p ∈ C we have f (p) = f (x0 , y0 ) = 0, and hence

f (x0 , y0 − δ) < 0 and f (x0 , y0 + δ) > 0.

By continuity in x0 of each of the maps x !→ f (x, y0 ± δ), there exists a

positive number η ≤ δ such that f (x, y0 − δ) < 0 and f (x, y0 + δ) > 0 for all
x with |x − x0 | < η.

f >0
y0 +δ f =0

y0 p
y0 −δ f <0

x0 −η x0 x0 +η

Let I = {x | |x − x0 | < η}, and let x ∈ I. Since y !→ f (x, y) is strictly

increasing and continuous, and since f (x, y0 − δ) < 0 and f (x, y0 + δ) > 0,
there exists a unique y between y0 − δ and y0 + δ with f (x, y) = 0. This value
of y is denoted h(x). Then h maps I into J =]y0 − δ, y0 + δ[ and satisfies
f (x, h(x)) = 0. The identity of the sets in (1) follows from the uniqueness of
y. We will complete the proof of the theorem by showing that h is smooth.
We first prove that h is continuous. Fix x ∈ I and let y = h(x), then
f (x, y) = 0. Let ∆x be sufficiently small so that x+∆x ∈ I. Associated to ∆x
we define ∆y such that y +∆y = h(x +∆x), then also f (x +∆x, y +∆y) = 0.
The asserted continuity amounts to the statement that ∆y → 0 when
∆x → 0. The function

t !→ ϕ(t) = f (x + t∆x, y + t∆y)

Parametrized curves and surfaces 9

is zero both for t = 0 and t = 1. By the mean value theorem (Rolle’s theorem)
there exists a number θ ∈ (0, 1) (depending on ∆x) such that

ϕ′ (θ) = 0.

Differentiating ϕ by means of the chain rule we thus obtain

∂f ∂f
(x + θ∆x, y + θ∆y)∆x + (x + θ∆x, y + θ∆y)∆y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Hence
∂f
∂x (x + θ∆x, y + θ∆y)
∆y = − ∂f
∆x,
∂y
(x + θ∆x, y + θ∆y)
∂f
and since | ∂x | is bounded, and ∂f
∂y ≥ a > 0, it follows that ∆y → 0 when
∆x → 0, as claimed.
Next we prove that h is differentiable, which with the notation from above
amounts to the convergence of ∆y/∆x as ∆x → 0. In fact, since ∂f ∂f
∂x and ∂y
are continuous, this follows immediately from the equation above. Moreover,
the limit is given by
∂f
∆y ∂x
(x, y)
lim = − ∂f .
∆x→0 ∆x
∂y (x, y)

Hence h is differentiable and satisfies

∂f
′ ∂x
(x, h(x))
h (x) = − ∂f
. (2)
∂y
(x, h(x))

Finally, we prove by induction that h is smooth. Assuming that h is r

times differentiable for some natural number r, we see from equation (2) that
so is h′ . Hence h is r + 1 times differentiable. !
Corollary 1.5. Let f : Ω → R be a smooth function, where Ω ⊂ R2 is open.
Let
C = {(x, y) ∈ Ω | f (x, y) = c}
and let p = (x0 , y0 ) ∈ C. Assume that p is not a critical point.
Then there exists an open rectangle W ⊂ Ω around p, such that C ∩ W
is the graph of a smooth function h, considered either as y = h(x) or as
x = h(y).
In particular, it follows that the level set can be parametrized as a smooth
curve in a neighborhood of each non-critical point.
Proof. By assumption ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x and ∂y are not both zero at p. If ∂y (p) ̸= 0 the
conclusion is already in the previous theorem. Otherwise, we interchange x
and y. !
10 Chapter 1

Example 1.5.1. Let f : R2 → R be given by f (x, y) = y 2 − 2xy + 1, and

consider the level set C = {(x, y) | f (x, y) = 0}. Then ∂f
∂y = 2y − 2x, which is
zero if and only if x = y. Inserting y = x in the equation y 2 − 2xy + 1 = 0, we
see that the only points in C where ∂f ∂y = 0 are p = (1, 1) and q = (−1, −1).
We can then conclude from the theorem that the level set C can be attained
as a graph of the form y = h(x) in a neighborhood of each of its points, except
possibly p and q (the theorem gives no information in case ∂f ∂y
= 0).
On the other hand, the partial derivative ∂f∂x = −2y is never zero on C
2
(since y = 0 in y − 2xy + 1 = 0 leads to a contradiction), and thus C has
the form of a graph x = h(y) in a neighborhood of all its points.
In fact, the equation can be easily solved with respect to both x and y:
! 1 1
y =x± x2 − 1, x= (y + ).
2 y

