COMPUTER STUDIES

Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS.......................................................................................3
1.1 Definition of terms.................................................................................................................3
1.2 Physical Parts of a Computer.................................................................................................4
1.3 Classification of Computers...................................................................................................5
1.4 Development of Computers....................................................................................................2
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes...............................................................................2
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors.................................................................................2
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits......................................................................2
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors....................................................................2
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence....................................................3
1. 5 Areas Where Computers Are Used........................................................................................3
1.6 The Computer Laboratory......................................................................................................5
1.7 Practical Hands on Skills........................................................................................................6
2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEMS..........................................................................................................12
2.1 Components of Computer System........................................................................................12
2.2 Input devices........................................................................................................................12
2.3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU).....................................................................................23
What is virtual memory?................................................................................................................29
Virtual memory and error messages...........................................................................................29
2.4 Output Devices.....................................................................................................................32
Hardcopy Output Devices..........................................................................................................34
Plotters.......................................................................................................................................37
2.5 Secondary (Auxiliary) Storage and Media...........................................................................38
Classification of Secondary Storage Devices.............................................................................38
Magnetic Disks..........................................................................................................................38
Tape Drives..................................................................................................................................2
Removable Magneto-Optical Storage..........................................................................................4
Hard Drives..................................................................................................................................5
Care for magnetic and magneto-optical media.............................................................................5
Optical Disc Drives......................................................................................................................6
Laser disks...................................................................................................................................6
Optical tape..................................................................................................................................7
Advantages and disadvantages..................................................................................................2
Advantages.............................................................................................................................2
Disadvantages.........................................................................................................................3
2.6 Power supply and peripheral device Interface........................................................................4
2.7 Basic Computer Setup and Cabling........................................................................................8

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 Computer Software......................................................................................................................9
3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM...........................................................................................................14
3.1 Definition:............................................................................................................................14
3.2 Devices under the control of an operating system..................................................................2
3.3 Functions of Operating System..............................................................................................2
3.4 Types of Operating Systems...................................................................................................4
3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system........................................................5
3.6 How an Operating System Organises Information using........................................................5
3.7 Getting started with Microsoft Windows................................................................................7
3.8 Managing Files and Folders...................................................................................................8
3.9 Disk Management..................................................................................................................5
3. 9 Installing Windows Operating System..................................................................................7
Answers to Review Questions..........................................................................................................9
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS...................................................................................9
2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEM.......................................................................................................10
3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM.......................................................................................................13

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Specific objectives
By the end of the topic you should be able to:-
a). Define a computer
b). State the different parts that make up a computer
c). Explain how computers have developed
d). Classify the various types of computers
e). Identify areas where computers are stored used
f). State the safety precautions and practices in a computer laboratory
g). Demonstrate basic hands-on skills on the use of a computer

1.1 Definition of terms

A computer
 Is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it under the influence of a
set of instructions referred to as programs to produce desired output (information).
 Is an electronic device that uses instructions (programs) to accept and process data given to it
in a variety of forms in order to produce useful information.
 Is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and transforms it under the influence of
sets of special instructions called programs to produce information.
A computer is said to be electronic because it utilizes electrical signals to process information.

The three key terms that define a computer are:- input, process and output.
Programs
Set of instructions written in computer language that directs the computer what task to perform and
how to perform it.

Data
Raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user. Includes alphabets, numbers and symbols.

Data processing
The varied activities performed to convert data into useful information.

Information
Processed data that is meaningful to the user and which can form a basis for decision making.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Is the integration of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of communication.
Functions of a computer
 Convert raw data into information
 Store information and data
 Projections eg weather forecasting
 Process control eg when using special computer to control movement of rockets

Advantages of computers include:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they
will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected
and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce
exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that
failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.

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  Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per
second.

Disadvantages of a computer
- Computer are relatively expensive
- Computer technology changes too often
- Computer can break down
- Computer does not have its own intelligence

1.2 Physical Parts of a Computer

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together in
order to function as a single entity. A computer is basically made up of four basic components and
other devices connected to the system unit called peripheral devices.

i). System unit

Looks like a box. A computer case (also known as a computer chassis, cabinet, box, tower,
enclosure, housing, system unit or simply case) is the enclosure that contains most of the
components of a computer (usually excluding the display, keyboard and mouse). This part houses
the brain of the computer called the Central Processing Unit (CPU), motherboard, main memory,
and the drives. The drive is used to store, record and read data. The two common types of system
units are Tower and desktop type.
The below picture shows a tower style.

ii). Peripheral devices

Can be defined as:-
- Devices are connected to the system unit via ports and controlled by the CPU; or
- hardware that is externally connected to the computer’s system unit
Most of the devices are connected using data interface cables. The interface cables carry data
and information to and from the devices. The cables are attached to the system unit using
connectors called ports.
Peripheral devices can be external -- such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip
drive or scanner -- or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive , memory, motherboard,
hard drive, graphics card, floppy drive, cd/dvd drive
or internal modem.
Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals.

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 Some peripheral devices are:-
 Keyboard
Is a device that enables the user to enter data and instructions in the computer by pressing its keys.
 The mouse
Is a hand held device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer and move items on
the screen by controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
 The monitor
Is a TV like device that displays output. it is a called a monitor because it enables the user to
monitor or see what is going on in the computer.

1.3 Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to:
 Physical size and processing power
 Purpose
 Functionality

1) Physical size and processing power

a). Supercomputers

Supercomputers are very expensive and are

employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers
include animated graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, and
petroleum exploration. Are very fast, largest in
physical size, most expensive, fastest processor
speed and largest memory capacity computers.
Perform many complex calculations and generate
a lot of heat due to their huge processing power. Due to this the whole CPU is immersed in a tank
containing liquid fluorocarbon to provide cooling. Mainly used for scientific research which
requires enormous calculations. Applications that justify use of supercomputers are:- space
science, nuclear physics, aerodynamic design and simulation., defense and weapon analysis. Are
found in developed countries like USA and Japan.
b). Mainframe
Are less powerful, less expensive, smaller, slower,
lower memory capacity than supercomputers.
Handling all kinds of problems whether scientific or
commercial. Support a variety of peripheral devices.
Mostly found in government agencies, big
organizations and companies such as hospitals, banks,
airports etc, which have large information processing
needs and places where processing automation is
required. They can also be used as Network Servers in
large businesses like in Banks to provide online data
of customer accounts to branch offices.

c). Minicomputers
Also referred small scale mainframes. Slightly smaller, low memory, cheaper, and low processing
power than mainframe. Supports fewer peripheral devices and not as powerful and fast as the
mainframe. It was developed as a cheaper alternative to the mainframes for smaller organizations.
They are used in research institutions, scientific laboratories, manufacturing industries,
engineering plants, etc.

d). Microcomputers

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Also called personal computers (PCs). Is the smallest, cheapest, slowest and least powerful type of
computers compared to supercomputer, mainframes and minicomputer. They are called
Microcomputers because their processor is very tiny (size of a thumbnail). They are mainly used in
training and learning institutions, small business enterprises, communication centres, etc. Today
powerful microcomputers have grown tremendously closing the gap that formerly existed and
reserved for minicomputers and mainframes.

Types of microcomputers
 Non-portable: Desktop computer which is not portable and designed to be placed on top of an
office desk.
 Portable

Laptop: Are small enough to rest on persons lap when using. Weigh about 1 to 3 kg each.

Advantages of laptops
o They are portable
o Are convenient to travel with
o Their screen show sharper and clear images which prevent eye strain.
o Laptops have power batteries which serve as inbuilt UPS

Note books: are even smaller and lighter than laptops. Small enough to fit in the pocket of a coat.
Cheaper than laptops and just as useful. When very small are called sub-notebooks.

Palmtops: A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers,
palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and
calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held
computers or PDAs.

Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many
contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices.

Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers

Examples are: Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), personal organizers or pen computers.

2) Purpose (Use)
All computers falls into two broad groups according to the tasks they perform namely special and
general purpose.
(a) Special purpose computers
They are designed to serve/ perform only one specialized task. These computers cannot perform
other task except the one they were meant to do. The set of instructions which drive a special
purpose computer are limited in number at the time of manufacturer. Examples are: robots used in
manufacturing industry, mobile phones for communication, electronic calculators for calculations,
watches, oven etc. they can perform the task very fast and very efficiently since they are dedicated
to a single task. Are relatively cheap.

(b) General purpose

Are designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with the appropriate programs.
Are quite flexible to be applied in a wide range of applications like document processing,
performing calculations, accounting, data and information management etc.

(c) Embedded computers

Are inbuilt within machines that they control. They have hidden inputs originating from the
machines they are controlling. Embedded computers are found in microwaves, digital cameras,
digital watches and air conditioners.

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3) Functionality
In this class computers are classified according to the type of data they can process.

o Analog computers
Process data that is analog in nature which is continuous. They solve mathematical operations and
logical comparison by measuring the amount of change in physical magnitude e.g. speed,
temperature, etc. are dedicated to a single task. Are used in manufacturing process control like
monitoring and regulating furnace temperatures, speed, pressures, weather, etc, stations to record
and process physical quantities e.g. wind, cloud speed, temperature, etc. in addition to PCs, most
modern home appliances such as digitals TVs, microwaves, wall clocks are digital in nature.
Continuous data is represented using a continuous waveform.
+

- Digital signal Draw manually

o Digital computers
They process digital data only which is discrete in nature and their operations are based on two
states namely “on” and “off” or “1” and “0”.

- Analog signal {Draw manually}

o Hybrid computers
`They are computers build with the characteristics of both analog and digital, thus process both
analog and digital data.

Review questions 1.1

1. What is a computer? 5. Give two reasons why smaller
2. State different parts that make up a computers like laptops tend to be
computer. more expensive than desktop
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
computers. 6. A…………… computer performs
a) Supercomputer and mainframe. only one task while a………….
b) Minicomputer and a PC . performs more than one.
4. Differentiate between a digital and
analog computer.
7. A computer is called electronic device
8. because: 10. Which one of the following is not
a) It processes data. true about the system unit?.
b) It uses electrical signals. a. It houses the CPU
c) It gives out information. b. It houses the monitor.
d) It accepts user input. c. It connects to all peripheral devices
9. What is data?. using ports.
a) Processed information. 11. What is a mouse in relation to
b) Unprocessed information. computing.
c) Raw facts inform of characters, a) A small destructive rodent.
symbols and numbers. b) A round plastic container with a
d) Information displayed . tail.
e) On the screen.

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 c) A pointing device that controls a 15. Why is a mobile phone regarded to
pointer on the screen. be a computer?.
d) A device used in typing. a. It is electronic, has a screen, keypad,
12. Why the screen is also called a memory and is programmable.
monitor. b. It looks like a palmtop.
a. It displays the monitor lizard. c. It is portable.
b. It helps the user to track what is d. It produces tones.
going on in the computer. 16. What is meant by analog data.
c. It monitors system performance. a. Data that never stops.
d. It is a television. b. Discrete data .
13. Pick the old one out in the list below c. Large data.
a) Calculator d. Continuous data.
b) Mobile phone 17. Which of the following are analog
c) Robot devices?
d) laptop a. A monitor with knobs that are rotated
to increase brightness.
13. Pick the old one out in the list below. b. A monitor with buttons that one
a. Mainframe. presses to increase brightness.
b. Microcomputer. c. A radio with a knob that slides in a
c. Minicomputer. slot to increase volume.
d. Digital computer. d. A thermometer.
14. Which of the following would be most 18. Which of the following is called a
suitable for travelers?. microprocessor?
a. Supercomputer . a. The CPU of a mainframe.
b. Mainframe computer. b. The CPU of a computer.
c. Palmtop computer. c. The CPU of a micro computer.
d. Minicomputer. d. The CPU of a supercomputer.

1.4 Development of Computers

Non-electronic computing devices
Included Abacus, Napiers bornes and Analytical engine
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually. Abacus was a special counting
instrument / calculating tool used to calculate large figures developed by Asian merchants.
Napiers Bornes was developed by John Napier a scotish mathematician to help in multiplication
and division. The first machine after the abacus was Analytical Engine developed by Charles
Babbage who was an English Mathematician in 1822 -1871. Mark I was the first computer like
machine designed by professor Howard Aken of Horrand University in 1939. Mark I became
operational in 1943. It weighed 5 tons and was 16 metres long. Since then rapid advancements in
computing have been realized and can be categorized into five generations.

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller,
cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each
generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today.

Key Terms: computer, magnetic drums, binary, integrated circuit,  semiconductor,

nanotechnology

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

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The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though
the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a
vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or

assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run
many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now
fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single
chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

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As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

In the fifth generation are characterized by:-

- computers have very high processing power and speed
- Size is increasingly becoming smaller because of superior hardware and software products
that are small in size.
- Emit negligible heat
- Have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that mimic human
intelligence referred to as Artificial Intelligence (AI). Therefore the circuit technology is AI,
parallel architectures, three Dimensional circuit design and super-conducting materials.
- Use advanced hard disks and optical disks for storage e.g. DVDs
- Perform multiprocessing
- Use multi-user operating systems and advanced application programs
- Massive connectivity to Internet and intranet.

NB: Internet refers to global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of
communication and resource sharing.
Computer Network is collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the
purpose of communication and resource sharing.
Intranet – is a private network.

DID YOU KNOW...?

An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material.
The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments
and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.

1. 5 Areas Where Computers Are Used

Supermarkets
- Provides quick way of checking out customers purchases through EPOSS
- Provides opportunity to customers to purchase goods without hard cash through EFT.
- to help in management of daily stock control, for production of receipts and can be used as a
barcode reader

Banks
- Manage financial transactions through the use of special cash dispensing machines called
ATMs used for cash deposit and withdrawal services
- Processing of cheques
- For preparation of payrolls
- Better record keeping and processing of documents
- Provide electronic money transfer facilities

Homes
- Entertainment e.g. watching movies, playing music, playing computer games

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 - For storing personal information / documents
- For calculating and keeping home budgets

Industries
- To monitor and control industrial processes through the use of robots
- For management control i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions
- For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers
- CAD {Computer Aided Design} allows accurate, quick and easy designs of products on
computer screen.

Law enforcement agencies

- For matching, analyzing and keeping database of fingerprints
- For taking photographs and other identification details
- For record keeping
- For face recognition, scene monitoring and analysis, which help the police carry out criminal
investigations speedily.

Transport industry
- Airports; to control the movement of aircrafts, their take off and landing using radar equipment
- For making reservations (Booking purposes)
- Storing flight information
- Automobile traffic control i.e. monitoring vehicle traffic in busy towns
- In Railway corporations to coordinate the movement of goods and wagons
- In shipping control for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling and communication

Offices
- For receiving and sending of information through e-mails, fax, etc
- Production of documents
- Keeping records

Hospitals
- For keeping patient records
- Keeping records of purchases and stock of medicine
- Analysis data obtained from X-rays
- Maintaining the booking system of scarce resources such as operation theaters.
- Control of life support machines in intensive care unit
- Used by physicians to get proper diagnosis of the affected part of body through cross sectional
view
Education
- Access internet through email to link different schools and to exchange knowledge
- Communication through email to link different schools and exchange knowledge
- For teaching and learning purposes e.g. computer practical
- Administration –storing information about students, processing grades and teachers salaries.
Library services
- Enables library personnel to easily access and keep updated records of books and other library
materials i.e. to keep electronic catalogues and track book circulation.
- Library users can also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual card
catalogue
Entertainment industry – to generate and edit computer graphics in movies and games.
Military to design weapons and control flight.
Research institutions to process and analyze data.
Impaired persons
- converts speech to text for the deaf
- converts spoken language to sign language for the deaf.
- Converts text to speech for the blind using speech synthesizers.
Review questions 1.2

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 1) Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop them.
1. First Generation A .Very Large Integrated Circuit
2. Second Generation B. Thermionic Valves
3. Third Generation C. Transistors
4. Fourth Generation D. Integrated Circuits

2) Identify and explain at least five areas a) ENIAC

where computers are used to process data. b) VLSI
3) What were the characteristics of first c) IC
generation computers? 7) Represent 5780 using abacus
4) Who developed the analytical engine 8) Match the following computer
5) What is artificial intelligence? application areas with the role played by
6) Write the following initial sin full: computers in each case.
1. Supermarkets A. Matching fingerprints
2. Hospital B. Entertainment
3. Bank C. Stock control
4. Hotel D. Booking rooms
5. Home E. Analyzing academic data
6. School F. Manufacturing process control
7. Industry G. Life support machines
8. Police station H. Processing cheques

1.6 The Computer Laboratory

Definition
- Is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers and to
provide a safe conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer studies; or
- A room where practical computer studies lessons are conducted where resources such as
printers, disks and manuals can be shared.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory

i). Security of computer programs and other resources
ii). Reliability of the source of power
iii). The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space
iv). The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Safety precautions and practices in the computer laboratory

Computer systems are expensive to acquire and maintain, and should therefore be handled with
great care. Most computer system malfunctions are caused by failure to follow correct instructions
on use of equipments, carelessness and neglect. We need to observe the safety precautions, rules
and practices to avoid accidental injury, damage of devices or lack of conducive learning and
teaching environment. Some safety precautions are made to protect computers while others protect
users.

Measures that protect the computers

 Behaviour in the computer laboratory
The following should be followed in and out of the computer laboratory
- Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust by entering in shoes. Smoke and dust particles
can damage the computer components and cause wearing to moving parts.
- Never take any eatables (food or beverage). Food particles may fall in moving computer like
keyboard and clog them while liquids may pour into electrical circuits causing rusting,
electrical faults, or short circuits..
- Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down peripheral devices.
- See that no waste materials (paper bits, etc) are inside the room. If any, collect them and put
them into the dustbin.
- Follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting down the computer.

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 - When in doubt ask. Students should always remember the principle of: “It is not stupid to ask
a sincere question”, to ensure that no damage is caused due to lack of proper knowledge. If
you are not sure of how to handle or operate any piece of equipment in the laboratory please
ask for assistance.

 Burglar proofing
Computer equipment is expensive and it is therefore important to protect the investment against
theft by implementing the following controls:
i). Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows
ii). Do not welcome strangers to computer room
iii). Install intrusion detection alarm system at strategic access points to alert security personnel
incase of break in.

 Protection against fire

Fire in laboratories is either caused by inflammable chemicals used for cleaning and servicing
computer equipment or electrical faults due to open wires or cables and sometimes cigarette
smokers. Install fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke detectors, a gaseous fire
extinguisher filled with carbon dioxide and should be non-liquid or non-power based. The reason
is that liquids may cause rusting and corrosion of computer components while powder particles
may increase friction and wear off moving parts and/or cause disks to crash

 The room should be well laid out

There should be enough space for movement and the computers should be placed on stable
wide desks to avoid accidentally knocking them down. The cables should be laid out in
trunks away form the from user paths to avoid stumbling on them.

 Cables and power sockets should be well insulated to avoid short circuits that can cause
damage to computer components.

 Dust and dump control

Dust can be controlled by fitting good window curtains and an air conditioning system that filters
dust particles from the air entering the room. Also computers should be covered with dust covers
when not in use. Humidity should be regulated by using dehumidifiers in the room to remain an
optimum of 50%. Humidity lower than this allows static electricity to built up and cause damage to
computer components. High humidity of over 70% may cause rusting of metallic parts.

 Stable power supply

Computers require a stable source of power. Momentary power interruptions or fluctuations often
cause computers to crash, damage data storage devices or loss of information that had not been
saved prior to the power disruptions. Power from main supply is not always stable.

There are two types of power protection devices:

A surge protector and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

a) A surge protector
- A surge protector is a power protection device that protects the computer against electrical
surges. Surges are large amounts of electricity which exceed the maximum level device is
capable of holding. Surges can damage or destroy computer components.
b) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
- Protects a computer from loss of power. It charges when mains power is on and has power
surge and brownout protection capabilities. When the
main’s power goes off, it beeps to alert the user.
-The UPS has
computer and other hardware to tap power from.

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Function of UPS
- It regulates power from unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage
- It temporarily provides power to the computer incase of a sudden power failure.
- It beeps to alert the user when the main Power goes off.

In summary stable power supply must be applied and adhered to by installing surge protectors,
power extension cables, for each computer and a power backup generator.

A computer connected to a UPS

Types of UPS
Standby Ups – which is a power conditioner with the ability to generate its own power when there
is a power failure

Online UPS (single conversion)

Operates like standby UPS but idles at very low power during standby operation.

True on-line UPS (Double conversion)

Is always on even during normal operation thus eliminating the need for any switching incase of
power failure. It is used for critical applications e.g in Banks where loss of power for few seconds
may result in file corruption.

- Installing lighting arrestors on the computer lab.

- The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement.

- Providing antiglare screens (light filters and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and fatigue
caused by over bright CRT monitors.

Measures that protect the user

 The walls of the computer room should not be painted with over bright reflective oil
paints and the screens should face away from the window to avoid glare caused by bright
backgrounds.

 Cables insulation
All power cables must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways in the computer
laboratory. They can be laid along the wall in trunks or use special computer tables designed to
hide all the cables by running under.

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 Standard furniture
The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to hold the weight and
accommodate all peripheral devices. The user’s seat must be comfortable and have a straight back
rest that allows someone to sit upright to avoid muscle pains and back aches. The sit must be high
enough relative to the table to enable comfortable use of hands on the keyboard as shown in the
diagram below:

The eye must be at the same level as the top of the screen (monitor) when user is seated upright as
show in the figure below:

 Providing antiglare screens like Light filters and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and
fatigue caused by over bright CTR monitors. Alternatively you use LCD monitors.

Ventilation
There must be good air circulation to avoid suffocation or dizziness caused by lack of oxygen and
to allow computers to cool hence avoid damage to electronic parts. A computer laboratory should
be fitted with a HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) system. This system controls
the temperature, air flow and humidity within a room, ensuring that the computer equipment does
not get over-heated, and the occupants of the laboratory are comfortable.
 Overcrowding in the computer laboratory should be avoided others users will suffocate.
 Lighting: Computer room should be well lit to avoid eyestrain that leads to headaches, stress
and fatigue. The monitor should be positioned such that glare or bright reflections on the
display are minimized. Radiation filter screens may be fitted as shown below:.

Computer layout
- Should be such that an instructor (tutor) can teach from the front. There should be enough
room between rows so that a person can easily move about the room. This can be attained by
using the two popular patterns for laying desks in a computer laboratory namely classroom
pattern and conference pattern. Figures below shows these layouts.

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Whiteboard

Fig.1.1 Classroom pattern layout

White board

Fig. 1.2 Conference pattern layout

There should be a central printer where students can print their work. If possible the instructors
computer should be connected to a projector to magnify the screen on a white board

Review questions 1.3

1) What name is given to alternative sources of power.
a) Generators
b) UPS
c) Power backups
d) The sun
2) Which of the following will not ensure proper ventilation in a room.
a) Enough windows and doors
b) Overcrowding
c) Installing fans
d) Air conditioning system
3) All the following are dangerous to a computer except one.
a) Water
b) Smoke
c) Enough ventilation
d) Dust
4) 2Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
a) Because computer users should not eat.
b) Because spilling may clog and destroy computer components
c) Because the smell of food is not good for the room.
d) Because all foods affect computers.
5) Which one of the following statements is correct?
a) Opening the system unit when it is still on.
b) Using magnets in the computer room
c) Covering the computers with dust covers after shutting down
d) Stepping on power and data cables.
6) Why are powder fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer room?
a) Powder particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operation.
b) Power is poisonous
c) It fills the room with mist
d) Powder changes to liquid when sprayed.
7) All the following are functions of the UPS except one. Which one is it?
a) It prevents sudden power surges to destroy the computer

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b) It supplies power to the computer during blackouts and brownouts
c) It provides stable power supply (clean power)
d) It can be used as the main power source for computers
8) Which of the following reasons are likely to cause eye strain in the computer room.
a) Poor lighting
b) Bright monitor
c) Poor ventilation
d) Ant radiation screen
9) All the following are proper sitting postures while using the computer except one. Which on is
it?
a) Straight back position
b) Feet firmly on the floor
c) High enough allowing eyes to be level with top of monitor
d) Bending the back backwards on a relaxed chair
10) What can be done to deter illegal access to a computer room by unauthorized persons?
a) Burglar proof the room by reinforcing doors and weak access points
b) Welcome strangers to the room
c) Leave the room open when nobody is using it.
d) Switch off the security alarm when leaving the room.

1.7 Practical Hands on Skills

Computer booting (starting – up)
Definition of booting
Process by which a computer loads system files into the main memory. i.e. the operating system is
read from hard disk and loaded to the maim memory.

Computer booting (starting-up) process

- Make sure that all components are properly connected. Turn on the switch at the source of the
power supply. If the computer is connected to the UPS turn on this after switching the Main
supply. Switch on the monitor and the system unit.
- The computer once switched on, you hear the sound of a cooler fan running. After a view
seconds, lines of text start to scroll on the screen as the computer goes through a process of
Power-On Self Test (POST), before it starts in preparation for use. POST is directed by a
special firmware called Basic Input Output System (BIOS) which is held in ROM chip
mounted on the motherboard. The POST checks whether existing storage, all basic
Input/Output devices and system components are working properly. If any of the devices has a
faulty or is missing, the process may stop or halt then an appropriate error message is displayed
on the screen.
- After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current time and date from
special memory known as the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). CMOS is
a special memory where instructions for current date and time are contained. CMOS is
powered by a dry cell that resembles that of a digital watch. If the cell is down, the computer
would always require the user to enter the current time and date. Lastly, after the checks the
operating system is read from the hard disk and loaded to the memory (RAM) in a process
called booting. Once the operating system is successfully loaded, a user-interface called
desktop is displayed.
- The entire process that makes the computer ready for use is called Booting up.

Types of booting
i) Cold booting {bootup}
Process of switching on a computer that has been off completely by pressing the power button.

ii) Warm booting

This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the restart button
on the system unit or using the restart command on Start menu

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Shutting down a computer
Turning a PC on and off several times a day is harmful. If the correct procedure is not followed
then loss of data, damage of programs and computer components may occur. It is therefore
advisable to shutdown the computer only after the sessions for the day.

Procedure for shutting down a computer

1. Save the work done on the computer before you turn it off
2. Close all programs that may be currently running.
3. Remove the floppy disks if you have inserted any.
4. if your computer is running on Microsoft Windows XP or Windows 7
a). click the Start button
b). on the Start menu, click Turn Off Computer or Shut Down
c). On the message box that appears(see figure below), click Turn Off. The computer will
undergo the shut down process.