The formula on the left gives two expressions, each with y a function of x.
Only one of these is relevant in a neighborhood of a given point (x, y) ∈
C, provided |x| > 1. However, at the points where x = ±1, these two
expressions for y collapse, and neither of them gives a well-defined function
in a neighborhood, because |x| < 1 is not allowed in the square root. Notice
that these are exactly the two points where ∂f∂y = 0.
The expression for x, on the other hand, is defined and smooth for all
y ̸= 0 (and y = 0 never occurs in C).
y
p = (1, 1)

q = (−1, −1)

Example 1.5.2. Let f (x, y) = x4 − x2 + y 2 , and C = {(x, y) | f (x, y) = 0}.

The derivatives
∂f ∂f
= 4x3 − 2x and = 2y
∂x ∂y
are both zero if and only if (x, y) is one of the three points
" "
1
(0, 0), ( 2 , 0), (− 12 , 0).

Only the first one of these belongs to C, and this point is therefore the only
critical point in C.
Parametrized curves and surfaces 11

The set C is shown in the following figure. It can be shown that C is

the trace of the parametrized curve γ(t) = (cos t, cos t sin t), which has a
self-intersection exactly in the critical point (0, 0).

1.6 The implicit function theorem, more variables

We will now consider the analogue for surfaces of the theory of the pre-
ceding section. Where the solution set for an equation in two variables was
described as a parametrized curve, the analogous theorem describes the so-
lution set for an equation in three variables as a parametrized surface.
In fact, it is convenient to state the theorem as a theorem treating an
equation in n variables, with arbitrary n ≥ 2. In this fashion the theorem
becomes a generalization rather than an analogue.
In order to compare easily with the previous theorem we denote our vari-
ables in Rn by (x, y) = (x1 , . . . , xn−1 , y) where x ∈ Rn−1 and y ∈ R. By
definition, an interval in Rn is a product I1 × · · · × In of intervals in R.
Theorem 1.6. Let f : Ω → R be a smooth function, where Ω ⊂ Rn is open.
Let
S = {(x, y) ∈ Ω | f (x, y) = c}
and let p = (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ S. Assume that ∂f
∂y ̸= 0 at p.
Then there exist open intervals I ⊂ Rn−1 and J ⊂ R around x0 and y 0 ,
respectively, such that the interval W = I ×J is contained in Ω, and a smooth
map h: I → J such that

S ∩ W = {(x, h(x)) | x ∈ I},

that is, in the neighborhood W of p, S is the graph of h.

Proof. Notice the similarity with Theorem 1.5, the only difference being that
x ∈ R is replaced by (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) ∈ Rn−1 . In fact, the proof is a rather
straightforward generalization of the proof of Theorem 1.5, and it is therefore
omitted. !
Let us take n = 3, and replace the notation (x1 , x2 , y) by (x, y, z). We
obtain the following result which is analogous to the corollary in Section 1.5.
12 Chapter 1

Corollary 1.6. Let f : Ω → R be a smooth function, where Ω ⊂ R3 is open.

Let
S = {(x, y, z) ∈ Ω | f (x, y, z) = c}
and let p = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ S. Assume that p is not a critical point.
Then there exist an open interval W ⊂ Ω around p, such that S ∩ W is the
graph of a smooth function h, considered either as z = h(x, y), as y = h(x, z)
or as x = h(y, z).
In particular, it follows that the level set can be parametrized as a smooth
surface in a neighborhood of each non-critical point.
Proof. By assumption at least one of the partial derivatives ∂f , ∂f and ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z
is not zero at p. Interchanging z with x or y if necessary, we may assume
that it is ∂f
∂z . The conclusion then follows from the previous theorem. !