NB: Pressing the Power key on the keyboard shuts down the computer.
5. Switch off your printer / or any other output devices.
Keyboarding ands mouse skills
Keyboard layout

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Activity: Identify keys on the keyboard that could be used for entering
- Alphabetic characters
- Numbers and arithmetic operators
Keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as follows:
1. Alphanumeric (typing) keys
2. Function keys
3. Cursor movement and editing keys
4. Special PC operation keys
5. Numeric keypad keys

1) Alphanumeric keys (typing keys)

Are keys labeled A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1, 2, …0 respectively and symbols like !, @, %,
^, >, [, } etc as well as keys like Enter, Caps Lock, Tab, space bar, back space.
 Caps Lock
Lets then user switch between uppercase(CAPITAL Letters) and lowercase (small letters) by
pressing it. When its ON Caps Lock diode lights which is above Numeric keypad keys. Just press
it again to switch to lower case.
 Enter key(return key)
If pressed it forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line.
Definition of cursor: Is a blinking underscore ( _ ) or a vertical beam ( I ) that shows where the
next character to be typed will appear.
Apart from cursor movement, the other function of enter key is to execute a selected command and
in spreadsheets when pressed it moves the cell pointer from one cell to another downwards.
 Space bar
It is the longest key on the keyboard and creates a space between words during typing.
 The backspace key
This key is like an eraser. It has backward arrow marked on it. When pressed it erases characters to
the left of the cursor position (insertion pointer) i.e. from right to left.
 Tab key
Moves the text cursor at set intervals on the same line. Its also used in setting Tab stops during
typing and moving from one cell to another or option to option.

2) Function keys
These keys are located on top of the keyboard. They are labeled F1, F2 …. F12. each of these keys
is used for a special function or job. Example pressing F1 invokes the on-line help, Pressing F7
starts Spelling and Grammar Checker

3) Cursor movement(navigation) and editing keys

Cursor movement(navigation) keys: are used to move the cursor on the screen. They include:
Home, End, Pageup / Pagedown and Arrow keys.
 Arrow keys
They are four in number and have arrow marked on them showing the four directions. They are
used to;
- Move the cursor where we want it to be e.g. pressing the right or left arrow key moves the
cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing the Upward or Downward arrow key
move the cursor one line up or down respectively.
- Move the selected text or object to the desired place on the screen
 Page Up and Page Down
- Page Up moves the cursor up one page incase the document has many pages. Page Down
moves the cursor down one page incase the document has many pages.
 Home and End keys
Home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line while End key moves the cursor to
the end of the current line.

Editing keys
Editing keys are used to erase (delete) or insert characters in a document.

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 These are:
 Insert key
Helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position i.e. switch between I nsert and
Typeover (Overwrite) mode.
 Delete (Del) key
Is used to delete the text or any part therefore from the right of the cursor position

4) Special PC Operation keys

These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys. They give special
instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, and ESC keys.
Ctrl key:
- used for shortcuts in combination with other keys e.g. holding down Ctrl + S activates Save
command,

Shift Key
- used for typing alternative characters for keys that represent more than one character e.g. Shift
+ 5 types operator %.
- Changing cases i.e. if the Caps Lock light is not illuminated and you hold down the shift key
and press a letter key, the upper case version of the character will be generated. The opposite
will happen if the Caps Lock light is illuminated.
- If you hold down Shift key as you delete folders/files from hard disk they will bypass recycle
bin folder and get deleted (discarded) completed.
5) Numeric keypad keys
They are located on the rightmost part on the keyboard. They have digits marked on the in rows
from bottom upwards. They have numbers in compact form and helps in rapid entry of numeric
data. Apart from the digits the numeric keypad has some mathematical symbols also marked on its
key e.g /, +,\, -, *.
Note: that the numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is turned
on. The key is situated on the numeric pad.
They can also be used as cursor movement keys and editing keys when Num Lock key is turned
off. Some portable computers lack numeric keypad due to size limitations.
The Num Lock used to switch between numbers, editing and navigation keys on the numeric
keypad.
NB: Caps Lock, Num Lock and Scroll Lock act in ON and OFF states.
Practical Keyboard Skills
The following typing rules should be observed when using keyboard:
I. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture
II. Place the material to be typed on your right in a position you can read without strain if possible
using copy holder as shown in diagram below:
III. Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. Home keys are keys on
which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. Home keys for the hand
are: A, S, D, F with the thumb on the Spacebar. For the right hand are: semicolon (;), L, K,
J with the thumb on spacebar. NB: Some authors state Home keys for right hand starting
with apostrophe i.e. ‘,(;), L, K and Space bar.
IV. Start typing text slowly, making sure you are using all the 10 fingers and you press the key
nearest to the home keys with the closest finger e.g. to press Q, use the small finger on the
left hand while to J, use the index finger on the right hand.
Mouse skills
The mouse got its name from shape and long interface cable which makes it look like the
biological mouse, although this is vanishing because of wireless technology.
The mouse is an input device with sensor buttons and a ball that slides it on a flat surface. When it
is made to slide, it controls a pointer on the screen, which is called a mouse pointer or a cursor.
The movement of a mouse is mirrored by a pointer on the screen. To make a selection the pointer
should be on the item that is to be selected, then manipulate the item by pressing the mouse button.
A typical mouse has a ball at its bottom that rotates when the mouse is moved.

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Mouse come in various shapes, colours and sizes even there are cordless mouse this is does not
have a connection cable. A mouse has two buttons at the top and an optional scroll wheel which
can be used to scroll up the screen in an application.

Rules to observe when using the mouse

1. Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface
2. Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two right most fingers
3. The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rests on the right
button. See diagram below.
Mouse terminologies and meaning

Terminology Meaning
Point Move the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen points on the item
Click Position tip of the mouse pointer over specified element, then press and
release the left mouse button once. Selects an object/icons, files in a list and
dialog box options.
Double clicking Pressing the left mouse button twice in quick/rapid succession. Expands
icons, starts applications, opens a file and chooses items from a list .
Right clicking Pressing the right hand side mouse button once. It displays a shortcut menu
or context sensitive menu, which apply to the right clicked text / item.
Drag and Drop Press and hold down the mouse button as the mouse is moved. Release once
the destination is reached. Through drag and drop, user drags an item from
one location on the screen to another, move windows, icons and resizes
windows.

Selecting items using the mouse

Item Using the mouse
Single item Click
Multiple sequential items Click first item, hold SHIFT key and click the last item.
Multiple non-sequential items Hold CTRL and click.

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The figure below emphasizes on mouse terminologies and actions:

Review questions 1.4

1) What is booting?
2) Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
3) What is the difference between function keys and special PC keys?
4) Explain the various categories of keys found on a standard keyboard.
5) Define the following terms:
a) Double clicking
b) Clicking
c) Drag and drop
d) Right click
e) Mouse pointer
6) What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?
7) Explain the correct procedure for shutting down of the computers in the computer laboratory.

Revision questions
1. Explain why smoke and dust particles are harmful to a computer
2. Explain the emerging trends in a microcomputer technology in relation to size.
3. describe the ideal environment for a computer to work properly
4. Explain the term system unit and name some of the components found in the system unit
5. What is booting? Explain what happens in the computer during the booting process.
6. State on reason why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power source.
7. Give two examples of special purpose computers
8. Why would it not be good to install water based fire extinguishers in the computer room?
9. Explain the following terms: clicking the mouse, right clicking the mouse, double clicking
the mouse
10. What precaution would you take in the computer room in case:
a) The humidity falls below normal for prolonged periods due to weather change.
b) Users complain of backaches after long periods of using the computer.
11. Classify the following keyboard characters
a) A, B, C, …Z
b) 0,1,2,…9
c) F1, F2, …F12
d) Del, Insert
e) Home, End, Page UP, arrow key

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 f) Ctrl, shift, Alt

2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Specific objectives
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to;
a) Describe a computer system
b) Explain the functional organization of the elements of a computer system
c) Describe input devices of a computer system
d) Describe the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
e) Describe the output devices of a computer system
f) Describe the types of secondary storage devices and media
g) Distinguish between power and interface cables
h) Explain basic computer setup and cabling
i) Distinguish between system software and application software
j) Evaluate the criteria for selecting a computer system.

Introduction
Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and peripheral devices that
are necessary to make the computer function. A computer is made up of two main components
Hardware and Software while a computer system has three namely: Hardware, software and
liveware (computer user).A system is a collection of different entities that collectively work
together to achieve a desired goal. Examples of systems are human body, social system, school
system etc.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware, software and liveware
entities that work together to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful
format using computers.

2.1 Components of a Computer System

The computer system consists of three major parts namely
i). Hardware
These are the physical or tangible components of a computer system, which one can touch and
feel/see. They consist of the mechanical , electrical and electronic parts of the system e.g monitor,
system unit, keyboard and mouse, etc.
ii). Software
Is a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. They guide the computer in each and
every activity that happens inside the computer during data processing. The programs are also
written to help the computer users perform various tasks using the computer. The software is
intangible, flexible and changeable in nature. They are mainly classified into two categories
namely system software and application software.
iii). Liveware (computer user)
Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize the computer
hardware and software as well as in participation in hardware and software selection.
Computer Hardware
The computer hardware is classified into four categories namely input devices, central processing
unit, output devices and storage devices.

2.2 Input devices

These are devices which accept data and send it to the CPU. The input devices have two tasks to
perform:
i). Read data from the medium from which it is stored
ii). Code it into a form that can be understood by the computer

Input devices are classified according to how they are used to enter data as follows:
1) Keying devices i.e. keyboard, keypad

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2) Pointing devices i.e. mouse, joy stick, light pen, track ball.
3) Scanning and other data capture devices
4) Speech recognition or voice input devices
5) Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

Keying devices

Keying or typing is the most common way to input data. A keying device converts typed numbers,
letters and special characters into machine readable form before processing takes place.
Keyboard and keypad
They enter into a computer by typing (pressing its keys). A keypad is a tiny keyboard which is
mostly used on small portable computers, calculators, mobile phones etc.
Common types of keying devices include:
Traditional keyboard : It is a full sized rigid keyboard as discussed in Chapter 1 of the
Handout.

Flexible / Rollup Keyboard: It is a more portable type of keyboard that can be folded and
packed into a bag. Rollup computer keyboards are extremely
good for traveling. Simply roll them up and then unroll them
when you need them again.  Typically the material is either
silicone or polyurethane. These devices are meant to be rolled
up, rather than folded, as folding can damage the circuitry.

Ergonomic Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic computer keyboards is a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic considerations

to minimize muscle strain and a host of related problems. An ergonomic keyboard is designed to
make typing easier and lessen the strain that your hands may suffer, such as "Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome".
Keypad : is a miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as PDAs, laptops, palm
notes, calculators and mobile phones, etc. keypad is a set of buttons
arranged in a block or "pad" which usually bear digits, symbols and
usually a complete set of alphabetical letters.
If it mostly contains numbers then it can also be called a numeric
keypad. Keypads are found on many alphanumeric keyboards and on
other devices such as calculators, push-button telephones, combination
locks, and digital door locks, which require mainly numeric input.
A computer keyboard usually has a small numeric keypad on the side, in
addition to the other number keys on the top, but with a calculator-style arrangement of buttons
that allow more efficient entry of numerical data. This number pad (commonly abbreviated to
"numpad") is usually positioned on the right side of the keyboard because most people are right-
handed.[1]

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 Many laptop computers have special function keys which turn part of the alphabetical keyboard
into a numerical keypad as there is insufficient space to allow a separate keypad to be built into the
laptop's chassis. Separate external plug-in keypads can be purchased. [1]

Braille keyboard: is an accessibility option for the blind. It consists of keys identified by
raised dots.

Advantages of keyboard
- Its very reliable compared to other methods of text input (voice input)
- Is very cost effective, since every computer comes with a keyboard and there are no additional
costs .

Pointing devices
Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer or cursor on the screen. Some examples pointing
devices include:- mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen, and stylus.
i). A mouse
Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen. Generally there are three types of
mice available in the market today namely mechanical, optical and cordless.
Mechanical mouse
It has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel located between the left and right
buttons.

The optical mouse

An optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to the
underlying surface, unlike wheeled mice which use a set of one
rolling ball and two chopper wheels for motion detection. It does
not have any moving parts.

Laser mouse
A laser mouse is a type of computer mousing device that uses a
laser beam rather than a ball to track the movement of the user's
hand. Laser mice are becoming increasingly common because
they are perceived to have better tracking ability

Distinguish between mechanical mouse, optical mouse and laser

mouse.

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 Optical mice make use of one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array of
photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, rather than internal moving
parts as does a mechanical mouse. A Laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (Laser)
light.

The difference between a regular optical mouse and a laser mouse is the light used to track
movement. A regular optical mouse uses an LED light in the optical engine, while a laser mouse
uses a laser to track movement. The more dots per inch (dpi) a mouse can track, the more sensitive
and accurate it is. A typical optical mouse tracks between 400dpi and 800dpi, while laser mice
track more than 2,000dpi.

Neither is really better; it all depends on your needs and preferences. Unless you're a gamer or a
graphic artist with a need for precise movement, you'll probably find a 2,000dpi laser mouse too
sensitive. Many gaming mice, however, allow you to switch sensitivity levels so that you have
precision when you need it but can revert to 400dpi or 800dpi for regular mousing.
Besides their tracking speeds, laser mice work on nearly every surface, whereas optical mice may
experience trouble tracking on black or shiny surfaces.
Cordless (wireless) mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves instead of
being physically connected to the system unit.

Uses of a mouse
- To select options from menus or from a set of icons by clicking the mouse button.
- To position the cursor when editing text or using design package
- To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or deleted.
Advantages of using a mouse
- Is easy and convenient to use
- It is inexpensive
- Most modern software includes an option to use it
- It selects a position on screen much more quickly than a keyboard
Disadvantages
- Cannot be used to input text easily, you need a keyboard to do that.
- It is relatively slow for selecting menu options
- Requires a flat surface to operate
- It is not accurate for drawing purposes
ii). Track ball
A track ball is like a mouse that has been turned upside down. The ball is on top, and the user
moves the ball without moving the mouse. The track ball does not require a flat surface to operate.
Question: State one advantage of using a track ball over a mouse. Answer: It does not require flat
surface or extra space to operate.

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ii). Joystick
Is a hand held device used for playing computer games and video games. It allows the fast
interaction needed in games. The user controls game actions by varying the pressure, speed and
direction of the joystick. Just like mouse, it has a button
which is used for selecting an item, issue commands or
trigger actions.

iii). Light pen and stylus

A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used in
conjunction with a computer's CRT TV set or monitor. It allows the user to point to
displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a similar way to a touch screen but with
greater positional accuracy. A light pen is a pen-like light-sensitive device, held in the
hand. It operates by sensing to the presence and absence of light through a light sensitive
cell at its end. A stylus on the other hand is used on touch sensitive devices such as PDA
screens that recognize commands or handwritten text.

Uses of light pen

- Are used as design aids
- Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad
Advantages
- Provide a direct mode of input
- More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
- Can only detect the presence and absence of light
- Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to sense special
hardware and software.
Touch pad

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 Scanning devices (Document readers)
Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital format. Scanning
devices are devices that capture data into the computer directly and are classified according to the
technology they use to capture data namely optical and magnetic scanners.
A). Optical scanners
Capture data using optical or light technology. A light beam passes over an object and the image is
analysed by a specialized software.

They are of three types

i). Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR detect marks made on a piece of paper using ink or soft pencil, by passing an infrared beam
of light over them.. The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. The OMR
converts the marks into computer readable data. The reader detects the presence and absence of a
mark on a form by sensing reflected infrared light.
Uses of OMR
- Are used to mark
multiple choice
questions, e.g. KCPE or
aptitude test.
- analyzing
responses to structured
questionnaires
- Insurance
premium collection
- Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets.
- Supermarkets for stock recording
- Payroll data entry
- Market research questionnaires
- Voter’s registration process

Advantages
- Has low error rate
- Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
- Economical where the volume of data is large
- Data captured at source, hence no data entry errors
ii. Optical Bar Reader (OBR)
These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying
thickness known as bar codes or universal product code (UPC).
Scan and translate a bar code into machine understandable mode.
Bar codes are lines of different thickness and are common on
consumer products and contain item information such as country

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 of manufacture, manufacturer and the product code. Bar codes do not have the price details
because prices vary from one place to another.

The two types of bar code scanners are the hand-held wand and desktop bar code reader.
Uses
- On labels and on shelves for stock taking
- Printed on shop goods e.g. supermarkets
- In libraries
iii. Optical Character Reader (OCR) or Image scanners
Is the most advanced type of scanner that works like the
human eye. It is used to read typewritten, computer printed,
or handwritten characters and transforms the images into a
softcopy that can be manipulated using a word processor.
Today OCR comes as integrated feature of more advanced
scanners called flat-bed scanners. Flat- bed scanners are
used to capture pictures and real objects.

Advantages
i). Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii). Its an easier method to use
iii). Document design is less complicated
iv). Characters can be read by people
Disadvantages of OCR
- Some optical scanners are expensive
- Handling precaution necessary e.g. document should not be folded or creased for accurate
reading.
Uses
- Sale order forms
- Stock taking sheets
B). Magnetic Scanners
These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been
written using magnetized ink or coded onto magnetic strip. They can also be said to use magnetic
technology to capture data.
Examples of magnetic scanners are:-
i). Magnetic-Ink Character Reader (MICR)
The MICR is also known as magnetic reader. MICR
recognizes characters formed from magnetic ink. The
document characters are typed or printed in ink containing
Iron II Oxide that gives them magnetic property. MICR is
used in banks to read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
- Its fast, accurate and automatic
- The codes are both machine and human readable.
- Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Disadvantages
- MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
- MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.
ii). Magnetic stripe recognition (magnetic card reader)
A magnetic card reader is used to read data coded on a magnetic strip on a plastic card such as the
one used on an automated teller machine (ATM) and credit card reader.
A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often at the back of a plastic card e.g. ATM card. The
stripe contains coded information of the holder.
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism of
tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card. The magnetic stripe,
sometimes called swipe card or magstripe, is read by physical contact and swiping past a
magnetic reading head.

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Applications
- On credit cards
- On bank cards e.g. ATM
- As tags on clothes
- As a phone card
- Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like employee’s details
- Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to buildings or rooms
- Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or exit from a car park.
Advantages
- Simple to produce
- Not easily damaged
- Stores fairly large number of characters
- Disadvantage
- Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields
4) Speech Recognition devices
Data is entered directly into a computer using voice input devices such as microphones. A
microphone is attached to a sound card which has an analog-digital converter. Speech recognition
software allows the user to issue commands using
natural language. The device recognize a limited
standard of spoken words via a microphone linked to a
computer system. A user must train the system to
recognize his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times. An emerging trend in voice
input is the inclusion of voice tag in cell phones that
allows the user to simply store and dial contacts.

Uses of speech input/recognition devices

- For people with special needs (disabilities)
- In language translator programs
- Voice tags for voice dialing
- Quality control and automation in factories i.e. speech input used to order robots e.g in
Japan
- Automated material handling whereby in airports, handlers speak the commands to direct
luggage on conveyor belts.
- House / car security using voice activated locks
- Electronic fund transfer
- Security and access control e.g. office security for room access, house / car security
Advantages
- No keyboards is necessary useful in situations where hands or eyes are busy handling
documents etc
- People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used.
- Can be used from remote locations via the telephone
Disadvantages
- Homophones: some words sound the same e.g. Fair & Fare
- Recognition is low
- Speaker variability

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 - Limited vocabularies
- Background noise can disrupt the data entered
Other input technologies
a). Touch screen
A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch
within the display area. The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with a
finger or hand in order write or select an item. The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing
behind it. When the user touches a location on the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared light
and the command touched is executed.

Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. Touchscreens are common in
devices such as all-in-one computers, tablet computers, and smartphones.

The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables one to interact directly with what is
displayed, rather than indirectly with a pointer controlled by a mouse or touchpad. Secondly, it lets
one do so without requiring any intermediate device that would need to be held in the hand. Such
displays can be attached to computers, or to networks as terminals. They also play a prominent
role in the design of digital appliances such as the personal digital assistant (PDA), satellite
navigation devices, mobile phones, and video games.

b). Digital cameras

A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both,
digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. It is the main device used in the
field f digital photography. Most 21st century cameras are digital.

Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen immediately
after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small memory device, and deleting
images to free storage space. The majority, including most compact cameras, can record moving
video with sound as well as still photographs. Some can crop and stitch pictures and perform other
elementary image editing. Some have a GPS receiver built in, and can produce Geotagged
photographs.
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form. Pictures are stored on a
memory card instead of a film. The digital image taken can be streamed directly into a computer,

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 uploaded to internet using a webcam or directly printed using a special photo printer. Are used to
take electronic pictures of an object. They are of two types:
1. still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs and another
2. a video digital camera that takes motion pictures.

c). Digitizers

A graphics tablet (or digitizer, digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing tablet) is a computer
input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way one draws
images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten
signatures. It can also be used to trace an image from a piece of paper which is taped or otherwise
secured to the surface. Capturing data in this way, either by tracing or entering the corners of linear
poly-lines or shapes is called digitizing.

A digitizer input by drawing using a sty

A graphics tablet (also called pen pad or digitizer)

consists of a flat surface upon which the user may
"draw" or trace an image using an attached stylus,
a pen-like drawing apparatus. [In computing, a
stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped
instrument that is used to input commands to a
computer screen, mobile device or graphics
tablet. With touchscreen devices a user places a
stylus on the surface of the screen to draw or
make selections by tapping the stylus on the
screen.[1]

Pen-like input devices which are larger than a stylus, and offer increased functionality such as
programmable buttons, pressure sensitivity and electronic erasers, are often known as digital pens.
[1]
]The image generally does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the computer
monitor. Some tablets, however, come as a functioning secondary computer screen [1] that you can
interact with images[2] directly by using the stylus

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A digitizer also known as graphic tablet, is made up of a flat surface and allows the user to draw an
image using a stylus. The image drawn does not
appear on the tablet but on the computer screen.
The stylus moves on the tablet and the drawing
is directly reflected on the screen. Digitizers are
used for tracing highly detailed engineering and
architectural drawings and designs.

Interactive whiteboard (smartboard)

An interactive whiteboard (IWB), is a large interactive display that connects to a computer and
projector. A projector projects the computer's desktop onto the board's surface where users control
the computer using a pen, finger, stylus, or other device. The board is typically mounted to a wall
or floor stand.

They are used in a variety of settings, including

classrooms at all levels of education, in corporate
board rooms and work groups, in training rooms for
professional sports coaching, in broadcasting studios
and others.

Is a large interactive display that connects to a

computer. The computer display is projected onto the
board’s surface, where users control the computer and
write using a pen or a finger. The board is typically
mounted to a wall or on a floor stand.
Smart boards are used in places such as classrooms,
seminars, corporate broad broadcasting studios

Factors to consider when selecting an input device

- Device cost
The initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed against the expected benefits and /or operational
characteristics of the facility
- Device speed
- Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with appropriate timing.
- Device accuracy
- Device reliability
- Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data processing system.
- Appropriateness: weigh out the merits and demerits of the device in relation to where it is
applied/used.

Review questions 2.1

1. What is a computer system?
2. Differentiate between a computer and a computer system.
3. A scanner used at points of sale terminals in supermarkets is an example of a ___________
scanner.
4. The automated input technique where keying of input data is eliminated is sometimes referred
to as __________.
5. The type of scanner used to grade multiple choice examination is called an _______.
6. Name three factors one would consider when selecting data entry method, and give a reason
why each is important.
7. Describe three different optical and two magnetic techniques used for input and give an
example of the use of each.
8. Explain how banks use MICR scanners for cheques processing.

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9. Describe two situations in which speech recognition devices may be useful as a method of data
entry.
10.Optical scanning of the Universal Product Code is now widely used as input method. Give an
example of a place where it is used and explain how it is used.

2.3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is also called the Processor or microprocessor is a tiny chip etched into a silicon chip. The
CPU is the most important component of the computer. This is because it is the portion of the
computer responsible for executing (processing) instructions stored in memory. Also all control
operations are coordinated here.
The CPU performs the following functions:
- Processing data
- System control
- Provide temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM)
- Runs the Operating System software installed on the computer, peripheral devices such as
printers, scanners etc.

In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit where its mounted on a circuit board
called the motherboard or the system board.

Functional units of the CPU

Regardless of size, a processor consists of three functional elements namely;
- Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- Control Unit (CU)
- The Main Memory (primary memory)

 Control unit
CU controls / coordinates all processing activities in the CPU using a system clock, which sends
electrical signals. The CU interprets instruction fetched from the Main Memory and sends control
signals to the ALU instructing it on how to execute instructions, issue control instructions to the
operating system, determines the operation to be performed by the instruction, where the results
are to be stored, and where the next instruction is located. The CU fetches data from the main
memory and puts it in the proper order for the processor. It also sends the processed results back to
the main memory. The CU also locates any data needed by the instruction and sees that the
instruction is followed.

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  Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations (the basic data transformation in a
microprocessor). Arithmetic operations include addition, multiplication and division. Logical
operations includes comparing two quantities or more numbers to determine which is greater or
equal to or less than the other. It also involves testing for existence of a condition encountered
during the processing of an application. The ALU carries out all the logical and arithmetic
processing on data as directed by Control Unit. It decodes the instructions and then processes the
data. Data to be executed by ALU is temporarily held registers inside the processor.

 Main memory
It is also called primary memory storage. It provides storage location for data and instructions
accessed by the control unit. The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main
computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it. This
memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion. That means any location of this memory can be
accessed by the CPU to either read information from it, or to store information in it.
o The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first is
called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is read only memory (ROM). A more
appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read Write Memory), the CPU can write and read
information from any primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of
primary memory is implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.

Its two main functions are:

i). Holding data just before and after processing
ii). Holding instructions just before and execution

Classification of Computer Memory

The different types of memories are

 Primary storage
 Secondary storage

The primary memory is used for temporarily holding data and instructions required immediately
by the CPU and contents are lost once the power is switched off. Secondary storage is used for
permanently storing information by the CPU and is not lost when power is switched off.

Primary storage Secondary storage

- Data can be processed directly from storage - Data cannot be processed directly but must be
moved into main memory first
- Located within CPU - Located outside CPU
- More expensive - Less expensive
- Lower capacity - Higher capacity
- Faster access time - Slow access time

Primary memory
Is of two types Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM).

A). Read Only Memory (ROM)

Used to store firmware from hardware manufacturers and/or programmed instructions and data
permanently or semi-permanently. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified
only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very

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 closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates). ROMs are used in
computers for permanent storage of instructions such as
- Power On Self Test (POST)
- The Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
- The bootstrap loader (the automatic program that finds and loads the operating system
program from disk) so that the computer has something to do when power is first applied.
NB: Ordinary users can’t change ROM.

Types of ROM

i). Mask Read Only memory (ROM)

Contents are written once by the manufacturer and cannot be changed afterwards.

ii). Programmable Read Only Memory(PROM)

Can be programmed directly by the user using a special PROM programmer. PROMs come as
blanks having nothing programmed or recorded on them. Once programmed it cannot be changed
therefore it allows user to program (write) it only once. After programming it assumes the
characteristics of Mask ROM..

iii). Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)

Is a special type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed again by exposing it to ultra-violet
light for 5 to 10 minutes, thus reducing the contents of all the memory cells to zero by discharging
them.
Advantage: contents can be erased and reprogrammed for another use.

iv). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity under software control and can
support selective modification of its contents. A BIOS chip found on a microcomputer’s
motherboard is an example of EEPROM..

v). Electrically alterable ROM

Can be read from and written to. However, since the processes are significantly different, the
EAROM can be called a “read-mostly” memory. in order to write into EAROM you require a
millisecond, while the read operation can be performed in microseconds. The application of
EAROM is limited to critical industrial and military applications.
Advantage:
It is non-volatile and does not require an auxiliary power source such as battery.
Disadvantage:
- Cannot be used as a general purpose read/write memory because it takes much time to write to
than read from.
- EAPROM has limited application only to critical industrial and military applications

Characteristics of ROM
- Can only be read and cannot be written to unless it’s a special ROM e.g EAROM
- Its non-volatile
- High bit density
- Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from manufacture although some can be
programmed according to users specification.
- Are intended for large production volumes

Disadvantages of ROM
- Are not cost effective because of large production volumes
- A ROM cannot be changed, once manufactured.
- Delay in production of the ROM.

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is mostly referred to as working storage. RAM holds the programs being run and the data
being used by the CPU at the current time. Its contents can be read directly regardless of the
sequence in which it was stored. RAM can be written to and retrieved from. RAM is the memory
used in large quantities in Main Memory and every computer must specify its size. Ram holds the
programs being run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time.

Characteristics of RAM
- Data can be read and written in it.
- It’s temporary (volatile) storage , its contents are lost/ disappears when the computer is
switched off.
- It’s contents is user defined.

Types of RAM

There are two types of RAM namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
i). Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM is a fast type of memory found inside a microprocessor.
Characteristics
- Stores a bit of information within a flip-flop
- It’s a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
- Its content does not require refreshment
- Its expensive
- Its very fast compared to DRAM
- Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache memory
- Used for smaller memories
- Has low packing density

ii). Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

The term dynamic refers to the tendency for stored charge to leak away, even with constant power
supply. Due to this DRAM requires periodic recharging referred to as refreshing to maintain its
data storage.
- Stores a bit of information in a charge and (a disadvantage) additional logic is needed for
refreshing the memory.
- It holds its contents for a short while even when the power is on. To maintain its content it
must be refreshed severally per second.
- Packing density is much higher than SRAM
- Is less expensive than SRAM

Disadvantages of RAM
- It is expensive Computer Memory
- It loses its mind when you turn the power off
- It is very difficult to archive information or pass it along to someone else, if everything is
kept in RAM.
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Summary of Computer memory

RAM ROM

MROM
SRAM PROM
DRAM Page 37 of 288
EPROM
EEPROM
EAROM
Special purpose memories

Are memories embedded in a microprocessor in order to enhance its processing speed and are
found inside the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories increase the overall
performance of data and instructions moving in and out of the CPU. They increase the hit ratio
(the availability of data and information when required) and reducing the wait time when the CPU
searches for data and instructions from memory. Slower memories like DRAM make the CPU to
wait longer when it needs data stored in them.

These memories include: Buffers, Registers and cache memory.

i) Buffers
Is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an I/O device.. Acts as
interface between very fast processor and slow input/output devices. Since the CPU is very fast
compared to the I/O devices, buffers provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free to carry
other activities instead of waiting for all data entered or information to be output. Input data is held
in the input buffer while processed data is held processed data is held in output buffer. Examples:
computer printers have buffers where they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for
printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the
background.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

{a buffer is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data while it is being moved from one
place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device
(such as a Mouse) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as Speakers). However, a
buffer may be used when moving data between processes within a computer. This is comparable to
buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be implemented in either hardware or software, but the
vast majority of buffers are implemented in software. Buffers are typically used when there is a
difference between the rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or
in the case that these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video
streaming.}

ii) Registers
Are high speed temporary memory locations within the CPU that holds data and instructions just
before and after processing in the ALU. They hold one piece of data a time and are located inside
the CPU. Registers are temporary memory units that store words. The registers are located in the
processor, instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster.
Types of registers
 Program counter (PC)
Holds the memory address of the instruction to be fetched next.

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 Instruction register (IR)
Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that CPU can understand
it.
 An accumulator (AC)
Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU e.g 3 + 4 = 7 is held in the
accumulator.
 An address register (AR)
Temporarily holds the address of the next piece of data to be fetched for processing.
 Storage register (SR)
Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and
main memory.

iii) Cache memory

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the
cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do

the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the

microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. (For example, the
PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a separate
static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.

In addition to cache memory, one can think of RAM itself as a cache of memory for hard disk
storage since all of RAM's contents come from the hard disk initially when you turn your
computer on and load the operating system (you are loading it into RAM) and later as you start
new applications and access new data. RAM can also contain a special area called a disk cache that
contains the data most recently read in from the hard disk.

Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a very high speed type of SRAM whose purpose is to
allow the processor to access data and instructions faster i.e. speeds up processing (fetch cycle).
There are three types of cache memory namely:
 Level one cache memory (called L1 Cache, for Level 1 Cache) is directly integrated into
the processor. It is subdivided into two parts:
o the first part is the instruction cache, which contains instructions from the RAM
that have been decoded as they came across the pipelines.
o the second part is the data cache, which contains data from the RAM and data
recently used during processor operations.
Level 1 caches can be accessed very rapidly. Access waiting time approaches that
of internal processor registers.

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  Level two cache memory (called L2 Cache, for Level 2 Cache) is located in the case
along with the processor (in the chip). The level two cache is an intermediary between the
processor, with its internal cache, and the RAM. It can be accessed more rapidly than the
RAM, but less rapidly than the level one cache.
 Level three cache memory (called L3 Cache, for Level 3 Cache) is located on the
motherboard.

All these levels of cache reduce the latency time of various memory types when processing or
transferring information. While the processor works, the level one cache controller can interface
with the level two controller to transfer information without impeding the processor. As well, the
level two cache interfaces with the RAM (level three cache) to allow transfers without impeding
normal processor operation.

What is virtual memory?

If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer may need to use
part of the hard drive to simulate more memory. This simulated more memory is called virtual
memory and allows the computer to continue operating but at much slower speed. Therefore a
virtual memory is simulated memory from hard drive which makes the computer operate at a much
slower speed.

If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to run a program or operation,
Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard disk. When
RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging file. Moving
data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to complete its work.

The more RAM your computer has, the faster your programs will generally run. If a lack of RAM
is slowing your computer, you might be tempted to increase virtual memory to compensate.
However, your computer can read data from RAM much more quickly than from a hard disk, so
adding RAM is a better solution.

Virtual memory and error messages

If you receive error messages that warn of low virtual memory, you need to either add more RAM
or increase the size of your paging file so that you can run the programs on your computer.
Windows usually manages the size automatically, but you can manually change the size of virtual
memory if the default size is not enough for your needs.

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent to a
single character, which can be numbers 0 – 9, letters A – Z or a special symbol e.g. a number 2341
has 4 bytes, while words ‘My school’ has 9 bytes.

Memory quantities can be expressed in:

1. Kilobytes (KB) – Approximately one thousand bytes (103)
2. Megabytes (MB) – Approximately one million bytes (106)
3. Gigabytes (GB) – Approximately one billion bytes (1012)
4. Terabytes (TB) – Approximately one trillion bytes (1024)

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 Overall organization of the CPU

The ALU, CU and Main Memory use electrical pathways or links called buses. A bus is an
electrical path for signal to flow from one point to another in a circuit. There are three types of
computer buses namely:

a). Control bus

This is a pathway for all timings and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other parts of
the system.

b). Address bus

This is used to locate the storage position in memory of the data to be executed or an instruction to
be decoded.

c). Data bus

This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.

Summary of the overall organization of the CPU

The central processing unit exchanges data with the main memory and input/output devices. The

control unit fetches data and instructions from the main memory then sends to ALU for execution
in a process called fetch execute cycle. The program counter (PC) holds the address of the
instruction to be fetched next. The fetched instruction is loaded into instruction register (IR). The
control unit interprets the instruction and directs the ALU to perform the necessary execution.

Processors
A processor consists of an inbuilt set of instructions called instruction set.

Types of processors
A microprocessor is a complete CPU where ALU and Control unit has been combined into tiny
single processor. The microprocessor chips use many different internal designs, and the chips vary
in appearance and capability.

Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are:

 Bandwidth: Which is the number of bits that can be processed by one instruction

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 Clock speed or Clock Rate: Which is the speed of the internal timer that determines how
many instructions per second the processor can execute. The internal clock regulates the rate at
which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The faster
the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute.
 Instruction set: is an inbuilt set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

There are two types/ classes of Microprocessors namely:

 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

- Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is the name given to types of processors that use a
large number of complicated instructions microcoded into the processor, to try to do more
work.
- Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is the name given to processors that use a small
number of simple instructions meant to do less work with each instruction but execute them
faster.

Processor Clock speed

Clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals 1 cycle (tick) per second. A
Hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles in a signal.
The clock/clock rate – refers to how many instructions per second the processor can execute.
Quantities of clock speed can be expressed in :
i) Kilohertz (kHz) : approximately one thousand hertzs.
ii) Megahertz (MHz): approximately one million hertzs
iii) Gigahertz (GHz) : Approximately one billion hertzs.
- Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz.

Summary of microprocessors and their clock speeds

Processor Year Manufacture Clock Speed & remark

1. Intel 8086 1978 Intel 5Mhz - 10Mhhz
2. Intel 8088 1979 Intel Like 8086
3. Intel 80186 1980 Intel 25 Mhz
4. Intel 80286 1982 Intel 6 – 12.5 Mhz
5. Intel 80386 1985 – 1990 Intel 16 – 33Mhz
6. Intel 80486 1990 Intel Upgradeable
7. Intel 80486 1990 Intel 60, 66, 75, 90, 100, 120, 133,
150, 166, and 200 Mhz
8. Pentium Pro 1995 Intel Used on 150, 166, 180 & 200 Mhz
servers
9. AMD K5 1995 AMD 75, 90, 100 & 116 Mhz
10. Pentium 1997 Intel 166, 200, and 233 MHz with
MMX MMX technology
11. Pentium II 1997 Intel Plugged on to Single-edge
contact (SEC)
12. AMD K6 1997 AMD 166-266 MHz
13. Cyrix 6x86 1997 Cyrix 150, 166, or 187 Mhz
14. Pentium III 1999 Intel 450MHz to 1.13 GHz
15. AMD Athron 1999 AMD 500Mhz to 2.33Ghz
16. AMD Duron 2000 AMD 600 MHz – 1.8 GHz
17. Pentium 4 Nov. 2000 Intel 1.4 Ghz to 3.2 Ghz
18. Intel Core 2 2006 Intel >1.6GHz x 2
Duo
19. AMD Athron 2005 AMD >2.0Ghz x 2
Dual Core

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 Review questions 2.2
1. What is the meaning of CPU.
2. Describe three functions performed by CPU.
3. What is a microprocessor
4. Explain the functions performed by :
a) the Control Unit
b) the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
c) the Main Memory
5. Define the terms: volatile memory and non-volatile memory
6. Define and explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
7. How many characters (Bytes) of data are held in each of the following memories? 4KB,
640KB, 16MB and 20BG.
8. Name three special purpose memories found either inside or outside the microprocessor, and
explain what each does.
9. In reference to arithmetic and logic unit, explain the meaning of logic operations and give an
example of this processing operation.
10. What is the difference between mainframe computers CPU and that of a microcomputer?
11. Explain the purpose of the system clock.
12. What is the meaning of BIOS, and what role does it play in a computer?
13. List three buses found in the CPU.
Practical activity
With the help of the teacher, find out the following:
1. The type of processor in one of the computers in your computer laboratory.
2. The clock speeds of all the computers in the computer laboratory.
3. What is the size of RAM in MB of the computer you are currently using?

2.4 Output Devices

An output device is a peripheral device that a computer uses to give out information produced after
processing. The most common types of output data include text, pictures, sound and video.

Types of output devices

Are classified as either softcopy or hardcopy.

Softcopy
Refers to intangible output displayed on the screen or listened to through devices like speakers.
Softcopy output devices include monitors, speakers, LCD Projectors and light emitting diodes.
Example of softcopy output devices:

A). Monitors (VDU)

Also known as Visual Display Unit or Screen. It displays information in form of text, pictures and
video on the screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.

Types of monitors
There are three namely Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and Gas Plasma
Display(GPD). Monitors that display sharp clear images are said to have high resolution.

CTR monitor

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 The screen is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape. A CRT monitor consists of a long
glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on the other end. The screen is coated with
tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate red, green and blue to make a pixel. The CRTs are too bulky
to carry around, consume a lot of power and are cheap to buy.

Flat Panel Display

Are Gas plasma and LCD
The screen is flat, they are portable, consume less power, comfortable to use, occupy less space,
are expensive and provides high quality output.

Examples of flat panel displays

(i). Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Are made from a tiny special liquid crystals that reflect
light falling on them from the environment. Are less
bulky, consume less power and have very little effect
on eyes. There are two technologies used to make
LCDs that is passive matrix and Active matrix. In
Passive matrix LCDs create images by scanning the
entire screen, requires little power and have poor
clarity. Active matrix use thin Film Transistor
technology (TFTs), consume more energy and offers
better clarity.

(ii). Gas Plasma

They use gas that emits light when electric current is passed through
them. They contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by
charged neon gas. Gas Plasma panels do not suffer from angle
distortion and the technology is popularly used in producing high
definition Tvs (HDTV) with large screens used in homes and
entertainment places.
Terms associated with computer display include:

Pixel: Picture elements are tiny dots which are used to form the images displayed on the screen. In
colour monitor, a pixel has three primary colours namely red, green and blue.

Colour depth: refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in
bits.

Resolution: is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or
bits. The higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence the clearer the

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images.
Refresh rate
Since the CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh
the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low fresh rate, images tend to flicker
hence causing eyestrain.

Display size: is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from top to
bottom left.

Video adapter

Also referred to as graphic adapter or video card. The

monitor is connected to the system unit through the video
port to a video adapter. The video adapter determines the
resolution and clarity of the monitor. Graphic Adapter /
Video card is a piece of circuit board plugged to the
motherboard that connects a monitor to a computer and
allows the computer to show images and text on its screen.

Examples of Graphic Adapters

- Monochrome Displays Adapter (MDA) which displays text only in one colour.
- Hercules Graphic Card (HGC) – displays both text and images in one colour.
- Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA) – displays text and images using up to 16 colours.
- Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) – displays text, graphics and video using 16 colours.
- Video Graphic Array (VGA) – offers at most 256 colours.
- Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – Offers over 256 colours with a minimum resolution
of 800 x 600 pixels.
- Extended Graphics Array (XGA) – Has a high resolution of 1024 x 768 and its popular with
17’ and 19’ monitors.
- Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA) has a resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels and is
popular with 19 and 21 inch monitors.
- Ultra Extended Graphics Array (UXGA) is the latest and has the highest standard.

Sound output devices

These devices produce sounds such as beeps, audio or digital. Speaker is an example of sound
output device. This output is in form of spoken words. Speakers are used to output sound from a
computer. Sound may be output inform of music, warning, video, interactive communication with
the computer or to give messages in emergency situations. Speakers can be external or internal.
Some computers have internal speakers like Compaq. An external speaker should be connected to
a sound card through the jacks on the system unit or on a multimedia monitor.

Sound output has the following advantages:

- No reading is needed
- Useful in situation where you can’t look at the screen or where you are too busy

Disadvantage
Not suitable for noisy situations
Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information.

Applications of sound output

- Learning Aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning
- Lift where messages are used to greet visitors and tell them the floor they are in.
- Emergency massages i.e. Public address systems, in cars when running out of petrol.
- Text speech translation for blind people.

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B). LCD Projectors (Data Projectors)
An LCD projector is a type of video projector for
displaying video, images or computer data on a screen
or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent of the
slide projector or overhead projector. Are used to
display output from a computer on plain white paper
screen like a wall or whiteboard. It’s actually a creative
and interesting technology way of presenting computer
output to an audience unlike traditional overhead
projectors.

C). Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

They are components (indicators) that display light when electric current is passed through them. It
is used mainly for warnings. Example: a red or green light displayed by the system unit to help
user know is ON or OFF, warnings given by motorists to indicate when overtaking or taking a
turn.

Hardcopy Output Devices

Hardcopy refers to tangible output that can be seen and touched and recorded on a physical media.
Hardcopy output devices are printers, plotters and facsimile (fax).

1. Printers
Produce a hard copy of information on papers. The printing mechanism determines the quality of
hardcopy. They are two types of printers namely impact and non-impact.

Impact printers
Impact printers print using striking mechanism, they strike the paper in order to form an imprint on
it. Impact printers are cheap to run, slow, use inked ribbons, produces multiple copies, uses cheap
technology, are noisy because of impact, produce low quality printout and print for long periods
without breaking down. They produce characters by using special light hammers with characters or
pins held on the printing head. When the hammer strikes on the head, character mark is stamped.
In impact printing, the printing head comes into physical contact with the stationery. An inked
ribbon placed between the stationery and the printing head element creates the imprints when the
printing head strikes.

Types of impact printers

i) Dot Matrix Printer
Has a set of pins which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper and provide character prints
in terms of dots.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Works like a typewriter and has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with
embossed characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required character and then
hit with a hammer on an inked ribbon against a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the letter.
iii) Golf Ball Printer

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 The character images are incorporated on the surface of a gold ball like Print head, which is either
rotating or pivoted.
iv) Drum printer
It provides one whole line print at a time. The characters are incorporated on circular bands that
move round the surface of the drum.
v) Chain printer
It’s an impact line printer that incorporates engraved characters printing slugs on a moving chain
or belt. The chain moves the character printing slugs at high constant speed past printing positions.

Non-impact printers
Are fast, use thermal and electrostatic principles, produces single copies, are costly due to
technology involved and quiet because of non-impact. They print using ink, toner catridge ,
thermal or laser mechanisms. In non-impact the printing head does not come into physical contact
with the stationery but by other means like thermal or electrostatic.

Types of non-impact printers

i). Thermal printer
Use heat principle to transfer characters onto a piece of paper. Work by heating solid ink which is
normally in wax or resin form to melting point then transferring it
onto the paper to form characters. A thermal printer (or direct
thermal printer) produces a printed image by selectively heating
coated thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly
known, when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The
coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an
image. Thermal printers are mostly used on point of sale terminals
to print receipts and bar codes. Thermal printers produce high
quality printouts. They are inexpensive alternative to inkjets.

ii).
Inkjet printer

Use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper, from tiny holes on the ink cartridge onto the paper.
A color inkjet printer may have two cartridges, one for
black and a tricolor that contains cyan, magenta and
yellow (CMY) compartments. The cartridge has nozzles
that do the actual spraying of ink on the paper

Advantages
- Are cheaper and produce better quality printouts
- Inkjets printers use smaller mechanical parts than
laser printers
- Provide inexpensive way to print full-colour
document.
Weaknesses
- Are slow
- Expensive to run because they require special type of ink
- An inkjet printout is easily gets smudged when water drops on it.

iii). Electrostatic printer

Uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a special paper

iv). Photo printers are special purpose printers designed to print photographs.

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v). Laser printer
Prints by passing laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum, just the same technology as
photocopy machine. As the beam hits the drum, it ionizes some regions which attract ink toner
particles. They are cheaper to run, faster, produce high quality printouts but are expensive to buy
than inkjets.

fig. laser printer and drum

Deference between impact and non-impact printers

Impact Non-impact
- Slow - Fast
- Cheaper - Costly
- Use striking mechanism - Use thermal or electrostatic
principles
- Noisy - Quiet
- Multiple copy production - Multiple copy production almost
possible impossible
- Use inked ribbon - Use ink cartridge or toner cartridge,
resin or wax.
Factors to consider when selecting a printer
- Initial cost and subsequent costs of maintenance
- Volume of printing expected
- Color printing colored laser printers are very expensive, so depending with the volume of
print one can decide to buy Laser or Inkjet.
- Nature of reports to be generated
- Range of capability for selected printers e.g. multiple copier, print styles etc.
- Interface with the computer system
- Speed: the speed of a printer is measured in Pages per minute

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- Quality of prints (print quality).

Plotters
These are output devices that are mostly used in engineering and architecture field for production
of graphical outputs e.g. diagrams, photographs, maps, architectural designs and such outputs. The
most common commercially available graph plotters are the Flatbed Plotter and Drum Plotter.

Review questions 2.3

1. Differentiate between softcopy and hardcopy.
2. What is the difference between CRT monitor and a flat-panel display.
3. Give three examples of flat panel monitors available in the market today.
4. Name four criteria used when selecting a printer.
5. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers and give two examples of each.
6. State one advantage and disadvantage of laser and inkjet printers respectively.
7. Give two advantages of sound output devices.
8. Karuri road construction company CKRCC) intends to buy an output device they can use to
produce road maps. Which device would one advice the company to buy and why?

2.5 Secondary (Auxiliary) Storage and Media

Are alternative long-term storage devices that are not part of the Main memory. These devices are
not directly accessed by the CPU and are not housed inside the system unit. Can be carried around
to be used with another computer hence the name removable storage devices and media. A drive is
needed in order to read and write data into the storage media. The data and instruction held in
these devices must first be moved into RAM before processing. They are used to store information
for longer period, data stored in them is permanent unless erased by user. Stores large volume of
data. Stored data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and programs.

What is a drive ?
A computer device for reading data from or writing data into a storage media e.g. a tape, or disk.
Types / examples of computer drives
- Hard disk drive (HDD) - Floppy disk drive (FDD)
- CD-ROM drive - DVD – ROM drive
- USB Port - Zip drive
- USB Port

You need device driver to use some secondary storage medias.

Device driver
A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to your
computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette drives, and so
on. When you buy an operating system, many device drivers are built into the product. However, if

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 you later buy a new type of device that the operating system didn't anticipate, you'll have to install
the new device driver. A device driver essentially converts the more general input/output
instructions of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand.
Examples of computer auxiliary storage devices
Magnetic tapes, floppy disks, cassette tapes, Hard disks, zip disks, jaz , Flash disks, video compact
disks (VCD), digital video disks (DVD’s), Punched cards, optical disks e.g CDs, LS-120 Super
Disks, optical card, optical tape.

Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

Can be classified in two ways by:
1. Portability as removable and fixed.
2. Technology used to store and retrieve data (magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and solid
state).

It is important to have a backing storage for long – term storage of data and programs and also
when there is limited storage capacity in the main memory. Backing store is a non-volatile
(permanent) memory outside the CPU such as floppy disks, CDs and USB flash Disks.

Characteristics of a Backing store

- Data is usually accessed using read/write heads.
- Access to backing storage is slower than main storage
- Are non-volatile i.e. the data is stored on the medium until it is deleted.

REMOVABLE STORAGE

Magnetic Disks
Magnetic storage media use magnetic technology to store data.

Tape Drives
Tape drives are another type of magnetic computer storage device. Instead of platters, the tape
drives use magnetic tape to record data. Tape drives are not commonly used in consumer
computers, but the low cost and reliability of tape drives allows them to be used by companies
making long-term backups. One major difference between tape drives and hard disk drives is that a
hard disk drive can read data from any part of its platters. A tape drive must read through the data
from start to finish, as the read/write heads cannot move to a specific part of the tape. Once the
tape drive reaches the data point, read speeds are faster than the average hard disk drive.

i). Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of mylar (plastic) coated with a thin layer of magnetic
material composed of iron oxide on which data can be stored using magnetic process. The tape
may be housed inside a plastic as a cassette or coiled around an open wheel. It uses serial access
where all proceeding data is read before the required data can be accessed.

Advantages
- Store large amount of data
- Light and easy to carry
- Effective when to store sequential files for batch applications
- High capacity and backup storage at relatively low cost

Disadvantages
- Slow due to sequential reading of data
- Wastage of recording surface because of Inter-block gaps left for stopping purposes.
- Easily distorted by environmental factors such as dust, moisture, humidity etc.

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ii). Floppy disks

Developed by IBM, floppy disks in 3.5-inch (89 mm), 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 8-inch (200 mm)
forms were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s to the 2000s. [1]
While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer
equipment, they have been superseded by data storage methods with much greater capacity, such
as USB flash drives, portable external hard disk drives, optical discs, memory cards, and computer
networks.

Are made of a
thin plastic disc
with a
magnetisable iron
oxide coating and
enclosed in a
plastic case.
Inscription of
data is done on
the magnetic
coating around the plastic. The floppy disk is inserted inside a floppy drive which has a read /write
that runs over the magnetized spots.
There are two types of disks:
 3 ½ inch has storage capacity of 1.44MB and 5 ¼ inch which has a storage capacity of
1.2MB.
 3 ½ inch floppy store more data and are better protected as opposed to 5 ¼ inch floppy.

Parts of a floppy disk

Recording window - used to read and write data to the diskette
Hub – used for rotating the diskette
Index (spindle) hole – assists in
rotating the diskette
Plastic case – protects the mylar
coated with iron oxide that stores
data.
Sectors – concentric circles where
data is written.

The structure of a disk platter

A block
Tracks
The surface is divided into tiny invisible concentric circles called tracks that store data. The tracks
are further divided into units called sectors. The area within the same track bound by the two

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 edges of a sector forms a block which forms the unit for the read/write operations. Data can be
written to and read from the disk.
Note:
To write data means to move it or copy it from the main memory to backing storage.
To read data means to move it or copy it from the backing store to the main memory.
Disks are direct access storage media.

Disadvantages of floppy disks

- Storage area is limited to 1.44MB
- Easily damaged
- Are short-lived
- Slow access time. Access time is the time taken to read the data from disk to the Main
storage.

Comparison of Floppy disk and Flash disk

- Size comparison of a flash drive and a 3.5-inch floppy disk

- Floppy disk drives are rarely fitted to modern computers and are obsolete for normal
purposes, although internal and external drives can be fitted if required. Floppy disks may
be the method of choice for transferring data to and from very old computers without USB
or booting from floppy disks, and so they are sometimes used to change the firmware on, for
example, BIOS chips. Devices with removable storage like older Yamaha music keyboards
are also dependent on floppy disks, which require computers to process them. Newer
devices are built with USB flash drive support.