Example 1.6.1. The equation for a plane in R3 , ax + by + cz = d, where

(a, b, c) ̸= (0, 0, 0), satisfies the assumption of the preceding corollary. If c ̸=
0, the plane is the graph z = h(x, y) of the function h(x, y) = (d − ax − by)/c.
If c = 0 the plane is vertical, and we cannot exhibit it as a graph of the
form z = h(x, y), but then we can exhibit it as a graph over one of the other
coordinate planes.
Example 1.6.2. The surfaces introduced in Examples 1.2.2-1.2.4, sphere,
cylinder and cone, are level sets for, respectively, f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 and f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 − z 2 . These functions all satisfy
the assumption of the corollary above, except for the vertex (0, 0, 0) of the
cone.
Example 1.6.3. Let f (x, y, z) = zex + yz and consider the equation
f (x, y, z) = 1 in a neighborhood of the point p = (0, 0, 1) (which solves
the equation). The partial derivative ∂f ∂z
= ex + y is 1 at this point, so by
the implicit function theorem the solution z exists as a function of (x, y)
in a neighborhood of (0, 0, 1). In fact, the equation has the solution z =
1/(ex + y). However, if the equation is replaced by for example f (x, y, z) =
zex + sin(yz) = 1, then it is impossible to write down a solution to the
equation in terms of known functions, but the conclusion from the implicit
function theorem remains the same since we still have ∂f ∂z
= 1 at p.

1.7 The implicit function theorem, more equations

We have seen that an equation f (x, y) = c in R2 defines a plane curve,
and that an equation f (x, y, z) = c in R3 defines a surface (under suitable
circumstances). In order to define a curve in R3 we need two equations. For
example, the x-axis is the set defined by equations y = 0 and z = 0. Consider
two equations of the form
f1 (x, y, z) = c1 ,
f2 (x, y, z) = c2 ,
Parametrized curves and surfaces 13

where f1 , f2 maps an open set Ω ⊂ R3 into R. We say that we have two

equations in three variables. It is actually more convenient to write the
equations in the form
f (x, y, z) = c
where f = (f1 , f2 ) maps Ω into R2 , and where c = (c1 , c2 ). We want to
generalize Theorem 1.6 in order to deal with this situation.
In fact, we will generalize even further, to functions f : Ω ⊂ Rn → Rm , that
is, to the case of m equations in n variables, the only condition being that
n > m. For the application to space curves, only n = 3 and m = 2 is needed,
and the reader is encouraged to specialize to this case at first reading.
It is convenient for the comparison with Theorem 1.6 to write elements in
R as (x, y) where x = (x1 , . . . , xn−m ) ∈ Rn−m and y = (y1 , . . . , ym ) ∈ Rm .
n

The goal is to obtain y as a function of x.

Theorem 1.7. Let f : Ω → Rm be a smooth function, where Ω ⊂ Rn is
open. Let c ∈ Rm be fixed. Let

C = {(x, y) ∈ Ω | f (x, y) = c}

and let p = (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ C. Assume that the determinant of the m × m matrix

∂fi
A= (p),
∂yj

consisting of the last m columns of the Jacobian Df (p), is non-zero.

Then there exist open intervals I ⊂ Rn−m and J ⊂ Rm around x0 and y 0 ,
respectively, such that W = I × J ⊂ Ω, and a smooth map h: I → J such
that
C ∩ W = {(x, h(x)) | x ∈ I},
that is, in the neighborhood W of p, C is the graph of h: Rn−m → Rm .
Proof. The most common technique for solving several equations in several
variables is elimination of variables. That is, we use one of the equations to
express a particular variable in terms of the others, and insert this expression
in the remaining equations. The chosen variable has then been eliminated,
and the number of equations is reduced by one. This will also be our strategy
in the present proof.
We prove the theorem by induction on m. The case m = 1 was already
treated in Theorem 1.6. Thus, we assume that m ≥ 2 and that the conclusion
of the theorem is valid for functions into Rm−1 . We can safely assume that
c = 0, since this can be arranged by subtraction of the constant from f .
Since det A is non-zero, A is invertible. We want to replace f : Rn → Rm
by the function A−1 ◦ f : Rn → Rm , obtained by multiplying all image vectors
f (x, y) ∈ Rm with the constant matrix A−1 . Since multiplication by A−1
14 Chapter 1

is a bijection, the equations f (x, y) = 0 and A−1 f (x, y) = 0 are equivalent.

The Jacobian of the linear map, multiplication by A−1 , is the matrix A−1
itself (see Example B.1), and hence it follows from the chain rule that

D(A−1 ◦ f )(p) = A−1 · Df (p).