Removable Magneto-Optical Storage

Magneto – optical media stores data both magnetically and optically. i.e write using magnetic and
read using optical beam. Some examples are: Zip, Jaz, HiFD and LS-120 Super disk.
i). Jaz Disk
Is a high storage floppy disk with a storage capacity of up to 2GB. They are read using an internal
or external jaz drive.

ii). Zip disks

Resemble floppy disk but are slightly larger and thicker in size. Have a storage capacity which can
hold up to 250MB. It is stable, inexpensive and easy to work Have either internal or externally
portable Zip drive. Are mainly used for backing up and archiving personal computer files.
currently zip are of 750mb.

iii). High capacity floppy disk: simply known as HiFD disk stores upto 200MB of data. HiFD
drive can also read the 1.44MB floppy disk.

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iv). Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks
Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks simply known as LS-120 Super disk. It resembles 3 ½ floppy disk
but uses optical technology instead magnetic technology to read data. It has a greater storage
capacity of 120MB and greater speed of data retrieval.

Fixed storage
Refers to storage devices that are housed inside the system unit. E.g. Hard disk.
NB: Some hard disks especially those in small computers such as laptops are removable.

v). Hard disk (Winchester)or hard drive

Hard Drives

 Hard disk drives are magnetic, non-volatile computer storage devices. A hard disk drive
stores data on two spinning platters inside the drive. The data is read with a read/write
head that uses magnetic technology to write the data. The non-volatile nature of a hard
disk drive means the data does not get erased when the drive loses power, as is the case
with random access memory. Desktop hard drives are 3.5 inches in width and the
equivalent laptop hard drive is 2.5 inches. Common hard drive speeds are 4200 RPM to
7200 RPM. Faster 10,000 RPM drives are available but not as common. Consumer drives
with capacities of one terabyte (1,000 gigabytes) are becoming more common as of 2010.

Care of hard disk

- Keep it away from smoke and dust
- Switch off the computer using the correct procedure to avoid crashing on rotating disks.
Advantages of hard disk
- It’s cheap
- Store very large volume of data
- Very reliable than floppy
- Does not deteriorate as floppy disks
- Has faster access time
Disadvantages
- Are usually fixed and cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
- They can suffer a head crash resulting to loss of data
- Are sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can corrupt the data stored
- They are inflexible i.e cannot be changed.

Care for magnetic and magneto-optical media

- Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields because the magnetically recorded data on
disk will be erased

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 - Keep them away from excessive heat because heat energy weakness magnetic media’s
ability to store data
- Do not drop magnetic media on the ground.
- Do not bend or fold magnetic media or put heavy weights on the to avoid breaking or
damaging them
- Do not touch the magnetic surfaces
- Do not remove media from drive when it sis still being accessible by the computer because
this may result in data loss.

Removable Optical storage

Data is written and read from using a laser beam.

Optical Disc Drives

 Optical disc drives are storage devices that use lasers to read or write discs. Optical disc
drives include CD, DVD, and Blu-ray. When a disc is inserted into an optical drive, the
drive's laser is focused on the disc by the lens on the drive. The laser reads the pits burned
into the disc and sends that data to the computer. Optical drives that can also write data
have a laser that adjusts the calibration of the beam to switch between reading and writing
functions.

Laser disks
Data is recorded using a very concentrated light (laser beam). They store very large volumes of
data. Data stored in them is more stable and permanent than the magnetic media. Examples are:
Compact disks (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), Optical Card and Optical tape.

i. Compact disk (CD)

CD is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminium coating on one side. They hold
large quantities of data and information, as much as 700MB.

Forms of CDs:
a). Compact Disk – Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
When data is recorded on them one cannot change or add anything on them. Mostly used to store
music recordings.
b). Compact Disk – Recordable (CD-R)
They are initially blank but with a CD- Writer (Drive), the user can record data, programs or
information on it. Once data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it i.e. it
becomes read only. Are coated with special dye which changes color to represent data when
burned using a laser beam.

Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they
allow the use to write (record) data on them once but read them many times.

c). Compact Disk – Rewriteable (CD-RW)

Data written to them can be erased (overwritten) and rewrite new information.

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 Digital Versatile Disk / Digital Video Disk (DVD)
Resemble CDs but have higher storage capacity of upto 17GB, approximately 26 CDs of capacity
640MB! Are suitable for recoding motion pictures like videos because of they offer better sound
and quality pictures. There are three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and
rewriteable DVDs.

ii. Optical card

Computer memory that uses optical techniques which generally involve an addressable laser
beam, a storage medium which responds to the beam for writing and sometimes for erasing,
and a detector which reacts to the altered character of the medium when it uses the beam to
read out stored data
Resemble MICR, but it has optically recordable stripe that store information. Mostly used in
Banking to store customer details.

Optical tape
An instrument used for video or computer data storage in which a laser optical head is used to
write digital information onto a tape. Depending on the size of the reel, the tape may be capable of
storing more information than an optical disc but has a much slower access time.
Similar to magnetic tape, but data is stored on it using optical technology.
Advantages of optical storage
- Have massive capacity - Secured i.e. it’s hard to copy
- Stores data permanently - High quality pictures and sound
- Accessing of data is fast - Portable
Disadvantage
- Expensive
- Costly hardware and software for reading
- It can break easily
- Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily damage them.

Solid state storage devices

Is a kind of non-volatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than mechanical,
magnetic or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state because they do not have moving

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parts but everything is electronic as the case of RAM or EEPROM. Examples include flash disks,
Flash pen drives and memory cards.

Memory cards
A memory card or flash card is an electronic flash memory data storage device used for storing
digital information. They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including digital
cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles. They are
small, re-recordable, and able to retain data without power.Memory Stick is a removable flash
memory card format

A memory stick

Flash disk
It is small in size but with massive storage capacity of as much as 32GB. Its more portable and
convenient to carry around than other secondary storage medias.

Advantages of solid state storage over other removable

- Are noiseless since they have no mechanical parts
- Offer faster access to stored data

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 - Are very small hence more portable

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

- Data stored on flash drives is impervious to scratches and dust, and flash drives are
mechanically very robust making them suitable for transporting data from place to place and
keeping it readily at hand. Most personal computers support USB as of 2010.
- Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In mid-2009, 256
GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more data than a DVD or
even a Blu-ray disc.
- Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts, and for
most capacities are small and light.
- Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern operating
systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The flash drives
present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating system, hiding the
individual complex implementation details of the various underlying flash memory devices.
The operating system can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers
can boot up from flash drives.
- Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or metal casing
designed to be waterproof and virtually "unbreakable". These flash drives retain their
memory after being submerged in water, and even through a machine wash. Leaving such a
flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known
to result in a working drive with no future problems. Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked
one of these flash drives with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic
liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company
specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to recover all the data on
the drive.[38] All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or
magnetic technologies, were destroyed.

Disadvantages

- Main article: Flash memory#Limitations

- Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of write and
erase cycles before the drive fails. [39][40] This should be a consideration when using a flash
drive to run application software or an operating system. To address this, as well as space
limitations, some developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as
Linux in Live USB)[41] or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to
run from flash drives. These are typically optimized for size and configured to place
temporary or intermediate files in the computer's main RAM rather than store them
temporarily on the flash drive.
- Most USB flash drives do not include a write-protect mechanism, although some have a
switch on the housing of the drive itself to keep the host computer from writing or
modifying data on the drive. Write-protection makes a device suitable for repairing virus-
contaminated host computers without risk of infecting the USB flash drive itself.
- A drawback to the small size is that they are easily misplaced, left behind, or otherwise lost.
This is a particular problem if the data they contain are sensitive (see data security). As a
consequence, some manufacturers have added encryption hardware to their drives—
although software encryption systems which can be used in conjunction with any mass
storage medium achieve the same thing.[citation needed] Most drives can be attached to keychains,
necklaces and lanyards. The USB plug is usually fitted with a removable and easily lost
protective cap, or is retractable.
- USB flash drives are more expensive per unit of storage than large hard drives, but are less
expensive in capacities of a few tens of gigabytes as of 2011. [42][43] Maximum available

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 capacity is increasing with time, but is less than larger hard drives. This balance is changing,
but the rate of change is slowing.

Review questions 2.4

1. Distinguish between primary memory and secondary storage devices.
2. Distinguish between removable and fixed storage
3. Compare three types of removable disks i.e. Floppy, zip and jaz disks in relation to size.
4. What is a hard disk? How does it differ from the floppy disks?
5. Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term of storage
capacity and mechanism.
6. Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term of storage
capacity and mechanism.
7. What are the advantages of a digital versatile disk over a typical compact disks.
8. Define the term multimedia and list down the components required to make a computer
multimedia.
9. Why are CD-ROM and CD-R referred to as WORM?
10. Describe the different between magnetic and optical storage media.
11. Jets publishers is a company that specializes in production of news papers. One of the
editors wanted to transfer a 50MB document from the hard disk of one computer to another
using removable storage media. Give four examples of the devices he/she could use.
12. Describe three precautions you would take to avoid damaging the hard disk.

2.6 Power supply and peripheral device Interface

Computer Port

Is a special kind of connector (socket) on the system unit usually at the back which a cable from an
external peripheral device e.g. mouse, keyboard etc is plugged to facilitate transfer of information.

Power cable

They supply power to the device. Power cables connect the computers power supply unit to mains
outlet.

Power supply and adapter

Power supply unit is a special unit inside the system unit that
supplies power to the motherboard and other internal devices.
Computers are connected to AC power while internal components
require DC power. The work of a power supply unit and adapter is to
convert AC to DC.

Peripheral device interfacing

Interface cables: Transmit data signals. Connect the device on one end, and to the motherboard
via ports on the other end.

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Parallel interface

A parallel port is also called the Centronics port and the

computer refers to a parallel port as LPT1 (Line Printer One).
Parallel cables transfer data in parallel 8-bits at a time using a
set of many conductors. Parallel ports (the 25-holes, D-shaped
holes) mainly connect printers, scanners, portable CD-ROM
drives, tapes and network adapters. Parallel cables transmit data
faster over short distances.

Serial interface and ports

The serial port is also called COM1 or COM2 and sometimes COM3 and COM4. Can also be
referred as RS-232 port. Serial interfaces have 9-pins.
Serial cables transmit data 1-bit at a time. Are generally
slower than parallel cables. Allow for two way
communication ( i.e. communication to and from the
computer and the device connected to it), whereas parallel
cables offer one-way communication. Serial interface is
widely used for many interconnections like connecting of
computers to external modems and some mice. Serial ports
are more reliable than parallel ports for long distances.

Comparison between parallel and serial cables and ports

Serial cable and port Parallel cable and port
- Transmits 1-bit at a time - Transmits 8-bits at a time
- Slow - Fast
- Connect modems, a mice & keyboards - Connect printers, scanners, network
adapters etc.
- Ports consist of 25-pin and 9-pin - Ports consist of 25-pin D-shaped holes
- More reliable for long distance - More reliable for short distances
- Allow two way communication - Only one way communication

VGA port

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This is where monitor is connected to LCD projectors. It is shaped like a letter D with 15 holes and
colour coded in blue.

Universal serial bus (USB) cables and ports

They transmit only 1-bit of information at a time at a very high speed than parallel cables.
Provides quality data transmission over long distance. It has become the standard connectivity for
most of the peripheral devices from printers to mobile phones. It can be used to connect as many
as 127 peripheral devices to a computer. To use USB port, the devices should be specifically made
to work with the USB. There are two types of USBs namely low speed USB 1.1 and a relatively
faster high speed USB 2.0

Advantage of USB cable & ports

- The USB port allows connection of many different types of devices such as printer, modem,
mouse, keyboard, digital cameras etc.
- USB allow devices to be daisy chained on it i.e. plug a modem into the port, and then plug a
keyboard into the modem, then plug a printer into the keyboard to use .

Firewire ports

Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than USB. It is
mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

- They transmit data in parallel but are faster than parallel cables. Its ports allows connection
upto 7 peripheral devices. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI, is a set of standards
for physically connecting and transferring data between

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 computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, and
electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives,
but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives. The SCSI
standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the presence of "unknown"
as one of these types means that in theory it can be used as an interface to almost any device,
but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward commercial requirements.

Other Ports and Connections

Infra-red and bluetooth

Infrared is a wireless interface that uses infrared to connect to infrared-enabled devices. Used for
wireless communication between the CPU and a device which is infrared –
capable e.g. cordless mouse as shown in the diagram below. Infrared, also
to as infrared data association (IrDA), uses the infrared waves to transmit
data. Infrared-enabled devices must be at a line of sight of infrared rays in
order to transmit data.
Bluetooth is a wireless interface that uses short range radio broadcast to
connect any Bluetooth-enabled device. It just broadcasts a radio signal
within the surrounding. Any Bluetooth device when turned on will be
detected.

Personal System 2 (PS/2 Port)

Also known as mini-DIN connectors. Is used to connect the mouse and keyboard

D-type ports (Video graphics array (VGA)

The two most common connectors used for monitors or video are the 9-pin D and the 15-pin Hi-D
connector. The 25-pin port can be used for both serial and parallel devices. When used to connect
serial its labeled COM1 or COM2 and only 10 of its pins are used. For parallel its labeled LPT1 or
LPT2.

Centronic ports

This is a parallel port that uses metal clips mounted into cells in place of pins.

Audio ports (connectors)

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Are jack plugs used to connect speakers, microphone and other portable audio equipment.

Modem port
Used for plugging an external modem into the computer.

2.7 Basic Computer Setup and Cabling

The basic computer system consist s of the system unit, monitor, keyboard and mouse.
The following precautions should be observed before attempting to carry out any setup activity.
1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them to prevent
electrical shock.
2. Follow teachers instructions strictly when working on any peripheral device
3. Never work alone because you may need help incase of an emergency.

Tools and materials required

- Screw drivers
- Pliers
- Motherboard
- Manufacturers manual
- Required peripheral devices
- Dismantled system unit
- Power and interface cable.

Connecting external devices

To connect external devices to the system unit identify its port and interface cable.
Components connect to the system unit via the ports at the back of the computer. The mouse and
the keyboard connect via the PS/2 ports. The monitor connects via the 15-holes port on the video
card. Some printers via 25-hole port or USB port.

Each of the components will have a cable attached with a connector at the end that will plug into
the appropriate port on the back of the computer. The mouse, keyboard and optionally the monitor
are powered by the power unit within the system box. The monitor may have its own power
source, in which case it will plug directly into the mains power supply. Check the power ratings at
the back of the computer before connecting to power supply. In Kenya it should be 250 volts. The
system unit may connect to UPS.
(i) Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each devices to the correct port and to
the device if it is not fixed permanently.
(ii) Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
(iii) Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether Power On-Self – Test (POST)
displays any error message.
(iv) A successful boot means that the computer was properly set.

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Though computers are connected to AC power outlet, internal components require DC power.
Desktop PCs use Power Supply Unit while portable computers use adapters to convert AC to DC

System Components Interconnection

The basic microcomputer system consists of the motherboard, the power supply unit, hard
disk drive, floppy disk drive, I/O interface card, optional CD-ROM drive, disk controller card,
video card, and optional sound and network interface cards. These components are housed in the
system unit (case).

Mounting internal devices

While external devices are connected to the motherboard through ports, internal devices are
connected through slots and sockets.

Mounting hard drives and optical drives

Internal devices are connected to the motherboard using special ribbon cables. Hard disks and
optical drives are connected to the motherboard through controllers. Three types of controllers
are ;
- Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE)
- Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
- Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

SATA and EIDE are more efficient and supports hot – swapping,. Hot-swapping means that a
drive can be removed or inserted while the computer is still on. EIDE controller supports up to two
drives on a single ribbon cable attaining a master/slave configuration because the controller directs
activities of both drives.

Installing floppy drives

There is no master/slave configuration for a floppy drive, you can attach two floppy drives in the
same ribbon cable. One floppy drive will be automatically assigned A while the other drive will
be B.

Review questions 2.6

1. What are the safety precautions to be observed before one starts installing devices in the
system unit.?
2. In relation to cabling, give two reasons why a printer may not print work sent from the
computer as expected?
3. Naliaka connected new multimedia speakers to her computer and tried to play her
favourite music CD but no sound came out. What might have been the problem?

Computer Software
Computer software refers to a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. The
computer software can be classified into three ways according to purpose, acquisition and End–
user – License (EUL).

Classification according to purpose

Computer software is classified into two main categories:
- System software
- Application software

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 1) System software
Manages the operation of the computer itself, and makes sure that the computer works efficiently.
It enables the user to communicate with the computer and its hardware e.g. mouse.

Example of system software:

i). Operating system: It’s a set of programs that control and supervise the hardware resources of a
computer during processing. Examples are: Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT,
Macintosh OS, OS/2, CP/M, VMS, UNIX, MS-DOS

ii). Firmware: also referred to as stored logic, It’s a combination of both hardware and software
etched on a single silicon chip which accepts and interprets external commands from the user.

iii). Utility software: also called service programs, is software that provides support to the
application software. It performs commonly used services that make certain aspects of computing
to go on more smoothly. Can also be defined as special programs used to enhance performance of
the system.

Functions of the utility software

- Formatting disk s
- Repairing diskettes
- Renaming files
- Sorting files
- Copying and deleting files
- Repairing damaged files, etc.
Examples of utility software:
system level, application utility, program translator, settings editor, test editor, sort editor, graphics
editor, file manager, calculator, time, backup utility, recovery utility, compress/decompress utility,
defragment utility, antivirus utility, diagnostic utility, sound player utility, internet browsing
utility, calendar utility.

iv). Networking software: It’s used to establish communication between two or more computers by
linking them using a communication channel e.g cables to create network. Also it enables
computers and other peripheral devices connected on a network to communicate and share
resources. Examples: Novel Netware and Linux

2) Application Software (Application Packages)

Are designed to help the end - user to accomplish specific tasks.
Application software are classified according to purpose and acquisition
Classification according to purpose
Application software can be either a general purpose or special purpose software. The general
purpose software such as word processors, spreadsheets, database and presentation software are
packaged and made available for general use.
Special purpose applications such as DTP, video editing and photo editing software are used to
carry out specific tasks.

Examples of application software are:

1. Word processor – for typing documents like letters e.g. Ms Word, Lotus, Word Pro,
WordStar
2. Database – for keeping records e.g. Ms Access, Dbase, FoxPro, Paradox
3. Spreadsheets –for calculations e.g. Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro.
4. Desktop Publishing (DTP) – designing publication like cards, pamphlets, magazines e.g.
Adobe PageMaker, Ms Publisher
5. Computer Aided Design – for technical drawing e.g. AutoCAD
6. Graphics software – for designing and manipulating graphics e.g. Corel Draw, Adobe
Photoshop.

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 Summary of computer software

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Application Software
System Software

Word processor
Operating system Spreadsheets
Firmware Database
Utility software Desktop Publishing Computer
Networking software aided design
Graphics software

Classification according to Acquisition

An application software can be either in-house developed or an off-shelf software.
a). In-house developed (Custom program/ bespoke/ tailor – made / standard software )
These programs are designed/tailored to meet specific needs within the organization. e.g in banks
for managing their operations, airlines for booking, school for grading and test analysis etc.

b). Standard software (off the shelf) packages

These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and made available for purchase
through a vendor or directly from developer e.g Microsoft office. Off-the –shelf software are
widely used because;
It takes less time to assess company’s needs, buy and install them
They are less expensive to acquire and maintain
They are readily available for almost any task
They are thoroughly tested before being released hence less chances of errors
Easily modified to meet specific user needs

Disadvantages
May not meet special needs
They are not as efficient as user made programs
When changes occur extra costs is usually needed from user
Not all packages are compatible with all computer system
They may have some features not needed by user which may take extra storage
c). General purpose software – are not written to solve any particular problem, and can be used
in different ways depending on the problem to be solved

Classification according to End – User Licence (EUL)

Software may be classified as open source(non-proprietary), proprietary or freeware.
Open source software – is a software whose source code (programmed set of instruction) is freely
made available to users. Users are encouraged to modify and distribute the modified product.
Proprietary software – are software whose source code is hidden from users. Modifications can
only be made by the software manufacturer. They are licensed to users at a fee or applied freely.
Examples are; Microsoft Operating Systems, Microsoft Office, Adobe PageMaker and CorelDraw
suit.

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 Freeware are software products that are freely made available to the user. Some may be malicious
software.

Review questions 2.7

1. Differentiate between system software and application software.
2. What is the importance of an operating system?
3. Give five examples of standard software over in-house programs and integrated software?
4. What are the advantages of standard software over the in-house developed software?
5. What is the difference between single-purpose programs and integrated software?
6. Why do computers need network software?
7. Give three examples of operating systems?

Criteria for Selecting a Computer System

Hardware considerations
i). Processor type and speed
The price of a computer is dictated by the type of microprocessor installed and its clock speed. A
good computer must have high processor speed of over 4GHz

ii). Memory capacity

Should have a sufficient memory to handle the heavy applications that require a lot of memory
space in order to run. A computer with at least 128MB of RAM is recommended. Memory
capacity dictates the operating system and the application that can run efficiently on the computer.

iii). Warranty
The hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be guaranteed for a specific period of
time. Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and
conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction
A good warranty should cover the following:
o Duration e.g. six months, one year, etc. the least warrant period should be at least 1 year.
In most cases, the longer the warranty the better the hardware.
o How comprehensive is the warranty? Does it cover all the parts of a computer?
o Whether the warranty offer onsite support, so that you don’t need to take the computer
back to the seller / manufacturer in case something goes wrong.
o Call-out response and liability agreement e.g. how long should the supplier take to repair a
fault or replace the product and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
o Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service at intervals etc.

iv). Cost
The cost of computers is related to the size and additional components that may come with the
computer. The cost depends on:
- Its processing capability
- Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their
equivalent clones because of the reliability and good after sale services
- Its size – portable computers are more expensive than desktops because of the superior
technology involved to manufacture smaller computer components without losing
performance abilities.
Do market survey from magazines, newspapers and electronic media or visit a number of vendors
to compare prices to enable you purchase genuine components at a reasonable cost.

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 v). Upgradeability and compatibility
Buy a computer than can easily be upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. NB: You
upgrade an existing computer when you either add to it a new device or memory or when you
replace one or more of the computers processor or peripheral device with its faster equivalent.
E.g.
- Replacing a 1GHz processor with a 2.4 GHz processor, a 1oPPM laser printer with a
16PPM laser printer
- Increasing RAM from 64MB to 128MB, 10GB hard disk drive with 20GB.
Some older computers cannot support large had disks or USB devices (USB and firewire) in the
market today, hence difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer in
circulation.

vi). Portability
Look for a computer that you carry with you incase you wish to access your computer and files
wherever you are. Smaller devices enhance portability.

vii). Special User needs

Focus around the unique user needs for buying the computer system e.g. a point of sale (POS)
terminal is most suitable for record transactions in the supermarket, physically challenged,
consider buying voice input devices.

Other considerations
- Monitor
Your choice of monitor may depend on size, resolution and technology used to make it. Currently
flat panel displays are replacing CRTs.
- Multimedia capability
Refers to the ability for as computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures.
Multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and SVGA monitor. Also a
software that supports multimedia capability.
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity, and the system unit form factor
(whether tower type or desktop).

Software Considerations
Authenticity
This is genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item. Software is an intangible product, and its
quite easy to pirate software (make illegal copies of software). When purchasing software, get the
original software that will be supported by the developer’s license and certificate of authenticity.
This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which are an offense.

Documentation
It includes user manuals, trouble shooting and installation guides as well as on-line help. A good
software product must be accompanied with these documentations.

User needs
It must meet users need e.g. if the user needs to type documents most often would go for a word
processor.

User friendliness
This is how easy the users can be able to operate the computer. The ease of use of a program will
(most likely) influence whether the user will prefer it or not.

System requirements

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Are basically the hardware specifications required to run a particular program and are usually
indicated on the package e.g. you need a minimum of 16MB of RAM to run an Access Dbase, but
32MB is recommended. The system requirements will usually include the amount of Ram, Hard
disk space, monitor type, processor type and peripheral.

Cost
Software tend to be more expensive than the hardware. The cost of acquiring software product
must be carefully considered before acquiring it against the benefits that it is likely to bring. The
cost of software is a major contributing factor in deciding whether to purchase it or not. It is
usually cheaper to purchase general purpose software if it can meet the users need.

Compatibility and system configuration

Software compatibility refers to the ability of a computer to run the software depending on the
system setup (configuration). The new package should read and process files created by the
existing package. When upgrading software the upgrades are backwards compatible e.g. Ms
Access 2000 can convert MS Access 97 files to Access 2000 format and use them. It often does
not work the other way round e.g. Ms Access 2000 file cannot be opened in Access 97.
Therefore, a software product must be compatible with the existing hardware, operating system or
application programs and should be readily upgradable.

Portability
Software portability refers to ability of a program to be copied or installed in more than one
computer. Data is said to be portable if it can be transferred from one application to another in
electronic form. Most software’s in the market are portable.

Reliability
Good software must be reliable and secure.

Review questions 2.8

1. What factors would you consider before purchasing a new computer in reference to:
a) Hardware
b) Software
2. Why is it important to carefully study a warranty before committing yourself by signing it?
3. Do you need to do window-shopping before you actually buy your computer or any computer
accessory? If yes, explain why.
4. Using newspaper cuttings such one shown below prepares a requisition form for ten up to date
multimedia computers to be used in the computer room.

FULL MULTIMEDIA, PENTIUM 4,

128 KB Cache, 2.8 GHZ, 256 MB
RAM, 40 GB HDD, 14’SVGA

Review Questions 2. Give examples of special purpose

1. Write the following abbreviations in memories found in the CPU.
full:
a) CPU 3. What do the following abbreviations in
b) ALU relation to storage capacity stand for:
c) CU a) KB
d) ROM b) MB
e) RAM c) GB

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 4. Describe the various video cards used in 8. Describe the structure of a hard disk in
computers. reference to cylinders, tracks and sectors.
5. Differentiate between MICR and OCR 9. What are pixels? What role do they play
scanners. in screen display?
6. What is the market name given the most 10. Explain the steps you would follow to
recent types of processors? set up a new computer
7. Explain the internal mechanism of the
hard disk in reference to disk platters and the
read/writer head.

3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM

3.1 Definition:
What is an operating system? An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the
program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all
the other programs in a computer.An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that
manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software.
Is a group of programs that manage all activities on the computer.
Main program that controls the execution of user applications and enables the user to access
the hardware and software resources of a computer.
A program that controls the execution of an application programs and acts as an interface
between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.

The operating system provides a software platform on top of which other programs (application
programs), can run. Examples of Operating Systems: Microsoft Windows
95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT, Macintosh OS, OS/2, CP/M, VMS, UNIX, MS-DOS

3.2 Devices under the control of an operating system

i). The processor
The CPU can only execute one program at any one time and several tasks may require processing
hence creating competition. The OS decide which program will be performed and for how long. It
has also the ability to stop a particular task to allow the processor to service another one.

ii). Main memory

The OS must keep track of what parts of memory are in use and by who and what parts are free.
The OS determines which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and which one will
be sent back to secondary storage to wait.

iii). Secondary storage devices

The OS keeps track of the information on the storage devices and controls how the information is
written to and read from the storage device. It also utilizes the free space on hard disk by
temporarily holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some
time.

iv). Input / output devices

Since the input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS will control allocation of I/O
devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts which arise. It will too monitor the state of each I/O
device and signal any faults detected.

v). Communication devices and ports

The OS controls the overall communication process between various tasks and computers. These
devices include modems, network interface cards, etc, which connect via ports.

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 3.3 Functions of Operating System
Operating system basically consists of two main parts namely;
Shell – the outer part of an operating system used to interact with operating system
Shell is a computer program that simplifies the interface between a user and the operating system
by allowing the user to pick from a set of menus instead of entering commands

Kernel – (the key portion of operating system). kernel is the core of a computer's operating
system that resides in the memory and performs essential functions such as managing and
controlling the processor, main memory, storage devices, input devices, output devices,
communication devices, files and allocating system resources

i). Processor/ job Scheduling(CPU)

Processor scheduling refers to allocating each job waiting for execution processor time at each
given interval. The processor can only handle one task at a time. A job is a group of tasks taken as
a unit of work for a computer which may include one or more computer programs, files and
instructions to the Operating System. The [OS] scheduler decides which of the jobs is allocated to
the CPU for processing first.

ii). Resource control and allocation

Includes controlling the use of computer resources by other system software and application
programs being executed. The resources include I/O devices, CPU and processing time. The OS
strives to avoid deadlocks by allocating resources wisely to tasks or programs that are competing
for them. Each device has unique identification number called an interrupt number. So when two
tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher4 priority interrupt is granted
control. Deadlock is a situation where a particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to
release it for use by other tasks.
Analogy: John has a pen but needs a book to write on while Mary has a book but needs a pen to
write with. Neither of the two wants to release whatever they have for the other to use first. Hence
a deadlock occurs because neither is able to write.

iii). Input / Output management

The OS coordinates between I/O devices and other peripheral devices making sure that data flows
properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion. It will also monitor the state of I/o
devices and signal any faults detected. It also governs the input/Output of data and their location,
storage and retrieval.

iv). Memory management

Since data and instruction entered into the computer are temporary held in the main memory
before and after processing. Since RAM is a scarce resource, the OS determines which task
remains in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be kicked out back to secondary
storage.
The OS organize the main memory into partitions called page frames. Processes are equally
divided into pieces that can fit into the frames called pages. The OS swaps pages between the
main memory and the secondary storage. and ensures that each program and the data it requires are
allocated adequate space in memory To access data or instruction, the OS knows where to find
each piece of data as long as the correct address of the partition is used. In the hard disk where
pages are held is referred to as Virtual memory.

v). Communication control and management

The OS manages various communication devices and provide protocols that governs
communication between devices on a network.

vi). Error handling

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 The operating system alerts the user of errors that may arise out of illegal operations, hardware or
software failure. The OS deals with errors produced during program execution by expressing what
the error is and provides the error correction routines to ensure smooth operations within the CPU.

vii). Security
Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorized users cannot get
access to a computer or network resource.

viii). Job sequencing

The OS keeps a list of tasks currently being run and arranges them in a particular order to make it
easy for the processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch instructions and data
for each task. i.e. clocks them in and out of the processor.

v). Interrupt handling

An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. The OS
determines the cause of the interrupt and transfer the control to the most appropriate program.
An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task, and do something else
before returning the control back to the program that was interrupted. Each hardware device
communicates to the processor using Interrupt Request Number (IRQ number) which is a special
number.

To display the IRQ

1. Click start button then select control panel
2. Double click Systems icon to open
3. In the system properties dialog click Hardware tab and select the Device manager option from
the system properties dialog.
4. Click view and select in the drop down list Resources by Connection then select IRQ. Click +
sign on the left of the IRQ to display in a tree structure of the devices.

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 3.4 Types of Operating Systems
Operating system can be classified according to:

a) Number of users
i). Single user OS
Used only by one person and runs one user application at a time.
ii). Multi-user OS (multiprogramming)
Enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously. Examples are UNIX, Linux ,
Windows XP, Novell, OS/2, Windows 3.11, Windows NT & Windows 2000.

b) Number of tasks
i). Single program/tasking OS
Allows processing of only one program in the main memory at a time e.g Ms – DOS.
ii). Multitasking OS
The OS allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at a time e.g. Windows Vista, XP,
etc.
c) Interface
i). Command line
User interacts with a computer by typing a command at the dot prompt found on a command line.
The computer reads the typed command at the command line and executes it. Examples of
command line OS are Ms-Dos, UNIX and OS/2. To apply: Click Start menu>All
Programs>Accessories>Command Prompt.
For example you can copy a file called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy disk A type the
following at the command prompt:
COPY C:\ FRUITS.DatA:\
This interface is hard to learn or remember the commands, they cannot process complex graphics
and they hardly make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.

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ii). Menu driven
Allows the user to select commands / options from a list or menu using keyboard or pointing
device e.g. mouse. The use needs not to remember commands since is represented with choices.

iii). Graphical user interface

Enables the user to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and other options by
pointing and clicking at objects icons or pictures that appear on the screen. Besides menus, GUI
make use of rectangular frames called windows, graphical objects called icons, most commands
are executed using a pointing device. These features are given an acronym WIMP which stands for
windows, icons, menus and pointer. Examples GUI operating systems include Microsoft Windows
95/98/2000/XP/Vista, MacOS and Linux.

3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

Hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and
hard disk capacity
The type of computer in terms of size and make.
Basic design of the computer is it IBM Compatible or Apple Computer.
Applications intended for the computer
User friendliness of the operating system, GUI will be preferred.
Cost of the operating system
The documentation available
Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based OSs are very common.
Reliability and security provided by the OS– can it run without crashing or hanging. Hanging
is to stop responding to commands.
The number of users it can support

Review Questions 3.1

1. Give examples of two multi-user operating systems.
2. Describe four functions of operating system.
3. What is an interrupt?
4. Name and explain four types of human computer interfaces.
5. What are the advantages of GUI based operating system over the command-line?
6. Differentiate between Multitasking and Multi-user operating system.
7. Outline the factors you would consider if you were to buy an operating system.
8. What is deadlock in reference to the operating system?
9. Outline the factors you would consider if you were to buy an operating system.

3.6 How an Operating System Organises Information using

Introduction:
Some of the OSs from Microsoft Corporation which is a software company are: Windows
95/98/2000/NT/Me/XP/FD/VISTA. Others which are not from Ms Corporation are Linux, UNIX,
Mac OS and OS/2.
The following factors dictate how an Operating system organizes information:
Rapid aces - the organization should allow quick access of stored data.
Ease of update - the method should allow ease of update and the operating system should be able
to keep a record of the date of modification.
Economy of storage – the method should use the least storage possible because memory is a scarce
resource.
Simplicity of maintenance – the method should enable quick navigation through the file system
and make it easy for it to be maintained.
Reliability - the file organization method should be reliable.
Windows organize information in three tier hierarchy i.e;
o Files
o Folders and subfolders
o Drives.

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1. File
It’s a collection of related data or information given a unique name for ease of access,
manipulation and storage on a backing storage and stored in one location a. A file has details that
indicate:
- A unique name and an optional extension
- Its size, date and time the file was created or modified.

Types of files
There are three are types namely; system, application and data files.
 System files : contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
 Application files: these files hold programs or application files that are executable.
 Data files contain user specific data.
The are some file extension;
Extension File type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft Word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad or DOS editor.
.exe Application file The file that launches a particular application e.g. PM
7.0 .exe, Winword.exe, etc
.bat System files File containing a series of commands loaded during boot
up.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operation in a
computer.

Function of file
- Storage of data
- Organization of information

2. Folder / Directory
It’s a named storage area where the user can store related files for easy access. All folders or
directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The root directory
is represented by a back slash (\).
Sub-folder is a folder or directory within another folder/directory. In Windows folders and sub-
folders icon appear in yellow colour while file icons are mostly white with a fold at the top right
hand corner.

File icon

Folder icon
All folders or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The
root directory is represented by a back slash ( \ ).

3. Drives
The Operating System views storage media or devices as drives. When creating folder or saving a
file identify a storage location which is more reliable e.g Floppy disk, Compact Disk, Hard disk,
Flash disk etc. Drives may be given labels such as letters A-Z to identify them.
Storage location Drive Remarks
Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two drives, one will be assigned letter A the
other B.
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they may be assigned letters C
– F.
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD

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 drives, may take any number between D and Z
Other Removables D, E, …Z If a computer does not have an optional drive, any removable
drive attached to the computer can take any letter between D
and Z.
Network drive Logical Network drives takes D – Z depending on the number of
physical drives installed or attached.

3.7 Getting started with Microsoft Windows

Windows Desktop
Desktop is mostly an empty screen that appears when windows starts, and has some standard icons
that show that the computer is ready for use.

Desktop features
Icons – are small images representing objects such as files, application programs, peripheral
devices, operator tools in programs, etc. Are manipulated using pointing devices. Examples icons
on the desktop are My Computer, Recycle bin, Internet Explorer, My Documents, Antivirus, etc.

The task bar

A long bar that runs across the desktop. Enables the user to switch between programs and
documents (tasks) that are currently running.
It has three main parts:
Start button: Left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start menu.

Task manager: Plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running tasks.

System tray: Right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of the tasks running in the background
but are not displayed on the screen e.g. Time and Calendar etc. To display the task simply double
click its icon.

Task Manager System Tray

Start Menu

The Start Menu

When you click the Start button, a Start Menu appears which a list of choices is. When you click
any choice in the Start Menu, the list of choices displayed is called Sidekick Menu.

Sidekick
menu

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Start Menu
Common Start Menu Items:
All Programs – which displays a list of all programs installed in the computer.
My Recent Documents – which lists the last 15 recently accessed files.
Control Panel – provides tools which user can use to maintain and make changes to the computer
setup.
Control panel – provides options for you to customize the appearance and functionality of your
computer, add or remove programs, and setup network connections and user accounts.
My computer – give access to, and information about, the disk drives, cameras, scanners and
other hardware connected to your computer.
Search –opens a window where you can pick search options and work with search results incase
the user forgets file or folder name or its location.
Help and support – opens a central location for help topics, tutorials, troubleshooting and other
support services..
Run – enables the user to: Install programs on the hard disk, open files and folders from a storage
location, and Run programs from removable media. It also opens a program, folder document or a
web site.
Log on / log off: Log on is a security measure that restricts unauthorized users from accessing
computer resources. It prompts the user for a User name and Password in order to gain access.
After using the computer Log off the computer before leaving.

Review Questions 3.2

1. Explain the following mouse 4.Why is it important to first shut down
concepts: the computer before you turn it off?
a) Click 5.Explain how you would move the
b) Double click taskbar to the top of the desktop.
c) Drag and drop 6.With the help of the teacher and a
computer running Windows, customize the
2. Define the following terms: taskbar such that:
a) Desktop a) The start menu is displayed in small
b) Icon icons.
c) Sidekick menu b) The clock is not displayed.
d) Taskbar c) The taskbar is hidden.
3. List and explain the three parts of a d) A program is added on or
taskbar removed from the start menu

3.8 Managing Files and Folders

Windows Explorer
Lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or trees structure. The explorer divides
the window into two panes.

The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of files and
subfolders contained in a particular open drive or folder.

Fig. above shows the Windows Explorer window

To display Windows Explorer, Right click Start button then click Explore from short cut menu or
Right click My Computer icon then select Explore.

Creating a folder
1. Display the Explorer window
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new
folder e.g Local C

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 3. From File menu, click New then select Folder. A new folder with a temporary name
Newfolder appears on the right pane.
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press enter key.
Note: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the location.

The application window

Title bar
Menu bar

Toolbar

Work area

Status bar

Parts of an application window

Title bar – displays the name of the current application program or task.
Menu bar – provides a drop down list of commands that can used to manipulate tasks.
Toolbars – are buttons of commands arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu commands.
Work area – is the working area where you can create your documents.

Creating a new file

To create a file for a specific application program installed in your computer proceed as follows:
a. Display the Explorer Window
b. From the From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create
a new folder e.g. Local C, 3 ½ etc
c. From File menu, click New then select the Application Program e.g Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel Worksheet etc. . A new file with a temporary name of the application appears
on the right pane.

d. Type a new name for the file to replace the temporary name then press enter. To work in the
file double click and the application program opens, as shown in the figure below.

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NB: A file can be contained in a folder or subfolder and subfolder and a file can be contained in
the same folder.

 Renaming Files and folders

Renaming is changing the original name to a new name.
To rename right click the file or folder icon then select rename. Type a new name to replace the
existing.

 Sorting files and folders

Refers to organizing files and folders in a particular way. To sort select the location, or folder then
in the View menu select Arrange Icon by option to choose either by name, size, type or date
modified.

 Deleting files and folders

When you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporary held in the recycle bin. Recycle bin is
a special folder which temporarily holds items deleted from the hard disk.
NB: Items deleted from removable storage devices are not held in the recycle bin and are
completely lost. Don’t attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.

To delete file or folder

In the folder tree, right click the file or folder and then select delete from the shortcut menu.
NB: Holding down Shift key as you command delete, the deleted file or folder is completely
discarded bypassing the Recyclebin folder.

Restoring deleted files and folders

 double click the Recycle bin icon
 select the deleted items to be restored
 Click File then Restore or right click each item individually then select restore in the shortcut
menu.
 The restored items are automatically restored in their location and application programs.

Emptying the recycle bin

This is completely discarding files and folders deleted to free up disk space occupied. To empty
right click the recycle bin and select empty option.

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 To empty the recycle bin
- In the folder tree or on the desktop select the Recycle Bin icon
- Right click then select empty option from the shortcut menu
- click Yes if prompted to confirm deletion of the files

Copying and moving files and folders

Copy or cut commands are used to create a duplicate of an item or move it respectively. Copying
is duplication of files and folders tom another location. Cut or Copied items are temporarily held in
temporary storage called Clipboard.

To copy/ move a file or folder

 Display the Explorer Window
 From the From the folder tree right click the file or folder and select copy / cut then on the left
pane right click the location in which you want to copy or move the file / folder.
 Right click the location then select paste

Manipulating files and folders by Drag and Drop

 To copy file/folder – Hold down Ctrl key while you drag the icon to the new location.
 To move file/folder from one location to another just press down the mouse button and drag
 To delete any file or folder drag it into the Recycle Bin.

Searching for specific files and folders

Incase you are not sure where you stored or the name you gave a file or folder, use the search
menu.
(i). Right click Start, point to Search then click For Files or Folders.
(ii). In the Search dialog box, specify the search criteria
(iii). Click the Search button.

Review Questions 3.3

1 Define the following terms:
a) Click
b) Double click
c) Drag and drop
2 Distinguish between system files and application files
3 Describe the two functions of a file
4 In reference to Windows operating system, what does the term application window mean?
5 Explain each of the following commands used to manage files and folders
a) Rename
b) Sort files
c) Copy
d) Move
e) Delete
6 Of the five commands in Question5, which two must be used with a lot of caution when
manipulating files?
7 Briefly explain the importance of each part of a window
8 Why is it important to give descriptive names to file or a folder
9 Draw a directory tree showing how files and folders are organized by an operating
system.
10 Explain how you would:
a. Minimize
b. Close and exit an application window.
c. Move a window from one location to another .
d. Access the folder/the directory tree.

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 3.9 Disk Management
 Formatting a disk
It is the creation of tracks and sectors in a new disk in preparation for use. It can also be referred to
as writing tracks and sectors on a disk to make it ready for data storage. Other devices which are
not disks can also be formatted to create a file system. Formatting a new disk enables the OS to
recognize it for reading and writing data.
Formatting process of 3 ½ floppy
- Insert the unformatted disk into floppy drive
- Double click my computer icon
- Right click the icon 3 ½ floppy
- Select the capacity 1.44MB
- Give label and click start to begin formatting
- Click close once the process is over

 Partitioning
Process of dividing the physical disk into two or more logical drives. Each partition is treated as a
separate drive installed on its own partition.
Reasons: to install more than one Operating System and for the purpose of backup. Windows
2000/XP allow up to 4 partitions on a single physical drive while Ms Windows 98/Me Operating
System allows a maximum of one primary and one extended partition .

Choosing a file system

Before partitioning a disk, you need to decide how files are stored on each partition. The following
file systems are used on Windows operating systems:
 File Allocation Table (FAT) is primarily used in MS DOS and Windows 95.
 File Allocation Table 32 bit (FAT32) is primarily used in Windows 98 and Me.
 New Technology File System (NTFS) is primarily used in Windows NT, 2000, XP, 2003
and Vista.

Partitioning a disk using NTFS

Ms Windows 98/Me startup disk has an FDISK utility that lets the user partition andformat a disk
using FAT or FAT32 file systems.

To partition a disk:
(i). Reboot the computer using a start up disk
(ii). Type FDISK at the command prompt. Select yes to partition the drive using the FAT32. the
FDISK screen is displayed.
(iii). Choose ‘create a DOS Partition or logical DOS Drive.”
(iv). Restart the computer once more using the startup disk
(v). Format each partition by typing Format <drive letter>
Note: partitioning a disk in Windows 2000, XP, 2003 and Vista is done during installation
process.

 Compressing files, folders or a drive

Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they occupy on a drive; compressing a
drive decreases the amount of space used by all of the files and folders stored on that drive (i.e
creates more space on a disk by squeezing files into a smaller storage location on the disk). This
results to reduced performance and therefore it is not recommended unless your computer cannot
accommodate a large capacity disk.

To compress a disk:
 In My Computer window, right-click the drive
 Click Properties, then the General Tab
 Check “Compress drive to save disk space”.
 Click OK. Another dialog box is displayed.

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 Click OK to apply changes.

 Defragmentation
Arranging of scattered folders and files on a storage media for easy access. Disk Defragmentation
can also be referred as the process removing the unused spaces on the disk caused by repeated
deletion of small file or insertion of large files onto the disk.

To defragment a disk:
 In My Computer window, right click the drive
 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties.
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools Tab
 Click Defragment Now. Disk defragmenter window is displayed
 Select the volume to defragment

Fragmentation is the condition of a disk in which the files and folders are scattered.

 Disk clean up
Is the process of detecting and removing files on the hard disk drive that may no longer be needed.
Disk cleanup frees and improve the system performance.

 Backing up data
Creating copies of data and programs on separate storage areas to avoid losing of data and
programs incase the storage device fails, gets lost or crashes (permanent destroyed).

To back up data from Hard disk:

 In My Computer window, right click the hard drive
 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools tab
 Click Backup Now.
 The backup wizard guides you through the process

 Scanning storage media

This tool helps the user to check up and repair minor storage problems like damaged storage.
To scan a drive
 Right click the device icon in My Computer window then select Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, select the Tools Tab
 Under the Tools Tab, click Check Now
 In dialog box, select a fix disk option then click Start.

 Scanning for viruses (malware)

Malware are harmful programs deliberately intended to make a computer fail or malfunction.
Three common types of malicious programs are Viruses, Trojan horses and Worms. Scanning is
checking your system for viruses and removing them. A computer must be installed with the latest
antivirus program such as Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky and AVG.
To scan for viruses right click the storage media then select Scan for Viruses option if an antivirus
software is installed.

 Startup (boot up) disk

Is a floppy disk that was created using the operating system and it has booting instructions. It is
used for minimal bootup in case a computer fails to load an operating system

To create a Startup Disk Using Windows XP

- insert the floppy right click My computer icon then select format. In the dialog box displayed
select Create an Ms – DOS Startup Disk option then click start.

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Review questions 3.4
1. Define the following terms as used in disk management
a) Formatting b) Partitioning c) Compressing
d). Defragmenting
2. Explain how you would format a used disk in Windows.
3. You have realized that your floppy disk is limited in storage space and you would wish to
create more space.
a) Which tool in Windows would you use.
b) Write down the procedure of doing (a) above.
4. Explain how you would create backup using Windows back-up using utility.
5. When you switch on your computer, and realize that it is not loading the Operating System.
This means that you have to boot up your computer using a startup disk.
a). What is a startup disk
b). using a new diskette, create a Windows Startup disk and label it Windows –System Disk. (the
dashes represent the version of Windows you are using).
6. Why is hard disk partitioned?
7. Explain how you can partition a 30GB hard disk into 2GB partitions.

3. 9 Installing Windows Operating System

Before installing an operating system, read the manual, Readme or html file provided in the disk
that comes with the operating system. The documentation contains details of the minimum
hardware requirements a computer must meet.
 The OS must be installed into the computers hard disk before installing any other program.

Definition of installation: Process of copying program files onto the hard disk.

Installation differs from copy paste process in that it is specifically meant to copy executable files
in a format that allows the computer to run the program.

Installation Process of Windows XP

Most of the Windows operating system comes on CD-ROM, were you must boot the computer
with CD-ROM support in order for the computer to recognize the CD-ROM Drive. The computer
BIOS should be setup so that the computer boots from a CD/DVD first.

To start the installation process:

1. Insert the CD/DVD ROM into the CD/DVD drive
2. Turn on the computer. The installation process proceeds from the booting steps to the
CD/DVD installation phase.
3. Partition and format the drive into either FAT32 or NTFS file system
4. Windows XP copies all the files into the hard disk
5. Windows XP will reboot and take you through the installation process.
6. Accept the End User Licence Agreement (EULA) then product key. Invalid key activation
may display unauthorized product key message.
7. Configure network settings if the computer is on a network. Windows XP will successfully
beinstall4ed and you may be required to setup user accounts and connect to the Internet for
updates.

Trouble Shooting Windows Related Problems

Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing and trying to fix (resolve) hardware or software
related problems.

Some problems may crop up after installing Windows Operating system like failure to boot or
function properly due to hardware, malware, improper installation or missing system files,
computer hangs now and then, abnormal restarting, etc.

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The problem may be due to one of the following:
1. Invalid system disk: this error may occur if the drive configured as the active partition no
longer contains essential systems files required to load the operating system.
2. Missing operating system files such as CONFIG.SYS, HIMEM.SYS AND Autoexec.bat
may result in boot failure. If the files have been deleted reinstall the OS or start up a
computer using startup disk.
3. Corrupted system registry – registry is the Windows database that keeps details about all
system and application programs installed in the computer. If the registry is corrupted, the
computer may fail to boot. Repair the registry using emergency repair disk or restore the
registry backup if you created one or reinstall the OS.
4. Failure to load the GUI desktop – may be due to infection by malware, missing or corrupted
display drivers. If the system can start in Safe Mode, scan for viruses or locate the
malfunctioning device in the Device Manager and disable it.
5. Windows protection error – is displayed during startup before GUI is loaded. It occurs when
the 32-bit virtual driver fails to load. Restart the computer in safe mode. If the OS loads
properly, use the Device Manager to reinstall corrupted or missing drivers.
6. Runtime problems – may be characterized by the system’s failure to respond to command,
behaviour commonly referred to as hanging. Use the restart keys Ctrl + Alt + Del to display
the Task Manager and try to close the non-responding applications. If this fails, shutdown
the computer and turn it on again.
7. Insufficient system memory
8. Problem with hard disk boot sector, may be due to virus attack/infection. Scan with the
latest antivirus software

NB:- You can read more information on troubleshooting and fixing an operating system related
problems by reading the online help and support utility.

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Answers to Review Questions

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Review questions 1.1
1) A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input, also referred to as data, and
transforms it under the influence of sets of special instructions called programs to produce the
desired output referred to as information.
2) Monitor, system unit, mouse, keyboard, etc.
3) a) A supercomputer is large and has more processing power and memory than a mainframe.
b) A minicomputer is large in physical size and more powerful than a PC .PC was designed to be
used by one person only.
4) A digital computer processes discrete data while an analog computer processes continuous
data.
5) a) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
b) Convenience because of their portability.
6) Special purpose (dedicated) general purpose.
7) B 8).C 9).A
10).C 11).B 12).D
13).D 14).C 15).A
16).D 17).A, C and D 18).C

Review Questions 1.2

1) First-vacuum tubes
Second - Transistors
Third-integrated circuits
Fourth-very large integrated circuits
2) Supermarket, airport, hospital, offices, banks, industries etc.
3) a)large in physical size
b) used vacuum tubes
c) Produced a lot of heat
d) Consumed a lot of power.
4) Charles Babbage
5) Programs that make computers to mimic human intelligence.
6) ENIAC-Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator.
VLSI-Very Large Scale Integrated.
IC- Integrated Circuit.
8).Supermarket-Stock control
Hospital-Life support machines
Bank-Processing cheques
Hotel-Booking rooms
Home-Entertainment
School-Analyzing academic data
Industry-Manufacturing process control
Police station-Matching fingerprints

Review Questions 1.3

1. C 2. B 3.C 4. B 5. C
6. A 7.D 8. A and B 9. D 10. A

Review exercises
1. Dust and smoke settles on storage devices scratching them during read/write operation.
2. PCs are becoming small and portable e.g. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
3. Free from dust, water, magnets, well ventilated rooms, medium humidity, etc.

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4. This is the casing that houses the CPU and storage devices. Components in the system unit
includes CPU, Motherboard and storage devices.
5. Starting up a computer. Internally it first checks whether all the components are in good
working condition then loads the operating system.
6. To avoid damage and loss of data.
7. Mobile phones, calculators, robots etc.
8. Water causes rusting of metallic parts and short circuits if used.
9. Clicking-pressing and releasing the left mouse button once.
Double clicking-pressing the left mouse button twice in a quick succession. Double clicking
usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right clicking-pressing the right mouse button once displays a list of commands from which
the user can make a selection. This list of commands is called a shortcut menu or context
sensitive menu. It is called a context sensitive menu because the commands on it apply to the
right-clicked item.
10. (a) Install humidifiers in the room,
(b)Improve furniture to avoid bending when using the computer.

2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEM

Review questions 2.1
1. A computer system refers to a collection of entities that work together to process and
manage information.
2. A computer is made up of both hardware and software while a computer system integrates
hardware ,software and user
3. Barcode reader
4. Data capture
5. Optical mark reader (OMR)
6. a). The users need
b). Type of data to be input
c). Volume of data entry
d). Cost, availability, e.t.c.
7. (a) Optical- OMR ,OBR and OCR.
(b) Magnetic-MICR and Magnetic strip.
8. Special magnetic characters are written on cheques that can only be detected by
MICR reader.
9. (a) For people with special needs (disabilities)
(b) In language translator programs
(c)Voice tags for call dialing
10. Supermarkets and superstores. To capture prices of goods from bar codes.