We see that the last m columns of D(A−1 ◦ f )(p) comprise a unit matrix
δkj . By the replacement of f with A−1 ◦ f we thus obtain a function whose
Jacobian matrix at p has a unit matrix in its last m columns, and for which
the solution set C is unaltered. From now on we assume this replacement has
been carried out, that is, we assume ∂fk /∂yj = δkj .
In particular, for the function fm whose derivatives are in the last row
of Df , we have that ∂fm /∂ym (p) = 1. We will apply Theorem 1.6 to the
equation fm (x, y) = 0. The effect of the theorem is that the last variable,
ym , can be written as a smooth function of the remaining variables. We
write the remaining variables as (x, y ′ ) ∈ Rn−1 where y ′ = (y1 , . . . , ym−1 ).
More precisely, it then follows that there exists an interval neighborhood
W1 = I1 × J1 around p, where I1 ⊂ Rn−1 and J1 ⊂ R, and a smooth function
h: I1 → J1 such that for (x, y) = (x, y ′ , ym ) ∈ W1 we have fm (x, y) = 0 if
and only if
ym = h(x, y ′ ).
Let the function F : I1 ⊂ Rn−1 → Rm−1 be defined by

Fk (x, y ′ ) = fk (x, y ′ , h(x, y ′ )) (3)

for k = 1, . . . , m − 1, where as before y ′ = (y1 , . . . , ym−1 ). The partial

derivatives of Fk are obtained by applying the chain rule to (3):

∂Fk ∂fk ∂fk ∂h

= + (j = 1, . . . , m − 1),
∂yj ∂yj ∂ym ∂yj

and at p we thus have ∂F k

∂yj
= ∂f
∂yj
k
= δkj (because ∂y∂fk
m
= 0). The determinant
of this matrix being non-zero, we can apply our induction hypothesis to
F , and we obtain the existence of an interval neighborhood W2 = I2 × J2
′
around (x0 , y 0 ), where I2 ⊂ Rn−m and J2 ⊂ Rm−1 , and a smooth function
g: I2 → J2 such that the solution set for the equation F (x, y ′ ) = 0 in W2 is
the graph of g, that is, F (x, y ′ ) = 0 if and only if y ′ = g(x).
Let the interval W ⊂ Rn be defined by

W = W1 ∩ {(x, y) | (x, y ′ ) ∈ W2 }.

We now see that for (x, y) in this set we have

(x, y) ∈ C
Parametrized curves and surfaces 15

if and only if
fk (x, y) = 0, k = 1, . . . , m
if and only if

fk (x, y) = 0, k = 1, . . . , m − 1 and ym = h(x, y ′ )

if and only if
F (x, y ′ ) = 0 and ym = h(x, y ′ )
if and only if
y ′ = g(x) and ym = h(x, y ′ )
if and only if
y = (g(x), h(x, g(x))).
The function x !→ (g(x), h(x, g(x))) is thus seen to be the desired function
whose graph is C in a neighborhood of p. !
Corollary 1.7. Let f : Ω → R2 be smooth, where Ω ⊂ R3 is open. Let c ∈ R2
and
p ∈ C = {(x, y, z) ∈ Ω | f (x, y, z) = c}.
Assume the rows of Df (p) (a 2 × 3 matrix) are linearly independent.
Then there exist an open interval W ⊂ Ω around p, such that C ∩ W can
be parametrized as a smooth curve in the form of a graph, considered either
as (y, z) = h(x), as (x, z) = h(y) or as (x, y) = h(z).
Proof. At least one of the three 2 × 2 submatrices of Df (p) has non-zero
determinant. With suitable reorganization of variables the theorem can be
applied. !

Example 1.7. The set of equations

x + xy + z 2 = 3 ∧ x3 + 2xz − y 2 z 2 = 2 (4)

has the form f (x, y, z) = c with

# $ # $
x + xy + z 2 3
f (x, y, z) = , c= .
x3 + 2xz − y 2 z 2 2

The Jacobian matrix is

# $
1+y x 2z
Df (x, y, z) = .
3x2 + 2z −2yz 2 2x − 2y 2 z

In the point (1, 1, 1) the equations (4) are satisfied and the Jacobian is
# $
2 1 2
.
5 −2 0
16 Chapter 1

The determinant of the last two columns is det A = 4. Since this determinant
is not zero, the implicit function theorem assures that the equations can
be solved for (y, z) as function of x, in a neighborhood of (1,1,1). In this
neighborhood the set of solutions can thus be parametrized as a smooth curve
in the form of a 3-dimensional graph (t, h(t)) where h(t) = (y(t), z(t)) ∈ R2 .
This example demonstrates the theoretical power of the implicit function
theorem, since the explicit solving of (4) for y and z as functions of x is
clearly a difficult task.