Review questions 2.2

1. Central processing unit.
2. (a) Processing data
(b)System control
(c)Provide temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM)
3. It is a tiny processor, mainly a combination of the ALU and control unit on a single silicon
chip.
4. a) (i) Interpreting instruction,
(ii) Issuing control instructions to the O/S
b). (i) Performing arithmetic calculations,
( ii)Performing logical operations.
c). i) holding data just before and after processing,
(ii) holding instructions just before execution.
5. volatile memory is temporary while non-volatile is permanent
6. RAM – temporary and rewriteable memory
ROM – permanent and read only memory

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7. 4KB – Approximately 4000 characters
640KB –approximately 640,000 characters
16MB –approximately 16 million characters
20GB –approximately 20 billion characters
8. Cache memory – speeds up processing (fetch cycle)
Buffer – acts as interface between very fast and processor and slow I/O devices.
Register – temporarily holds data / instructions just before and after processing.
9. Comparison include: =,<, >, and < >
10. The CPU of a microcomputer is smaller and less powerful than that of a mainframe
11. Determines the processing speed of the CPU
12. Basic Input Output System – holds hardware setup and configuration information.
13. Data bus, address bus and control bus.

Review questions 2.3

1. Hardcopy – printed copy, e.g. printout on paper like letters, while softcopy is intangible
information, e.g. screen display or music.
2. CRT monitor uses a cathode ray tube while a flat panel does not. CRT has protruding back
while flat panel does not.
3. a). Liquid crystal display (LCD)
b). Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
c). Gas Plasma
d). Electroluminescent (EL)
4. Cost, print quality, availability, speed, purpose and print technology.
5. Impact printer – print by striking mechanism and are noisy e.g. dot matrix and daisy wheel
Non-impact printer – print by either laser, ink or thermal transfer mechanism e.g. laserjet, inkjet
and thermal printers.
6. advantage of:
Laser printers – cheap running cost, good print quality.
Inkjet printers – cheap to purchase, cheaper multiple colours printing, high quality print.
Disadvantage of :
Laser printers – expensive to purchase, expensive multi-colour printing
Inkjet printers – expensive to buy cartridges (run), water based print easily fades.
7. a).Enable reception of output even when a few meters away from computer
b). Makes computing interesting and entertaining.
c). Suitable for the blind and people with poor sight
8. A plotter – it draws lines and big charts.

Review questions 2.4

1. Primary is accessed directly by CPU while secondary is not.
2. Removable are portable while fixed are mounted inside the system unit
3. Floppy – physically small in size and capacity.,
4. It is a hard magnetic platter used to store data and encased in a metallic housing (casing). It
differs from a floppy because it is metallic, shiny and non flexible.
5. a). It is large in storage capacity
b). more reliable
c). Faster access to data and information
6. CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RD, LS-120, Superdisk, DVD, Optical card, optical tape.
7. a). DVD has a larger storage capacity than CD
b). Offers better data storage quality
8. multimedia is an integration of sound, video and text processing and output.
Components – optical drive, speakers, sound adapter, VGA monitor.
9. Write Once Read Many (WORM) – recorded once but can be accessed many times without
changing content.
10. Magnetic – data recorded using magnetism.
Optical – data recorded using a beam of light (laser)
11. Jaz, Zip, Flash disk, CD-R, CD-RW.

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12. a). Do not drop the disk drive
b). Do not expose it to strong heat
c). do not expose it to dust/smoke particles
d). Do not unprocedurally switch off the computer.

Review questions 2.5

1. a). special socket for connecting peripheral devices
b). Cable for data transmission
c). Cable for power supply to devices
2. To supply stable power to system unit internal devices and the motherboard.
3. Parallel cables transmit several bits simultaneously while serial transmits one bit at a time.
4. a). It is light
b). it offers fast transmission
c). Its serial nature enable it to connect devices a longer distance away
d). The USB port can be used to connect different peripheral devices due to its common universal
interface.

2.6 Review questions

1. a). Disconnect all devices from power source before attempting to work on them.
b). Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher
c). Never work alone because you may need help incase of any emergency
d). Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on your hands touching an earthed
metallic object and then wearing an antistatic wrist member.
2. a). loose printer interface cable
b). Printer still off
c). Printer not installed
3. a). Volume control too low
b). Loose or improper connection to the sound card
c). Speakers not powered
d). Multimedia not supported
e) Absence of analog cable connecting the optical drive to the motherboard or sound card.

Review questions 2.7

1. System software performs fundamental operations like initializing hardware during boot up
while application software meets user specific needs.
System software – operating system, firmware, utilities.
Application software – word processor, spreadsheets etc.
2. Supervises all the hardware and software operations of the computer system.
3. a). Word processor – typing documents
b). Spreadsheets – calculations
c). Database management systems – record management.
d). Desktop publishing – creating and manipulating images.
e). Graphics software – creating and manipulating images.
4. a). Standard software is thoroughly tested hence few errors
b). Readily available
c). Easily portable
5. Single purpose software is developed for only one purpose while integrated software is a suit of
more than one programs and can be used to carry out a variety of tasks.
6. To enable communication between computers over a channel (media)
7. UNIX, Windows, DOS, LINUX, Mac operating system

Review questions 2.8

1. a). Cost, compatibility, upgradability, warranty, memory capacity, portability, user needs,
processor type and speed.
b). Authenticity, documentation, user friendliness, cost, compatibility, portability.
2. In order to negotiate on sensitive items like duration, after sales service etc.

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3. Yes, in order to compare quality and prices.

Revision questions
1. a). Central Processing Unit
b). Arithmetic logic unit
c). Control unit
d). Read only memory
e) Random access memory
2. Cache, registers
3. a). Kilobyte b). Megabyte c). Gigabyte
4. MDA, HGA, EGA, VGA and SVGA
5. MICR uses magnetic technology to read magnetic characters while OCR uses laser technology
to read characters.
6. Pentium processor
7. The drive is made up of several disks platters that are mounted on a common axis with
read/write heads on both sides of the platters. The heads move in and out as they write/read data.
The outer case is hard and metallic.
8. The hard disk is divided into concentric circles called tracks. Parallel tracks on several platters
are called cylinders. The tracks are further subdivided into sectors. Several sectors can be grouped
to form clusters.
9. Pixels (picture elements) are dots on the screen that form characters and images. They
determine the clarity of image.
10.a). Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to the
device,
b). connect the computer to the power source and switch it on,
c). Observe boot up information to see whether Power On-Self Test (POST) displays any error
massage. A successful boot means that the computer was properly setup.

3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM

Review questions 3.1
1. Multi user O/S-UNIX, Windows NT/2000, Novell, Linux
Single user- MS-Dos, PC-DOS.
2. (a) Resource control and allocation.
(b) Job scheduling
(c) Input/output handling
(d) Memory management.
(e) Interrupt handling.
(f) Error handling
(g) Job scheduling
3. It is a break from the normal sequential flow of instructions processing in a program.
4. (a) Command line-user types commands.
(b) Menu driven-user selects an option
(c) Graphical user interface-user selects commands in form of icons with a pointing device.
5. (a) User friendliness.
(b) Easy to learn.
6. Multitasking - can run more than one Program simultaneously while multi- User O/S allows
more than one user to make use of the CPU concurrently.
7. It a situation in an O/S when a particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to release it
for use by other tasks.
8. (a) User friendliness
(b) Cost.

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 (c) Availability
(d) Portability.
(e) Hardware configuration/compatibility
(f) User need.

Review questions 3.2

2. (a) Is a mostly an empty screen that appears when Windows start and had some standard icons
that show that the computer is ready for use.
(b) Is a graphical representation of a command, file ,folder or storage location.
(c) A submenu that appears either on the or left of a main menu.
(d) A long strip/icon that runs across the desktop and displays active tasks.
3. (a) Start button-provides access to start menu.
(b) Task manager-displays buttons of currently running systems.
(c) System tray-displays icons of applications that automatically start and run in the
background.
4. (a) To avoid damaging storage devices that may still be in use.
(b) To avoid damaging system and application files.
(c) To avoid loss of data and Information.
5. Right click task bar then select properties. In the taskbar properties dialog, check the
appropriate options then click Apply button then OK.

Review questions 3.3

1. a). A label that represents a logical or physical storage location.
b). the rectangular area on the screen covered by a running program.
c) Interactive strip at the bottom of an application window that acts as a communication link
between the user and the application program.
d). Is a row of buttons / icons that represent shortcut commands
e). is the hierarchical arrangement of folders and storage locations from the root downwards.
2. System files hold critical system information while application files hold programs data.
3. Storing related data / information records. It is a rectangular area that i8s opened in the
application program when one wants to enter data in the new file.
4. a). Change name of file / folder.
b). Arranges files / folders in a particular order.
c). Makes a duplicate of existing file / folder.
d). Removes file / folder from storage
5. Rename – renaming an application or system file may make the computer or program fail.
6. title bar – displays title
toolbars – display shortcut commands
work area – allow user to enter data.
Menu bar – provides a list of commands
Status bar – provides a communication interface between user and the application.
7. For easy location or identification.
8. a). Minimize – click minimize button
maximize – click maximize
b). click the close button or Exit from file menu.
c). Point to Title bar and grad
d). right click My computer icon or Start button then select Explore command.

Review questions 3.4

1) a). It is creation of tracks and sectors on a disk

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b). creating volumes by subdividing a large physical disk.
c). creating more space on a disk by squeezing files into a smaller storage location on a disk.
d). Consolidating files into one area on the disk.
2) Right click its icon on the screen then select format command.
3) A). Compression agent or Drive space.
b). The teacher to give appropriate answer depending on the version of Windows.
4) Right click My Computer icon then properties. Click tools tab than click Backup now button.
5) a). A special disk that has boot up files.
b). teacher to help pupil to create startup disk.
6) a). To install more than one operating system
b). For backup purposes
7) boot in MS – DOS mode using a startup disk then at the prompt type FDISK and follow the on-
screen instructions.

Revision questions
1) It stores related data and information records into files and related files into folders and
subfolders
2) Because it does the basic functions of enabling other programs access the hardware resources.
3) Compressing – squeezing files to create more space while defragmenting consolidates files and
folders in a contiguous space or location on the disk. .
4) When one partition fails, the other can still be used.
5) To create tracks and sectors that can be recognized by a particular operating system
6) a). Processor
b). Memory
c). I/O devices and ports.
d). Communication devise and ports secondary storage devices
7) Read the manufacturers manual or Readme.text file form Windows folder.
8) Scheduling determines which task will be processed first , while sequencing arranges the task
and keeps a list of currently running tasks.

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 1. WORD PROCESSORS

Objectives
By the end of the topic, the learners should be able to:
a. Define a word processor
b. State the purpose of word processing
c. Use a word processing package
d. Format and edit a document
e. Create and edit a table
f. Create and update a mail-merge document
g. Print a document
h. Insert and edit objects

i. Definition of a Electronic Word Processor

Electronic word processor is an application software that enables a user to create, save, edit,
format and print text documents. A document is anything that can be can be typed: a memo, a
letter, a report, project or a book.
Word processing is the art of creating, saving, editing, formatting and printing text and
graphic documents using an electronic word processor.
Activity of using a word processor to manipulate text, characters, words and sentences in such
a manner to make the final document free of errors and attractive to look at.

Examples of word processors

o Microsoft® word
o WordPerfect
o WordStar
o Apple Works
o OpenOffice Writer
o Lotus WordPro
o Corel WordPerfect

Advantages of a word processor

i). Documents can be stored in the computer for future use
ii). It is easier and more efficient to use when typing because some actions are automated.
iii). Have special editing tools that help the user to easily correct grammar and spelling mistakes
on screen before printing.
iv). One can easily insert, delete or replace a word, sentence, phrase or a paragraph without
affecting the structure and neatness of the document.
v). Ability to view the document on screen before printing.
vi). Ability to save documents on backing store for later recall.
vii). Ability to print the document many times
viii). Ability to incorporate other text without having to retype e. by using cut, copy and paste
commands and mail – merge.
ix). Ability to change the layout of the document.

Basic word processing features

Some of the common features of word processors are:
1. Text and editing features such as:
o copy and paste which allows a marked block of text to be moved to another part of the
document
o Find which allows the user to find words and phrases within the document. Search and
replace, which allows replacement of every incidence of a certain combination of characters
with another set of characters.
o Undo and redo, which allows actions that have been performed to be reversed.

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 o Availability of different font types, character (font) sizes and styles e.g. bold, italic and
underline.
2. Paragraph editing features
- Alignment where text is aligned to the left, center, right or justified.
- Paragraph numbering
- Indenting and tab to align text
- Word wrap, feature that automatically moves a word or cursor to the beginning of the next
line if it does not fit at the end of the current line.
3. Page editing features such as :
- Page numbering
- Insertion of headers and footers
4. Printing of documents: In single or multiple copies, full, all or part of a document.
5. Tables which can be used to align text in columns and perform certain sorting and calculations
on the text.
6. Tools such as spell checkers, Thesaurus and Bookmarks, footnotes.
7. Use of document templates which can be used to quickly create the most frequently used
documents once the format has been set.
8. Mail-merge which is very useful when similar letters have to be sent to several people.
9. Creating and manipulating column text, such as newspapers layouts.
10. Ability to add graphics within documents
11. File protection using passwords.
12. Scrolling which is the movement of text documents and graphics smoothly up, down
(vertically) and across (horizontally) on screen using a mouse or the arrows keys, PageUp and
PageDown keys.

2. Purpose of Word Processing

Are mostly used for:
o Report generation
o Projects
o Books
o Essays
o Memos
o Curriculum vitae (CV)

Factors to consider when choosing a word processor

 The type of operating system e.g. word 97 for Windows 95/98, word 2000, word 2002/XP,
Word 2003 and Word 2007 used on windows XP Operating System.
 Its user friendliness i.e. ease of use
 Formatting and editing features
Microsoft Word 2003 will be focused to demonstrate the function and features of a word
processor.

Review questions 1.1

1. What is a word processor?
2. State the purpose of word processing.
3. Name four functions performed by a word processor.
4. What is a document draft?
5. Give four advantages and two disadvantages of using a word processor over the typewriter.
6. What is a document formatting?
7. Explain the difference between type over and insert mode in word processing.
8. What is a word wrap?

3. 1.3 Creating Documents Using a Word Processing Package

“Ms” will be used to stand for Microsoft .
Ms Word is one of the most widely used package of Microsoft Office, which is an integrated
software with a number of interrelated programs.

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 Ms Word is a member of Microsoft Office suite that consist of several integrated programs like
Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft
Publisher. Currently five Office suites are Office 97, 2000, XP, 2003 and 2007.
NB: Documents saved in Word 2007 format cannot be opened in the previous versions unless
saved in compatibility mode.

Starting Ms Word
Word 2003 runs in the Microsoft Windows XP environment and to use Word 2003 the program
should be loaded from the hard disk to computer’s memory. Switch on your computer to start
using word if it’s properly installed.

Use either of the ways below to start Word:

Programs menu
Start Menu

i). Click on the Start button, select All

Programs and click Microsoft
Word. See figure on left side
illustrating
ii). Click on the Word 2003 icon on the
Desktop
iii).
Click Ms Word option from Start menu
iv). When you open any Word
Document, it starts Word
automatically.

Fig.1.1 Starting Word from the start button.

Start button

Microsoft Word Screen Layout

Start button Once you start Ms Word, it provides you with a blank document window called the New
Document Template where you can create your document. Most word processors have a
graphical working environment that enables users to use a mouse and click command buttons. The
functions of a word processor remain essentially similar and only specific methods to achieve
them differ.

Creating a document based on a template

To use other specialized templates such as Faxes, letters, and memos, web page;
1. Click File then select New.
2. On the task pane displayed on the right, under Templates, click On My Computer.
3. On the templates dialog box, click on the tab that contains a template from templates window.

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4. Select a template by double clicking its icon, and then replace the general content with your
content.

Windows have multitasking capability

that allows more than one at the same
time sharing one application window.
However, each document window will
have its own title bar but both will share
menu bar of the application window. Only
one document window referred as active
document window, will be visible on the
desktop at a time while others remain
minimized or covered. To switch between
different document windows, click their
buttons on the taskbar or Window menu.

Microsoft Screen Layout

Menu bar Standard toolbar Title bar

Scroll arrow
Formatting toolbar

Insertion point Horizontal ruler

Work area
Vertical scroll bar
Vertical ruler

Text cursor

Previous page
View Buttons
Browse
Horizontal scroll arrow
selector
Next page

Horizontal scroll bar

Status bar

Title bar
Located across the top of the window, it displays the title of the currently running application or
task and the name of the document. It also enables user to move the application window around

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the desktop. On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons called Minimize, restore/maximize
and close button.

Minimize button - reduces a window to become a button on the taskbar.

Maximize / Restore button – stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its
original size if was reduced to a button on the task bar.

Close button – used to close and exit a window. NB: Below the close button there is close window
button (x), it closes the current active window.

Menu bar
Located below the title bar, provides the user with group of commands. Each command has a drop
down list of commands used to create or manipulate a document. The menu options show the
name of the menu option, the button equivalent and where applicable the shortcut command.
For instance to Save click File>Save or Hold down Ctrl + S or Click the Save icon.
Examples are File, Edit, Format, Help.

File menu: is used to do an operation involving the entire

document such as to create a new document, to open, save,
print and set document properties etc.

Edit menu: used to change portions of the document e.g to

copy or move, select, find and replace, undo/redo the most
recent commands.

Format menu: used to change the looks of the document by

using different font types and sizes, indenting, line spacing,
applying borders and shading, bullets and numbering, drop
capping, Columns and so on.

Help menu: provides assistance on all available features.

Toolbars
Located below the menu bar. They are rows of buttons or icons that represent commands available
in the menu bar. They provide quick access (shortcuts) to some of the most frequently used
commands from menu bar. The most common are standard toolbar and formatting toolbar.

Standard toolbar {has buttons that act as short cut to commonly used menu commands.}

New Open Save Spelling and Grammar Table and Borders

Print Cut Copy Paste Inset Ms Excel worksheet

Email Print preview Undo Redo Insert Table Columns Zoom

Has buttons that act as short cut to commonly used menu commands. Shows the most commonly
used tools for word processing tasks such as Open, save, copy, paste, spelling and grammar, etc

Formatting toolbar {has buttons that acts as shortcut to formatting commands.}

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 Style Font Type Font Size Bold Italic Underline Numbering
Increase indent
Align Right Justify Bullets

Align Left Center Line Spacing Outside

Border
Decrease indent Font color

Shows commonly used tools for text formatting such as font type, text alignment, bullets and
numbering, bold face, etc.

Hiding and displaying toolbars

Click View menu>Toolbars>then select type of toolbar required. Selected toolbars have ticks or
check marks next to them, as in figure below

Tick or checkmarks for

displayed toolbars

Fig shows displayed and hidden toolbars

Ruler
Ms word has onscreen rules that is vertical ruler located on the left margin and horizontal located
below the toolbars placed, that helps the user to position text or objects in the right position, set tab
stops indents. The horizontal ruler also helps to set tab stops and indents.

If the ruler is not visible

Click View menu>Ruler in the drop down list to display.

Work area
Is the blank area where you can enter text or graphical objects. A cursor always blinks.

Task pane
A Task Pane is automatically displayed docked on the right of the window. It contains shortcuts to
commonly performed tasks e.g. opening recently used documents.

View buttons – located directly above the status bar, they provide a quick way to move between
various page views e.g. normal view, outline view etc.

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 Status bar
A strip located across the bottom of the window that acts as a communication link between the
user and the program. It displays information about the active document or such as current page
number, cursor position, section etc. or selected command.

Navigating Word

Scroll bar/button and scroll arrows

Scroll bar/button: is a narrow horizontal or vertical bars on the borders of a window that are used
to view different areas of the active window by dragging to scroll upward, downwards or across of
a document. Using the vertical bar/button you scroll upwards and downs while horizontal you
scroll from side to side.

Scroll arrows: Are arrows at the end of the scroll bars that user clicks to move in small steps
across and vertically the screen. Scrolling a document
You can also navigate through the Word document using the Browse object selector below the
Vertical Down arrow as shown in the figure below.

Previous page
Browse selector
Go to
Next page Type page number here then click
Go to button

To scroll In the vertical scroll bar

Up or down one line at a time Click on the up or down scroll arrow
Up or down one screen at a time Click above or below the scroll box(bar)
Multiple pages up or down the document Drag the scroll box to the top, bottom or
middle of the scroll bar.
To the previous page Click the double-up arrow
To the Next page Click the double-down arrow
A specific Page Click the Browse object selector followed by
Go to button.
A section or area of the document Click browse object selector followed by the
Page Number button.

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Running the program
Creating a Document
When a new document is started there is a blinking vertical bar called insertion pointer, which can
be moved using the arrows keys or the mouse.

To create a new document

Click File>>New or the New Blank Document icon on the standard toolbar or hold down Ctrl + N
on the keyboard.

Observing the text area of a blank New document

Insertion pointer – this is a blinking cursor. It appears in upper-left corner of a new window. Its
location determines where text or other items will be entered into the document.

End of document mark – is the horizontal line that indicates the end of the document in a normal
view

Observing the mouse pointer – the mouse pointer is the I-beam when it is in the text area (work
area). When it is moved to the left it becomes a right slanted pointer, which when clicked selects
the line.

Saving a new document

1. From File menu choose Save or Save As command. When saving a Word document for the
first time use either Save or Save As command. Once the document has been saved, Save
command is used to save changes made to the document.

Although the Save and Save As when saving for the first both give the Save As dialog box, Save
As command can be used in the following situation:
 To save a document under a new file name.
 Save a document in different location, such as folder or disk.

Select Location or drive to save in

Type a unique file name

here
Select a type format
for the file

2. In the File Name, type a unique name descriptive of the files contents for the document so that
you can remember with ease. Note: when you are saving a document for the first time, word
automatically uses the first paragraph as the new documents name. Overtype using a different
name. a file name cannot contain any of the following characters / , : ; * ? . < >
3. Select the location or drive to save in, by clicking the down arrow on the right of Save In list
box.

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4. To save file in a different format or an older version of Word, select the type from the Save as
type drop-down list.
5. Click Save button or press Enter key. The document will be automatically saved as Ms word
document and file extension .doc added.

Saving an existing document

To save an existing document, simply click on Save icon or press Ctrl + S, or click File>Save
menu option.

Saving all open Documents at the same time

Hold down SHIFT key and click Save All on the File menu. Word saves all pen documents and
templates at the same time. If any open documents have never been saved before, the Save As
dialog box appears to prompt you for new names.

Opening an existing document

1. Click File>>Open menu or click Open icon on the standard toolbar or press Ctrl + O. the
open dialog box will be displayed.

Select drive or folder

where the file was saved

All files in drive or

folder displayed here

Specify the format type of file you want to open

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 2. Select a drive or folder where the file is saved in the Look in box.
3. In the Name list, scroll and select the name of the document you want to open or select the file
and click open button.
4. Double – click the document you want to open or select the File and Click on Open button.

Opening a Recent Document

Note: Ms Word keeps track to recently used documents that have been opened and places their
names at the bottom of the File menu. To open one of these listed files, choose File and click on
the document name.

You can open a recent document by doing one of the following:

Checking this option allows Word to keep 9

i). From Windows Desktop click Start button>>My Recent Documents and then click the
shortcut links of recently operated files

document you want to open from the list of recent documents. My Recent Documents
displays the 15 recently operated files from any application .
ii). Or from the File Word, click File>>Open and in the Open dialog box click My Recent
Documents button.

If the list of recently used documents is not displayed, configure Ms Word to be displaying by
 Clicking the tools option command. In the options dialog box displayed on the general tab,
select the Recently used file list check box as shown in the options dialog box below.

Specify by clicking the

arrows file entries list

Protecting a word with a password

A password is a string of characters that prevents other users from opening and changing a
document without permission. You cannot open or edit a document protected by a password unless
you know it.
To save a document with a password create or open the document you want
1) Click File>>Save As option
2) Click the down arrow on the Tools button in the Save As dialog box and select Security
Options as shown in the figure above.
3) Type in a password in the password to open; this prompts the user to enter a password when
opening document.

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 Key in password to open

Key in password to modify

Confirm by reentering the

passwords again

4) Type in a password to modify; this prevents the user from making changes unless the user
enters the correct password.
5) Click OK or press Enter key.
NB: A password is case sensitive always note the combination of characters used.

Closing a document
This is unloading the current active document from memory so that the user can create or open
another without necessary exiting from Word.
To close, on File menu, click Close. If the document has changed since the last Save you will be
prompted to save the changes. To close al open documents without exiting the program, hold down
SHIFT key and click Close All on the File menu.

Exiting from word

Exiting refers to quitting the Ms Word program completely. To Exit Word and return to the
Windows desktop, choose File>>Exit menu. You can also Exit word by pressing Alt + F4 keys or
double clicking the close button on the title bar.
If you have not saved changes to an open document, world will prompt you save the document
before exiting.

Review questions 1.2

1. Give two examples of word processor programs.
2. What is a toolbar?
3. Explain how you can protect a document from unauthorized opening or altering.
4. What is meant by the terms creating and editing a document?
5. How can you save a document with a file type different from the one of your word
processor?
6. Define the term scrolling.
7. Explain the importance of the status bar.

4. 1.4 Editing and Formatting a document

Editing refers to altering of an existing document by either adding or removing text. This is done
to make necessary changes so that the document read the way it is supposed to read. This is
achieved using delete, insert and overtype/overwrite commands. Apart form these Ms Word has
inbuilt tools such as the Spelling and Grammar checker, thesaurus, undo and redo, find and
replace, etc.

Block Operations
Blocking text refers to selecting a string of text in order to work with it as a whole.

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The purpose of selecting or highlighting text is to enable one to manipulate the selected block of
block of text.

Selecting (highlighting) a block of text

Selecting / highlighting is the process of choosing particular areas in the text in order to apply
certain editing and/or formatting features. Selection is temporary. In Ms Word there are a number
of ways for selecting a block of text.

Selecting with a Mouse

To select Do this
A word o Place the insertion pointer on the word then double click.
A line o Position the mouse pointer at the left margin until it changes to a
slanting right arrow and then click once.
Sentence Hold down CTRL, and then click anywhere in the sentences
A paragraph o Place the pointer at the beginning or end of the paragraph and
drag the I-beam over the text to be selected and release the mouse
button at the end.
o Triple – click any where in the paragraph
o Move the pointer to the left margin of the paragraph until it
changes to a right pointing arrow then double click the mouse.
Multiple paragraphs o Move the pointer to the left of the paragraph until it changes to a
right-pointing arrow and double click the mouse. Then while
holding the Shift key drag up or down.
A large block of text o Click at the start of the selection, scroll to the end of the selection,
and then hold down SHIFT and click.
Any amount of text o Hold down the mouse button and drag over the text.
Entire document o Move the pointer to the left of the text until it changes to a right –
pointing `arrow, and then triple click.

Selecting with a keyboard

To select Do this
One word o Move the insertion pointer to the beginning or end of the word
then press Shift + Ctrl + Right or Left arrow key.
One line o Move the insertion pointer to the beginning or end of the line
then press Shift + Home or end keys respectively.
Entire page o Press Shift + Page Down or Shift + Page UP
Entire document o Press Ctrl + A or
o Press the Cursor at the beginning of the document then press
Shift + Ctrl + End

Deleting Text
Deleting means to erase text. The two frequently used keys for deleting text and objects are Delete
and Backspace . You can also erased text only using Enter key, Spacebar and Type over mode.
To delete a block of text highlight the text to be deleted then press the delete key (i.e. Backspace,
delete or Space bar)
The Backspace key – deletes (erases) characters to the left, while the DELETE key deletes
characters to the right of the Insertion Point.
Spacebar – highlight a block of text then press the spacebar. All selected text will be deleted.
Enter - highlight a block of text then press the enter key, all selected text will be deleted

Overtype : Delete can also be done by overtype option when active. You can activate by double
clicking the ‘OVR’ label on the status toolbar or pressing the Insert key on the keyboard. After the

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option is activated, any existing text will be replaced by the newly typed text.
NB: Enter key, Backspace key and type over mode cannot erase objects.

Restoring deleted text

You can restore text or object that has just been deleted by doing any of the following:
a. Clicking the Edit menu then undo command, or
b. Click undo button from the standard toolbar or
c. Press Ctrl + Z on the keyboard.

Copying and Moving Text

Copying is making duplicate copy of text or an object while moving (cutting) is changing
(relocating) the position of text or an object in a document.

To copy a block of text

i). Highlight the text to be copied. . If its object, click once to select
ii). Click Edit menu then Copy or click Copy icon on the standard toolbar or press keyboard
combination Ctrl + C. (The text remains selected although it is copied to the clipboard
replacing the previous text.)
iii). Position the Insertion Pointer (text cursor) where you want to copy this text.
iv). From the Edit menu click Paste or click paste icon on the standard toolbar or press keyboard
combination Ctrl + V ). (The text you selected appears at the cursor position).

To move ( Cut) text and objects

i). Highlight / select the text to be moved. If its object, click once to select.
ii). From Edit Menu click Cut or click the cut icon which looks like a pair of scissors from the
standard toolbar or press Ctrl + X. (The selected text disappears. It is stored on the
clipboard ready to be pasted. The text remains in there until you cut or copy again, or until
you exit Windows).
iii). Move the Insertion Pointer (text cursor) where you want the text to be placed or moved.
iv). Choose Paste from Edit menu or click Paste button from the standard toolbar or press Ctrl +
V.

Typing Modes
There are two typing modes: 1). Insert Mode and 2). Typeover /Overwrite mode
1). Insert mode
By default Word operates in insert mode. New text does not replace existing text in the typing
position, instead the text is pushed to the right as you type. To insert text , place the cursor where
you want to add text and continue typing.
2). Typeover / Overwrite mode
This mode replaces characters at the cursor position as you type. Activate the option by either
double clicking OVR label on the status bar or pressing the Insert key on the keyboard. You will
notice that the OVR on the status bar is now active (highlighted).
OVR label active after double clicking or
OVR label inactive on status bar pressing Insert key

To switch back to Insert mode press Insert key again or double click OVR label on the status bar.

Find and replace

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The Find and Replace feature enables you to quickly find and replace text within a document. For
example you can replace the occurrences of the word ‘school’ to ‘institution’ automatically. To
replace a word, use replace option.
Find
To find where a specific word occurs in your document follow these steps:
i). On the Edit menu click Find or press Ctrl + F . Find and Replace dialog box appears.
ii). In the Find what box, enter the text/ phrase you want to search for and click Find Next
button.

Type the text want to

search for here

iii).When the word is encountered it is highlighted. Click Find Next button to locate other
occurrences of the same text. You can check Highlight all items found in check box and
select Main document in the drop down list, so that the all the searched words are
highlighted. Once the search is completed, a dialog box appears stating that the search has
been completed.
NB: To cancel a search in progress, click Cancel button or press ESC

Search Options
Click the more buttons on the Find and Replace dialog box, to specify search options.

They include:
Match case: - It identifies only text that
match in case e.g. it will not find ‘late’ if you
typed ‘LATE’.
Whole word: - Searches for a word that is
whole but not part of another word e.g word
like ever will not be found in words like
whoever, however etc.
Wildcards: - A special character e.g.? or *
that is used to represent a set of words with
similar characteristics for example to find
words that starts with F, like Fur, father, Francis can be represented using a wildcard as F* which
finds all words starting with F. The wildcard ? finds any single character e.g. a search for ‘s?t’
finds ‘sit’, ‘set’, etc.
Like : - Searches for a word with similar pronunciation like Fare and Fair, seek and sick, etc.

Replace Command
This feature is used to find and replace words or phrases.
Choose Replace from Edit menu, or press Ctrl + H from the keyboard. A Find and replace dialog
box appears.

Type the word to replace

with here

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In the Find what box, enter the text you want to search for. In the Replace with box, enter the
replacement text. If you only want the text removed, leave the Replace with box blank. To replace
the current text click Replace and to replace all occurrences of the text all at once click Replace
All.

Proofreading
This is checking whether the document has typographical or grammatical errors.

Proofreading tools
a). Spelling and grammar checker
Is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling errors and incorrect grammar structures.
The spell checker also checks for such common typing mistakes as repeated words (the the),
irregular capitalization (‘tHe’). The checker can only recognize errors of those words whose
correct spelling is in its dictionaries. The spell checker has two types of dictionaries:
i). Standard (main) dictionary which is in-built
ii). Custom which is user-defined.

Spelling errors are underlined in red while grammatical errors are underlined in green.
To run the spelling and grammar checker do the following:
1. To check an entire document, first ensure that no text is selected. Place the cursor at the top of
the document before starting the spell checker.
2. Choose Tools>Spelling and grammar menu or click the spelling and Grammar icon or
press F7 key on the keyboard. A spelling and Grammar dialog box appears as shown in the
figure below.

Figure on Spelling checker

3. To correct the spelling choose one of the following buttons:

 Change to change only the occurrences of the highlighted incorrect word.
 Change All to change all occurrences of that word misspelled in the document.
 Ignore to leave the current misspelled word unchanged and continue the spelling check.
 Ignore All to ignore all further checking of the word.
 Add to Dictionary to add the word to the custom dictionary to be recognized in future.
4. Incase you want to undo the changes made, click on the Undo button
5. If you constantly misspell a word, you can add it to the Autocorrect list so that it will be
automatically corrected as you type. Click on Autocorrect button.
6. To end spell checking before it is complete click on Close button. All changes made up to that
point will be preserved.

b). Thesaurus
Is used to find words or phrases with similar meaning (synonyms) or
opposite meaning (antonyms) to the one selected. To use thesaurus:
1. Select a word in the document

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 2. Click Tools menu>Language > Thesaurus or press Shift + F7. The research task pane appears.
3. In the Thesaurus box click the drop-down button to select the language to use.
4. Choose an alternative word to replace the selected from the list.
5. To replace a word or a phrase with antonym, select the word or phrase enclosed in brackets.
6. click on the drop down option insert

c). Auto complete

A feature that displays a word when the user types the first few characters of the word. This
enables the user to type faster. To accept the suggestion, press the enter key and continue
typing other words or phrases.

The autotext suggestion

Text being typed

To turn autocomplete on/off

i). Click Insert menu > Autotext then click Autotext tab.
ii). Type in an Autotext in the Enter Autotext entries here text box then click Add. Click Close.
iii). To turn off the Autotext uncheck show Auto complete suggestions.

d). Autocorrect
Detects automatically wrongly spelled or capitalized words and replaces them with the correct
word. The settings of autocorrect are user defined e.g. if you keep on typing cetrain instead of
certain you can set the autocorrect feature to replace the
former with the later. Type cetrain (incorrect word) in
Replace box and certain (correct) in With box, as shown
in the figure.

To turn autocorrect on/off

1.
From Tools menu > Autocorrect option.
2.
Select the Replace text as you type check box to turn on
the spelling checker corrections
3.
In the Replace box, type the commonly misspelled word,
while in the With box, type the correct spelling for the
word.
4. Deselect Automatically use suggestions from the spelling checker to turn off the spelling
checker corrections.
5. Click OK to close the autocorrect dialog box.

e). Undo
It reverses the most recently executed command that was issued in order to revert back to the
previous state. In summary undo command is used to cancel previous command or action and
restore deleted text.
To Undo click Edit > Undo command or Click Undo button on the standard toolbar or Press Ctrl
+ Z.

Undo icon Redo icon Page 106 of 288

f). Redo
It reverses the action lastly cancelled (undone). To redo click Edit > Redo command or Click
Redo button on the standard toolbar or Press Ctrl + Y.

Review question 1.3

1. Explain the meaning of the term blocking text.
2. What is the difference between copying and moving text?
3. When is the find and replace command used?
4. What is a wild card? How can it be used to search for a word that starts with the letter “O” in a
document.
5. What is the difference between just searching for a particular word in a document and
searching for a word that is whole?
6. Explain the importance of proofreading a document.
7. Give two methods of proofreading a prepared document.
8. Give the two types of dictionaries that are used by a spell checker program. Which one is
likely to have non-English words and why?
9. Name any five parts of the Microsoft Word Application window.
10. Explain the term document formatting.
11. Give any five document formatting features.
12. What is a thesaurus.
13. Distinguish between the autocomplete and autocorrect feature in word processing.
14. Hassan has a problem when typing; every time he wishes to type the word Good, he
mistakenly types God. What can he do to continue typing without worrying about having to go
back to correct the same word over and over again?
15. Explain the use of Undo and Redo commands.
16. Give atleast four examples of fonts available in Microsoft Word.
17. Naliaka realized that a figure she was working with in word processing was too big to fit on a
portrait page. What do you think she should do to fit on the page?
18. what is a tab? Why are tab stops important in a document?
19. state one function of drop cap in a document.
20. what is line spacing? Give any two line spacing specifications.
21. what is a soft return of the cursor in a document? Differentiate it with hard return.
22. give and explain four text alignment features.

5. 1.5 Formatting Word Documents

Formatting is applying various styles or features to enhance the documents appearance.

Text formatting attributes

Refers to features such as changing font (size, colour, style), bold, underline, italicising,
superscripting, subscripting to improve text appearance. To format text use Formatting toolbar,
Format menu or Keyboard shortcut keys.

Formatting an existing text

1. Highlight the text to be formatted

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2. From Format menu select Font command. A dialog box is displayed.

3.
To change font type (typeface) and size, scroll the
Font list box then click the font required such as:
Arial, Broadway, Comic Sans serif, monotype
corsiva, etc. To change the font size scroll down the
size list box and select points required e.g. 14 points.
To apply font size like 13.5 type the points in size
box then press enter or click OK button. Font size is
measured in Pts (points) where 1 point equals 1/72
of an inch. The standard size for document is 12
points. Font style includes regular, italic, bold, bold
italic.

4.
Bolding text: This feature makes the selected text
appear thick and darker than the rest of the text. To bold, select Bold in the dialog box or
press Ctrl + B or click bold button B from formatting toolbar.
5. Underline text: is placing any line style under text. Under underline style list box there are
several underline styles e.g. words only, single, double, dashed. Dotted, etc.

6. Italicizing text: This is making text slant forward. To italicize click Italic under font style or
press Crtl + I or Italic button on formatting toolbar.
7. Changing font color: By default the font color is black. You can change the font color by
clicking the font color which display a color chart as well as more color options including
standard and custom.

NB: The font dialog box contains additional formats that are not available on the formatting
toolbar such as Double underline, Small Caps, Superscript, subscript, emboss, engrave, Hidden,
etc. You can also change the character spacing by expanding the text or condensing it using
character spacing Tab as well as text effects to animate text using text Effects Tab. Scroll down
animations list box to select your choice. Animations appear on screen but are not are printed.

Superscripts (raising) and Subscripts (lowering) text

Superscript describes text that is slightly higher than other text on a line, such as footnote, reference
mark etc. E.g Mg2+ Superscript

Subscript describes text that is slightly lower than other text on a line and is usually used in scientific
formulas. e.g. O2
Subscript
To make text subscript or superscript
1. Select text format subscript or superscript
2. Click on the Format >Font option and select the Font tab.
3. Under Effects select the superscript or subscript check box as required.
4. Click OK.

Format Painter
Format painter copies the format from a selected object or text and applies it to the object or text
you click on. To copy the format, select the text with the format you want and click on the Format
Painter button on left of Undo command on the Standard toolbar. To
copy the formatting to more than one item, double click the Format
Painter button and then click on each item you want to format. When
you finish copying, press Esc or click Format Painter button again.

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Paragraph Formatting

Text alignment:
Refers to how text is lined up on the page relative to the left, Right or Center of the page

Align Left Center Align Right Justify

Types of alignment
There are five major alignment options namely
Left, Center, Right, Justified and Distributed
(force justified).

Left alignment – text is lined up evenly along

the left margin
Right alignment – text is lined up evenly along the right margin but unevenly at the left margin.
Center alignment – text are centered unevenly between the left and right margins.
Justification – text is arranged evenly along the left and right margin.
Distributed (force justified) – a paragraph is force justified evenly along the left and right margin if
a line has only one word.

To align text, select first then click the appropriate alignment button on the formatting toolbar or
click Format>Paragraph and select the appropriate alignment form the alignment list box, then
click OK.

Also alignment can be achieved by means of special function keys on the computer keyboard as
follows:
Ctrl + L : Aligns text to left Ctrl + E : Centers text
Ctrl + R : align text to Right Ctrl + J : Justify text

Changing Case
This refers to switching between different cases provided by the Microsoft Word. Once you have
typed text, you can change the case automatically without having to go to each individual word.
Changing case helps to create contrast within the text.

To change case:
Choose Change Case from the Format menu. From the Change Case dialog box, select one of the
following options:
Sentence case – which capitalizes
the first letter of the first word of
every sentence in the selected text.
Lower case – changes selected text
to all lower case (small) letters.
UPPER CASE – changes selected
text to all uppercase (capital) letters
Title Case – capitalizes the first
letter of each word in the selected
text.

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tOGGLE cASE - changes all uppercase letters to lowers uppercase in the selected text.

Drop Caps
Drop capping is making the first character in a sentence large, taking more space in the next line.
The Drop Cap is often used when starting a paragraph.

To create a dropped cap,

1. Highlight the first character in the sentence or click the paragraph that you want to begin with
a drop cap
2. On the Format menu, click Drop Cap. The Drop Cap
dialog box appears.
3. Click the position Dropped or In Margin.

In Dropped position the letter occupies space in the lines

below it. In the In Margin position the dropped cap is
placed in the left margin area.

4. For the Drop Cap letter, select the font to use incase you
wish to apply.
5. Specify the number of lines to drop and the distance from
text.
6. Click OK.

Paragraphs below shows Dropped position and In Margin positing all dropped 4 lines and
distances from text is 0.2 inches

I
t is not entirely far-fetched to draw parallels between a Kenyan MP and a hyena. You see
that same greedy eye in search of a free meal, and the total lack of table manners when

Dropped
figuratively, it becomes to eating in excess. MPs are no longer just a menace. They have
become scavengers. They are now busy spinning the fiction that they pay for our
weddings, our school fees, our medical bills and our funerals. Even if they do, so what? They are
not under some constitutional obligation to do so. It’s bad manners to demand favours on the claim
that you operate as a charitable enterprise. Who required you to do so?

I
t is not entirely far-fetched to draw parallels between a Kenyan MP and a hyena. You see
that same greedy eye in search of a free meal, and the total lack of table manners when
In Margin

figuratively, it becomes to eating in excess. MPs are no longer just a menace. They have
become scavengers. They are now busy spinning the fiction that they pay for our
weddings, our school fees, our medical bills and our funerals. Even if they do, so what? They are
not under some constitutional obligation to do so. It’s bad manners to demand favours on the claim
that you operate as a charitable enterprise. Who required you to do so?

Indenting paragraph
Indentation is moving the text from the left margin. Text paragraphs usually extends from the left
margin to the right margin. There are three types of paragraph indentation: first line, hanging, and
full indent.

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a). First line indent
In this type of indent, only the first line in the paragraph is indented. To apply
1. Select or position the cursor anywhere in the paragraph to be indented
2. From Format menu click Paragraph. Paragraph dialog box appears.

Specify here how far from the

margin the 1st line will be indented

Select first line indent from here.

3. Under special click downward arrow and select First line.

4. Specify by how far the paragraph is to be indented from the margin in the By text box.
5. Clicks Ok to apply and close the dialog box.

The paragraph below shows a first line indent indented by 0.8 inches.

The ideal word processor operator should be self-motivated and able to cope with
pressure. She should have an excellent memory, a methodical approach, an ability to work
unsupervised, and willingness to stay with the work until a problem has been solved.
b). Hanging indent
The first line extends to the left of the paragraph, with the rest of the paragraph “hanging”
below it. To apply:
1. Follow ALL the above steps for first line indent but under special select Hanging ng indent
from the drop down list
The paragraph below shows hanging indent indented by 1.02 inches.
The ideal word processor operator should be self-motivated and able to cope with pressure. She
should have an excellent memory, a methodical approach, an ability to work
unsupervised, and willingness to stay with the work until a problem has been
solved.
c). Full indent
The entire paragraph is indented as whole. To apply:
1. Select or position the cursor the paragraph to be indented
2. Click indent buttons from the formatting toolbar.
To indent a paragraph towards the right click the Increase Indent button. The selected
paragraph each time you click on the Increase Indent button indents by ½ inch.
To indent a paragraph towards the left click the Decrease Indent button.

The paragraph below shows full indent:

The ideal word processor operator should be self-motivated and able to cope with pressure. She
should have an excellent memory, a methodical approach, an ability to work unsupervised, and
willingness to stay with the work until a problem has been solved.

Page 111 of 288

 Setting tabs
A tab space is short distance moved by the text cursor when the tab key on the keyboard is
pressed. Tabs are used to indent the first line of a paragraph or create columnar data. There are
five different types of Tabs that you can set, namely Left, Right, Centre, Bar and Decimal tabs.
Sometimes you need to type text in, where the information is represented in the form of
0.75” which is the Tab stop
Pressing Tab key cursor jumps

columns.
To set tab stops follow the steps below;
1. Select the paragraphs in which you want
to set Tab stops.

2. From the Format menu, select Tabs.

This brings up the Tabs dialog box.
3. In the Tab Stops position box type the
position for a new tab.
4. Under Alignment, select the alignment
for text (i.e. type of Tab) typed at the
Tab position.
5. Under leader, click the leader option you
want. NB: Leaders are optional. Tab
leaders are characters, usually dots or
hyphens that fill the space between
words a separated by tabs to draw the
readers eye across a line like in Tables of
contents.
6. Repeat the procedure for other lines if
required.
Once you no longer need the Tab stops, in the same dialog box, click on Clear All, and then click
on OK.

Setting Tabs Using ruler

Using the ruler to set tab is the easiest way.

1. Click the Tab stop selector button at the far left of the horizontal ruler until it changes to the
type of Tab you want.

Left tab Centre tab Right tab Decimal tab Bar tab

2. Click on the horizontal ruler at the position where you want to set a Tab stop. You can hold
and drag the Tab to the exact position you want.; as shown in the example below:

Tab stops on ruler

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Name Station Position
Otieno Kisumu Cleck
Keitany Eldoret Driver
Mungai Nyeri Secretary
Mushila Wundanyi Mechanic
Nzali Machakos Analylist

Explanation of tab stops

Left tab text is aligned to the left
Centre tab text is centered
Right tab text is aligned to the right
Decimal tab text is aligned at decimal character
Bar tab inserts a vertical line at tab stop and align text to the right of the line.

Line and Character spacing

Line spacing is the amount of space or the vertical distance between lines of text in the document.
The default line spacing in Ms Word is single. Character spacing is the space between characters
in the text.

To change line spacing:

1. Highlight the text
2. From Format menu click paragraph
3. From the line spacing box, choose the appropriate spacing e.g. Single, 1.5, at least, exact,
multiple.
4. Click OK. Or;
Click line spacing button drop list on the formatting toolbar, Select the spacing to apply e.g 1.0.
1.5., 2.0 etc.

To change character spacing;

1. Highlight text
2. From format menu click Font then Character Spacing Tab.
3. Adjust the spacing as required and click OK.

Bullets and numbering

You can quickly create numbered and bulleted lists to make a document easier to read and
understand. A numbered list shows sequences, while a bulleted list separates while items to
emphasize each point. To apply bullets and numbering in a list;
1. Select the list if you had already typed if no typed text place the cursor at beginning of blank
line.
2. From Format menu click Bullets and numbering. A dialogue box appears.
3. to add bullets click Bullets tab
4. to add numbers, click Numbering button
5. To change the Bullet or Number format or the spacing between the bullet and Number and the
text, select the paragraph, and then click Bullets and Numbering tab, and then click the format
you want.
6. To change the spacing, click customize. Change the values for bullet indent, text indent and
tab space.
7. Word applies the changes you make the next time you click Bullets or numbering.

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Hints to Note
Under Number format do any formatting like adding a bracket e.g (1). Under Text position
Tab space and Indent at values should be equal e.g all 0.5”&0.5”. Value for aligned at under
number position should be slightly less than text poison e.g. 0.2” or 0”
PAGE FORMATTING
Section Breaks
A break identifies where a section, a column or a page ends and the beginning of next. Advantage:
One can apply more than one paragraph or page format in the same document like page layout,
size, different margins etc.

Description of section break types

Next page: Inserts a section break and starts the new section on
the next page
Continuous: Inserts a section break and starts the new section
on the same page. Continuous break helps one to create
balanced columns by placing the cursor at end of column then
select continuous.
Odd or even page: Inserts a section break and starts the new
section on the next odd-numbered or even-numbered page.

To insert a section break

1. Click where you want to insert a section break
2. On the insert menu, click Break
3. Under section break types: click the option that describes where you want the new section to
begin then click OK.

Formatting pages
When you fill a page with text or graphics, Word inserts an automatic page break and starts a new
page. This page is called a soft page break. A page break identifies the end of one page and the
beginning of the next page. If a page break is forced before the end of the page, this is called a
hard page break. To insert a manual Page Break follow the steps below:
1. Click at the point where you want to start a new page
2. On the Insert menu, click Break
3. Click Page Break then OK.

To delete a Hard Page Break

1. Move the Insertion Point to the end of the page before the Hard page break, then press Delete
or
2. Select the line that denotes the page break, and then choose Clear from the Edit menu.

Creating columns

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Columns are used to format a document into layouts, like the columns of a newspaper.
To set columns
1. Select the text to be included
2. click format then columns
3. either select Presets box from one of the presets
column styles or specify the number of columns from
Number of columns box
4. To set the width of each column separately, uncheck
the Equal Column Width box and in the Width and
Column box, set the width and spacing between
columns. NB: As you change one column width the
other column also changes automatically.
5. Click the Line Between check box to add a vertical
line between the columns
6. Click OK.

Creating balanced columns (i.e. same height)

Move the cursor to the end of the columns you want to balance.
1. On the Insert menu, select Break.
2. Select continuous on the dialog box, then click OK.

Page Margin
Margins are blank spaces around the edges of the page. Are used to restrict the printable area of
the page, therefore only text and objects inside the margins are printed.
To set margins:
1. From File menu click Page Setup.
2. Click Margins tab.
3. Enter values for the Left, Right, Top and Bottom margins in
the respective boxes.

Top Margin: Is the distance of the first line of the text from
top edge of the page
Left Margin: Is is the distance of the left side of text lines
from the left edge of the page
Bottom Margin: Is the distance of the last line of the text
from the bottom edge of the page.
Right Margin: Is the distance of the right side of text lines
from the right edge of the page.
Gutter (Binding offset): Is the extra space added to the left
margin for binding e.g. Setting to 0.2 etc.
4. To change margins for part of a document, select the text and then set margins on the on the
Margins tab of the File Menu Page Setup. In the Apply to box, click selected Text.
5. Word automatically inserts section breaks before and after the text with the new margin
settings. If your document is already divided into sections, you can click in a section or select
multiple sections, and then change the margins.

Paper size and orientation

Setting paper size
By default the paper size is either A4 or letter. To specify a different paper size;
1. From File menu>Page setup then click Paper tab.
2. Select the paper size required under Paper size box. Click Custom size to enter the dimensions
in the height and width boxes if the paper size is not provided.
3. Click OK.

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Page orientation
Page orientation refers to the direction the page text is laid out on the paper.
The two main types of orientations are:
Portrait orientation – is when text is laid out across the upright page
Landscape orientation – is when text is laid out across the horizontal page

To set the orientation of your page;

1. On the File menu click Page Setup then margins Tab.
2. Under Orientation, click either portrait or landscape

Portrait
Landscape orientation
orientation

Page Layout
It lets the user specify how text will be placed on the page from the margins. By default text starts
from the top margins but can change this either to Centre,
Justified or Bottom as follows:
a. File menu >Page setup>Layout tab.
b. From the vertical alignment tab, select the alignment
required then click OK.

NB:
To have different layout in your document, select some text e.g. a
paragraph in a page then do the following;
a. File menu>Page setup>Layout tab.
b. Under Page Select alignment required from Vertical
alignment options , then under Apply to select Selected
text.
c. Click OK.

Inserting Headers and Footers

Headers and Footers are used in printed documents and they include text, graphics or both. E.g
Page numbers, the date, a company Logo, the documents title, file name or the author’s name. you
can use the same Header and Footer throughout a document or change it for each section of the
document. To do this from File menu select Page Setup then click Layout tab in the page setup
dialog box. Under Headers and Footers check either Different Odd and even or Different first
page. In the Apply to select where to apply

Headers can be defined as few words that appear at the top margin of each page, while Footers are
a few words that appear at the bottom of every page in a document.
To insert Headers and Footers:
1. On View menu click Headers and Footers. The Headers and Footer toolbar is displayed.
2. To create Header enter text or graphics in the Header area.
3. Click the Header and footer toolbar buttons to insert a date, page number etc.
4. You can also click Insert Autotext to pick an Autotext such as ‘Page x of y’, the file’s name,
etc.
Format page Switch between
number Insert time Header and Footer
Insert page number

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Insert Autotext Page Setup

Insert Pages Insert Date
5. To create the Page Footer, switch to the Footer by clicking the Switch Between Header and
Footer …button. Create the Footer in the same way as you do with Header.
6. When you finish creating the Header and Footer, click Close from the toolbar.

Text and graphics you enter can be formatted in the same way as with the main document. To
center an item press TAB once ; to right align an item press TAB twice

Footnotes and endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide
references for text in a document. You might use footnotes for detailed comments and endnotes for
citation of sources.
A footnote or an endnote consists of two linked parts – the note reference mark and the
corresponding note text. You can add note text of any length and format note text just as you
would any other text. You can customize note separators, the lines that separate the document text
from the note text.
When you add, delete or move notes that are automatically numbered, word renumbers the
footnote and endnote reference marks.