1.8 Exercises

1 Let γ: I → Rn be a parametrized curve with γ ′′ (t) = 0 for all t. Show that

it is a line or a constant curve.
2 The following parametrized curve is called the cycloid
γ(t) = (t − sin t, 1 − cos t), (t ∈ R).
It is constructed by a circle of radius 1 rolling without slipping along the
positive x-axis. The curve is the path of a point on the circumference of
the circle. Explain the formula above from this construction.

3 Determine a parametrized surface with image {(x, y, z) | x + 2y − 2z = 1}.

4 Consider the equation x3 +xy 2 −2ay 2 = 0 in R2 , where a > 0 is a constant.
Show that the parametrized curve
2at2 2at3
γ(t) = ( , ),
1 + t2 1 + t2
where t ∈ R, is bijective onto the set of solutions. This curve is called the
cissoid of Diocles. Draw a sketch of it (say for a = 1).
5 Let S ⊂ R3 denote the set of solutions to the equation x2 + y − z 2 = 1.
a. Show that the map σ: R2 → R3 given by
σ(u, v) = (u + v, 1 − 4uv, u − v)
is an injective parametrized surface with image S.
b. Show that S contains no critical points for the function f (x, y, z) =
x2 + y − z 2 , and determine a parametrization of S as a graph of a smooth
function h.
 Parametrized curves and surfaces 17

6 Consider the equation x3 y 3 − 3x + y = −1, which is satisfied by (x, y) =

(1, 1). Show that it is possible to describe the level set as a graph y = h(x)
in a neighborhood of this point.
7 Denote by C the level set in R2 for the equation 4x4 − 5x2 y 2 + y 4 = 0.
a. Show by means of the implicit function theorem that for each point
(x0 , y0 ) ∈ C \ {(0, 0)} there exists a neighborhood in which C can be
described as a graph y = h(x).
b. Solve the equation and determine C explicitly.
8 The condition fy′ (x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0 in Theorem 1.5 is sufficient but not necessary.
That is, if fy′ (x0 , y0 ) = 0 it may still be possible to describe the level set
as a graph y = h(x) of a smooth function h in a neighborhood of (x0 , y0 ).
Give an example.
9 Let f be as in Theorem 1.5, but assume instead that fy′ (x0 , y0 ) = 0. Show
that if fx′ (x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0, then it is not possible to describe the level set as a
graph y = h(x), where h is smooth, in any neighborhood of (x0 , y0 ).
10 The equation xy + xz + sin z = 0 is solved by (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0). Show
that the solution set in a neighborhood of this point allows a description
as a graph. Show that this is the case in a neighborhood of all solutions.
11 Let S = {(x, y, h(x, y))} ⊂ R3 be the graph of the function h(x, y) =
y−xy 3 . Show that in a neighborhood of each point of S in which 3xy 2 ̸= 1,
it is possible to write S as a graph of the form y = g(x, z) with g smooth.
12 Consider the system of equations in R3
2x2 − x2 z 2 − y 2 = 0 ∧ xyz = 1
to which (1, 1, 1) is a solution. Show that there exists a neighborhood in
which the solution set can be described as a graph of the form (x, y) =
h(z), where x and y both are functions of z.
13 Let f : R3 → R2 and c ∈ R2 be given by
1
f (x, y, z) = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 , (x − )2 + y 2 ), c = (1, a2 )
2
where a ≥ 0. Let L ⊂ R3 denote the set of solutions to the system
f (x, y, z) = c.
a. Explain why L is the intersection of a sphere and a cylinder, and
determine their radii.
b. Determine, in each of the following 6 cases, the set of points in L
for which the rank of Df (p) is < 2, that is, where the rows are linearly
dependent.
a = 0, 0 < a < 12 , a = 21 , 21 < a < 32 , a = 23 , 32 < a.
c. What does the implicit function theorem tell about L in each case.
Explain by means of the observation in a.