To insert footnotes and endnotes

1. In Print Layout view, select the text or click where you want to insert the note reference mark.
2. On the Insert menu, point to Reference, and then click Footnote.
3. Click Footnotes or Endnotes
- By default, Word places footnotes at the end of each document. You can change the
placement of footnotes and endnotes by making a selection in the Footnotes or Endnotes
box.

4.In the Number Format box, click the format you want
-Word inserts the note number and places the insertion point next to the note number.
2.Type the note text.
3.Scroll to your place in the document and continue typing.
-As you insert
correct number format.

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Different number formats for different sections of the document
- A document must first be divided into sections in order to insert footnotes and endnotes with
different number formats.
1. Insert a section break.
How?
i). Click where you want to insert a section break
ii). On the Insert menu, click Break.
iii). Under Section break types, click the option that describes where you want the new
section to begin.
2. In print layout view, click where you want to insert the
note reference mark
3. On the Insert menu, point to Reference and then click
Footnote
4. Click Footnotes or Endnotes.

Deleting footnotes and end notes]

When you want to delete a note, you work with the note reference mark in the document window,
not the text in the note. If you delete an automatically numbered note reference mark, Microsoft
Word renumbers the footnotes in the new order.
To delete, do the following;
 In the document, select the note reference mark of the note you want to delete, and then press
DELETE.

Inserting page numbers

1. From Insert menu, select Page Numbers. A dialog box is displayed.
2. In the position box, specify where you want the page numbers to be inserted e.g. Top of the
Page (Header) or Bottom (Footer).

3. In the Alignment box, specify where the page number is to be inserted e.g. Center, Right,
Left, Inside or Outside.
4. check show number on first page to display number on page 1, uncheck not to display number
on page 1.
5. Click Format tab to choose the number format i.e. 1, 2,3, or i, ii, iii, or A, B, C etc.
6. Click OK.

Using styles list

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Styles list is a predefined set of formats that can be applied to a block of text together at once.
To create a style;
(i) Select the text you want to create a style
(ii) Apply various formats to the text
(iii) Click the styles box in the formatting bar.

Generating table of contents ad indexes

What is a table of contents (TOC)?
Is a list of topics in a document and the pages they appear and it is placed on the first page of the
document.
What is an index?
Is a list of terms used in the document and the pages they appear and it is placed in the back pages.

In order to generate a TOC you must first mark entries by defining styles.

Steps to generate table of contents:

1). Turn to the page you want to insert the table of contents
2). On Insert menu, point to Reference, and then click Index and Tables.
3). Click the Table of Contents tab
4). Set the TOC properties then click OK.

6. 1.5 Creating and Editing Tables

A table is a feature in Ms Word made up of rows and columns that is used to organize and enhance
display of information.
A table can be used to:
- Align text into columns
- Organize and present information
- Perform certain sorting and calculation purposes
- Create different forms such as Invoice, calendar, etc.

Creating a table
A table can be created using two methods:
(i). By using the Insert table command from Tables menu.
(ii). Using Insert button then select the number of rows and
columns you want.

To create table using Insert Table menu

1. Click Table>Insert>Table menu.
2. Specify the number columns and rows
3. Click OK.

To create Table using Insert Table button

Click the insert button then select the number of rows and columns you want by dragging the
mouse. Release the mouse and the table will be created.

Definition of terms
Cell – intersection between row and column
Row – horizontal arrangement of cells
Column – vertical arrangement of cells.

Page 119 of 288

Formatting and Editing a Table: Inserting rows and columns
To insert a column
1. Place the cursor where you want to insert a column.
2. In Table menu select Insert.. You can insert columns to the Left or Right of the current
column. Select either Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right

To insert a row:
1. Place the cursor anywhere you want to insert a row, it can be in a cell or just above or below a
table.
2. From Table click Insert. Select either Rows Above or Rows Below. You can insert rows
above or below the current row.
Inserting Header Rows
When you have a table that is likely to span more than one page, insert one or more header-rows so
that on each table the same headings appear. To Insert,
1. Select the row containing the heading.
2. From Table menu, select Headings Rows Repeat.

Resizing Rows and columns

1. To resize a row or a column, rest the row height pointer on the row boundary or the
column width pointer on the column boundary. Then drag the boundary to the
row height or column width you want.
2. To change the row height or column width to a specific measurement, select the row(s) or
column(s ) to resize. Select Table menu Table Properties …Click the Row tab and set the
measurement you want in the specify height which you should check first. For the column
click column tab and then set the measurements you want in the Preferred width box. Click
OK.

Page 120 of 288

Deleting rows, columns, cell or table
1. Select the cells, rows, columns or table you want to delete.
2. Click the Table>Delete menu option and then click the option you want to delete.
NB: If you are deleting cells, a further set of options is presented to enable you select the correct
cell to delete.

Merging cells in a table

Cell merging is combining two or more cells in the same row or column into a single cell (on e
cell).
To merge;
Select the cell(s), click on merge cells on the Table and Borders tool bar or Table>Merge cells
menu option.

Splitting rows / columns

This is sub diving or splitting a cell(s) into multiple cells in a table.

To split cells:
Select the cell(s) and click on Split cells on the Table and Borders toolbar or Table / Split cells
menu option.

Formatting Table Borders and shading

Table borders and shading features enable one
to give a table a more polished look.
Borders
To add borders to a table:
1. Click any where in the table. To add
borders to specific cells, select the cells
you want to add the border to.
2. On the Format menu, click Borders and
Shading, and then click the Borders tab.
A dialog box appears.
3. Make sure the correct option Table or cell
is selec5ted under Apply to box.
4. To specify that only particular sides get borders, click Custom under Setting.
5. Under preview, click the diagram’s sides or use the buttons to apply or remove the borders.
6. Click OK, once you finish selecting all the cells.

Shading
1. To add shading to a table, click anywhere in the table or to add shading to specific cells, select
the cells.
2. On the Format menu, click Borders and Shading, and then click the shading tab.
3. Select the options you want
4. Under Apply to, select cell to apply the shading to otherwise the shading will be applied to the
entire table.
To format Table with advanced features use Tables and Boarder toolbar. To display from View
menu>Toolbars>Table and Borders. It has a variety of buttons to achieve the following:

1.Draw table 6. Outside border

2.Eraser 7. Shading color
3. Line style 8. Insert table
4. Line weight 9. Merge cells
5. Border color 10. Split cells

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11. Align 15. Change Text Direction
12. Distribute rows evenly 16. Sort Ascending
13. Distribute columns evenly 17. Sort Descending
14. Table Autoformat 18. Autosum

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Table and borders toolbar

Page 122 of 288

 Table conversion
To convert a table to text;
1. Select the entire Table, or row and columns you want to
convert to text
2. From Table menu, select to Convert, then click Table to
Text. A dialog box appears requiring you to specify how text
will be separated after conversion

To convert a text into a table

1. Select the text
2. From the Table menu, select convert Text to Table.
3. Specify how your text is separated e.g. Tabs, commas, etc.
under separate text.

Importing table
Word lets you import tables from other applications or an existing file.
1. Click Insert menu then objects. A dialog box is displayed.
2. From the object the type select the type of object to insert e.g. Excel worksheet, Adobe table.
3. Click Create from file. This lets you browse for a file that contains the table you wish to insert.
4. Click OK to insert the table.

Performing Arithmetic Calculations on Table.

You can perform simple arithmetic operations on numerical values entered in a Word Table like
Multiplication using Product paste function, add using sum, count number values using count, highest
and lowest values using maximum and minimum paste functions.
To perform simple arithmetic calculations follow steps below:
1. Click the cell in which you want the results to appear
2. On Table menu, click Formula. A formula dialog box is displayed.
3.In the Paste
Product.

Name Eng Comp Maths total

=SUM(RIGHT) Jane 80 75 65 =SUM(LEFT)
June 70 65 50
Joyce 70 65 50
Jude 82 68 60
=SUM(ABOVE) =COUNT(ABOVE)

- To add all values for Eng : =SUM(ABOVE)

- To get total for Jane: =SUM(LEFT) or =SUM(RIGHT)
- To get number of students who sat for Comp: =COUNT(ABOVE)
- To get highest score in Eng. =MAX(ABOVE)

The word (BELOW) / (ABOVE) / (LEFT) / (RIGHT) in brackets is called the argument for the
formula and it tells Ms Word which cells in the table are to be worked on. The same can be achieved
using cell referencing e.g. to get total for Eng =SUM(C2:C5) it gives same result as =SUM(ABOVE)

Sorting
You can sort text, numbers or dates within a table or list in ascending or descending order. To sort
follow the steps below:
1. Highlight the text list or table you want to sort by placing the cursor in cell.
2. On Table menu click Sort

3.If you want the

option.
4. In Sort by box select the column or Header to sort by. Do likewise for Then by boxes.
5. Under Options .. button select the field separator, sort options, and language
6. To sort a single
In the Sort dialog box, select the Sort column only check
box.

7. 1.6 Mail merging

Mail merging is the process of generating a standard yet personalized letter to several people at the
same time; instead of repeating the letter with different addresses.
In mail merge the three files/documents created are:
(i). Form letter / main document – which contains the main text that is common to all recipients of
the document
(ii). Data source (the address book) – also called secondary file contains information that is specific
to each recipient e.g. Name, address, etc.
(iii). Merged File / Document – this combines the main document and the data source.

Step 1: Creating the Main Document

Leave spaces where the varying information (merge fields) will be inserted. Use a unique character
(e.g. *) if you feel you might forget where the spaces were, however remember to delete the
characters. After typing the main letter,
1. On the Tools menu select Letters and Mailing then select Mail Merge which pops up the Mail
Merge Task pane. Steps to completing the merge are displayed in a merge Task pane.
2. Select document type, in this case Letters.
3. State where the Main document will be created from select Use the current document.
4. Click Next to select recipients.

Step 11: Creating the data source

1. Under select recipients, you can type a new list, use an existing list or select from Outlook
contacts. Select type a new list option.
2. Click Create. A blank record form is presented as shown below, with options to Add, Edit, Delete
records, and to Customize fields. To change fields, click Customize, and then click one of the
options to Add, Delete, or Rename a field.
3. Click Create. A blank record form is presented, with options to Add, Edit, Delete records, and to
Customize fields. To change fields, click Customize, and then click one of the options to Add,
Delete, or name a field.
4. Click Ok when finished and type in a name for this source to be saved under. Click Save.

Step III adding Records into Data Source

1. Click Edit Data Source to enter data. A data form appears containing the field names that you
specified, and text boxes to enter your data.
2. When you have entered all the data, click OK.

Step IV: editing Main Document

1. Click next. Either Click More items button or click Insert Word Fields from Mail Merge
toolbar. Select the field you want and click insert.
2. Click Next to preview your letter.
3. Click next to complete the merge and select to Edit Individual letters to view all.

8. Review questions 1.4

1. What as a header? Distinguish it from a footer.
2. Explain the importance of page numbers in a document. How can you insert page numbers in a
multipage document when working with Microsoft Word?
3. Differentiate between drawing and inserting a table in a document.
4. What is a cell, row and column while working with tables?
5. How can you give different page numbering styles to different pages in a multipage document?
6. What is a page margin? Why are margins important?
7. Give a reason why it may be necessary to merge cells in a table.
8. Define the term sorting text.
9. Give two advantages of previewing a document before printing.
10. Differentiate between superscript and subscript font.
11. Why is it necessary to specify the correct paper size before printing a document?
12. Explain how you can convert some typed text into a table using Microsoft Word.
13. what would happen to the cursor in a table when the following actions are done:
(a). Pressing tab key
(b). Pressing the shift + Tab key
(c). Pressing enter key.
14. What is a function when working with calculations in Word processing?
15. Define each of the following:
(a). a form letter
(b). a data source
(c). mail merge
16. List four ways of merging a document with its data source.

a. Inserting Graphics and Special Symbols

Graphics are non-text images generated by a computer. They include graphics, photographs and
drawings. You can insert graphics from Clip Gallery, scanner or by using drawing tools available in
MS Word.

Inserting picture from a Clip Art gallery

Word comes with a ClipArt Gallery that includes a wide variety of ClipArts as People, scenic
backgrounds, nature, human activity, photographs, maps and so on. The ClipArts are categorized for
ease of searching through the gallery.
1. On the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click ClipArt.
2. The ClipArt Task Pane appears with options for searching.
 3. Click Organize clips at the bottom of the Task Pane. Clip Art Collection list is displayed as
thumb nails. Click the Plus sign (+) of the collection list to display the subfolders in it. Double
click a collection list you want to see the Clip Arts on the Right pane.

Click Organizer collection list.

4. Point on the required ClipArt. then click on the drop down arrow at the right of the clipart and
select copy.
5. To insert a picture place the cursor at the desired position and then paste.

Inserting picture from another file

To insert a picture from a file created in any other graphics application, follow t steps below:
1. Position the cursor where you want to insert the picture.
2. On the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click Fr
3. om File.
4. Locate the picture file you want to insert
5. Click Insert.

NB: you can reduce the size of a file by Linking the picture instead of Inserting by clicking the drop-
down button and selecting Link to file in the Insert Picture dialog box. You cannot edit the picture
but can see it and print in your document.

Inserting an image from a scanner

The scanner must be installed, connected to the computer and switched on. A scanner is a data capture
device that transforms a hand copy or real graphical object e.g. a photo into digital from.

To scan:
(a) Position the insertion pointer where you want your picture to appear.
(b) From the Insert menu, select Picture and then click from Scanner or Camera.
(c) To scan follow the instructions that come with the scanner model.
(d) When the image appears on the screen you can edit and format just like Clip Arts.

Editing and formatting pictures

….’;;;p[
To format or edit a pict”?:[‘[
is is done using the picture toolbar shown below, which let you to adjust brightness, contrast, change
color to black & white or Gray scale, Crop, rotate, wrap text, etc.

Change color Crop Text wrapping

Insert picture Rotate

Figure shows Picture toolbar

Cropping
Cropping is hiding the unwanted details so that they do not come out when printing (trimming the
unwanted edges of picture).
To crop a picture follow the steps below:
1. Click on the picture to be cropped
2. If the Picture Toolbar is not displayed right click the object and click Show Picture Toolbar
option.
3. On the Crop option, increase or decrease the trim for the Left, Right, Bottom and top by the
required magnitude.

Or Click the picture go to Format menu >picture >on picture Tab select Crop option, increase or
decrease (negative magnitude adds a margin between the picture and its frame)

\’/To resize or move a picture

 Select, the place holders appears.

 To move it, hold down the mouse button and drag.

 To resize it, place the pointer at one the place holders at the corners and drag inward or out wards

Wrap text around the picture, Vary contrast, colour and brightness of the picture by selecting and
clicking those icons on the picture toolbar.

Drawing Objects using the MS Word Drawing toolbar

You must use the Drawing toolbar to draw. To display the Drawing toolbar click Drawing on either
the Standard Toolbar or from View menu >>Toolbars >>Drawing.
The Drawing toolbar allows you to draw Boxes, Lines, Circles, Autoshapes, Arrows, callouts,
polygons, stars, lines, etc. It also allows you to format and transform the objects.

Figure shows Object toolbar

Drawing toolbar
 1. To draw click at the appropriate shape button or Autoshapes. The pointer changes to a plus
sign. (Press ESC key when Create your Drawing here box appears)
2. Place the pointer anywhere you want to draw that shape and drag to the required size.
3. to Draw from the Autoshapes click Drop down arrow and select your choice category

To resize or move an object

 Select, the place holders appears.
 To move it, hold down the mouse button and drag.
 To resize it, place the pointer at one the place holders at the corners and drag inward or out wards

To fill the object with color, fill effects and style (Shadow style & 3_D style)
1. Click on the object to select.
2. Click the down arrow of Fill color button, which looks like a bucket pouring ink.
3. Select the color you want applied. To fill the drawing with texture, gradient or pattern, click the
Effects button. From the resulting dialog box, select the appropriate fill effect.
4. to apply style select the object click style buttons to select style of your choice.

Inserting symbols and special characters

What is a symbol?
Is a special character that is not included on the standard keyboard.
To insert a symbol or a special character:
1. Move the text cursor to the position where the new symbol or character will be
inserted.
2. Click Insert Menu then Symbol command on the menu.

3. In the symbol dialog box select the appropriate symbol and click the Insert button.
4. To insert a special character e.g ® click special character tab and click the
appropriate special character then the Insert button.You can also insert ® by pressing
key combination Ctrl + Alt +R, © by pressing Ctrl + Alt +C, etc.
5. Click close button.

Word Art
You can add special effects to text by using the Word Art button on the Drawing toolbar. In WordArt,
you can create shadowed, skewed, rotated, and stretched text, as well that has been fitted to
predefined shapes.
You can select normal text usually a short phrase and change it to Word art by clicking the Word Art
of your choice.
Too you can edit a WordArt by clicking it the use Edit option on the WordArt toolbar.
 b. Printing a document
Printing allows you to create a hard copy or paper output of your document using a printer. It is
important to print Preview your document before printing because WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-
What-You-Get), meaning what you see on screen of the document is exactly what will be printed. We
print preview to do the following:
(a). Confirm that no details are outside the printable area
(b). Adjust the layout of your document or to ascertain the document layout is Okay before
printing .

To print Preview click Print Preview on the Standard toolbar or From File menu select Print
Preview option

To print
From File menu select Print or Press CTRL + P or click the Print icon on the Standard toolbar. A
print dialog appears.

Selecting the Printer

You can choose from any number of
printers that you have installed on your
computer. To select the printer to use,
click on the Printer Name list, which
shows a list of all installed printers and
pick the appropriate printer. Printer should
be well connected and switched on.

Printing a Range of Pages

1. Under Page Range, specify whether you want to print the Entire Document, Current Page, Selected
Text or Specified Page Numbers.

2. If you choose Pages enter the page numbers and ranges you want to include e.g. to print pages 1,
2 ,5 through 9, and page 1, type 1,2,5-9,12 in the Pages box.
3. If you have highlighted some text in the document to be printed, then click on the Selection button
in the Print Range box. When you select for example some text like a paragraph the selection
option under Page Range becomes active.

Printing multiple copies

In the Number of copies box, enter the number of copies you want to print. To print a complete copy
of document before the first page of the next copy is printed, select the Collate check box. If you
prefer to print all copies of the first page and then print all copies of the subsequent pages, clear the
Collate check box.

Printing only Odd or Even Pages

Sometimes you want to print on two sides of the paper, in which case you print the Odd pages and
Even pages separately. To print only the odd or even pages within a document, select the option by
clicking on the Print list at the bottom of the dialog box.

Troubleshooting printing related problems:

Some of the printing problems you may encounter are:
o Lack of two-way communication due to poor installation of the printer software (drivers), if the
printer is off or not connected.
o Paper jam due to use of poor quality of paper or paper folds.
o Poor quality print due to poor ink or toner used.

*Read the manual that comes with the printer to solve printing problems.

Revision questions
1. Define the term graphic and give one example
2. Explain how to achieve the following
(a). to move a graphic from one place on the page to another
(b). to change the brightness of a graphic

2. List three sources of graphics that can be used in Microsoft Word.

3. What is an autoshape
4. How can you do the following:
(a). change the thickness of an autoshape outline
(b). fill an autoshape with color
(c). enter text in an autoshape
5. What is the difference between object linking and embedding?
6. Describe how you would increase the size of a clip art that is embedded in a document.
7. Give any three sources of images or objects in a word processor.
8. Explain the concept of importing objects into z word processor.
2.0 SPREADSHEETS
Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
a). Define a spreadsheet
b). Describe the components of a spreadsheet
c). State the application areas of a spreadsheet
d). Create and edit a worksheet
e). Explain different cell data types
f). Apply cell referencing
g). Apply functions and formulae
h). Apply data management skills
i). Apply charting and graphing skills
j). Print worksheet and graph

2.1 Definition of spreadsheets:

Is a ledger sheet consisting of a series of rows and columns that enables the user enter, edit and
manipulate numerical data.

Types of Spreadsheets
Are tow namely
a). Manual Spreadsheet
it consists of a book like ledge with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns on which
data elements are entered manually using a pen or pencil.

b). Electronic Spreadsheet

- Is prepared using a computer program that enables the user to enter values in rows and columns and
manipulate them mathematically using formulae.

Advantages of electronic spreadsheet over manual spreadsheet

1. Entries made using electronic spreadsheets are faster and accurate.
2. It offers large area for data entry and manipulation at least 255 columns and 255 rows
3. It has inbuilt formulae called functions that enables the user to quickly manipulate numerical data.
4. Performs automatic recalculation this is when you change one figure, the rest of the figures in the
spreadsheet are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the different input.
5. Data sorting and filtering capability.
6. Has templates that can be used as the basis for other similar workbooks such as invoices.
7. Data validation to ensure that correct data is entered into the spreadsheet
8. Ability to adjust column widths and row heights, hide rows and columns and freeze panes.
9. Electronic spreadsheet produces neat and presentable output.
10.It utilizes large storage devices to save and retrieve.

Examples of electronic spreadsheets

- Lotus 1-2-3
- Corel Quattro-Pro
- Microsoft Excel
- MultiPlan
- VisiCalc
- VP-Planner
- OpenOffice Calc

2.2 Components of a Spreadsheet

They are three namely: Worksheet, Database, and Graphs.
(A). Worksheet
1. Consists of cells organized into rows and columns in which data values ate entered. A group of
worksheets is called a workbook.
(B). Database
2. A Database is a list items stored in a worksheet. The data management feature can be found on the
data menu. Columns in the list are the fields and rows are the records.

(C). Graph (Chart)

3. A graph / chart is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet. Different types of
charts such as pie, bar, line and column can be created as separate chart sheets or within the data
worksheet (embedded chart).

2.3 Application areas of spreadsheets

i). Accounting
Spreadsheet comes with inbuilt functions that make accounting task easier .sales can be recorded,
invoices produced and statements compiled by accountants and business people.

ii). Data Management

Enables neat arrangement of data into tabular structure. Data such as client lists and product lists can
be managed using a spreadsheet. The data can be sorted, filtered and tallied. Spreadsheets can be used
to easily produce statistical reports easily.

iii). Statistical analysis

The built-in statistical analysis tools speed up data manipulation. Researchers can compile their
students marks and produce overall results. Examples of statistical functions include: Average,
median, mode, maximum, minimum, count, sum, etc.

iv). Forecasting (What if analysis)

Can be used to forecast an outcome. This feature involves changing the value of one argument in a
formula to see the difference the change would make on the results of the calculation. Different
parameters can be tested in order to reach an optimum value.

v). Scientific applications

Engineers, scientific and technical users store empherical data, perform statistical analysis, build and
prepare complex mathematical models using spreadsheets.

vi). Home or personal

Involves tracking cash, preparing household budgets and personal financial statements.

2.4 Starting Microsoft Excel 2003

There are three ways of starting Ms Excel:
1. click on the start \All Programs button and click on Microsoft Office\ Microsoft Excel 2003
2. double click on the Excel icon on the Desktop or Ms office shortcut bar
3. When you double click any Excel document, it starts the Excl program and opens the workbook
automatically.
2. You can also use templates to create a workbook. File\New command then under templates pane
task click templates on my computer. Click spreadsheet solutions tab
The Ms application window appears.
The excel window
In Excel, a workbook is the user file that holds information. It allows you to organize various kinds of
related information into a single file. Each Workbook consists of several Worksheets.

The Microsoft Excel Application Window

Formatting
Standard toolbar Formular bar toolbar Title bar
Menu bar

Column
header

Name box Insert Function button

ACTIVE CELL

Vertical
Scroll bar
Row

Horizontal
scrollbar

Worksheet
Browsers Worksheet tab
Status bar
Worksheets – is a one sheet in workbook. The worksheet is a grid made up of rows and columns
containing information.

Column
Columns are vertical divisions of worksheet that are identified by letters across the top edge. Columns
represent a field in spreadsheet table. There are 256 columns in a worksheet, which are labeled A, B,
C …Z, then AA, AB through to IV. For example the first column is A, the 27 th column is AA and the
256th column is IV (ascertain practically on screen).
 Row
Rows are the horizontal divisions of a worksheet and are identified by numbers on the left edge of the
worksheet. There are 65,536 rows in a worksheet which are numbered 1,2,3, through to 65,536. A row
represents a record in a spreadsheet table.

Cell
Cells are boxes created by intersection of Row and a Column, which contain the Worksheet’s data
and formulae. There are 16,777,216 (i.e. 256*65,536) cells in one worksheet. The current cell
(highlighted by a thick border) is called the Active Cell, and is the location for typing in the
worksheet. Each cell can contain different type of information. Excel data comes into two types:
labels and values.
Elements of Excel window
Element Description
Title bar The name of the workbook plus the minimize, maximize and close buttons
appears here.
Menu bar Shows available options for working with data in spreadsheet.
Standard toolbar Has shortcut commands for mostly used menu commands
Formatting toolbar It contains common commands for text formatting found on the format
menu.

Formula bar Enables the user to enter or edit a formula or data cell. It has equal sign (or
fx). To the left of the Formula bar is Name box that displays the position of
the cell in which data or formula is being entered, its also called the current
cell. To display Formula bar click View menu then Formula bar.

Column labels The letters across the top of the worksheet, which identify the columns in
the worksheet.

Row numbers The numbers down the side of the rows in the worksheet

Cell pointer A special cursor that is rectangular in shape. It marks the position of the
current cell or the insertion point.

Worksheet browsers For navigating through the worksheets

Worksheet tabs/labels Used to select worksheets which are usually of the format Sheet 1, Sheet 2,
etc. to move to a particular worksheet tab/label, simply click its sheets
label/tab. You can rename and insert sheets by right clicking on the sheet tab
then choose rename or insert from the shortcut menu. (Insert` and rename a
worksheet practically).the active worksheet name is displayed in bold with a
transparent background.
Status bar Indicates the current activity for example Edit, Enter, Saving, Ready, etc.
Cell range name box Shows the name of current cell, range or function.
Vertical and horizontal Moves the worksheet vertically and horizontally. The arrows you click to
bars and arrows scroll and the bar you drag to scroll.

Navigating the Microsoft Excel

1. press Enter to move down one cell
2. press Shift + Enter to move up one cell
3. press Tab or Right arrow key to move right one cell
4. press Shift + Tab or Left arrow key to move to the left one cell
5. Press Ctrl + Home to move the cell pointer to the first cell of the worksheet i.e. Cell A1.
6. Press Ctrl + Downward arrow key to move to the last row of the worksheet then Press Ctrl +
Right arrow key to move to the last cell of the worksheet.
Creating a worksheet using a template
You can also use templates to create a
workbook as follows:
1. With Excel already open, choose File/New
menu.
2. On the Task Pane, click on Templates: On
my computer …
3. In the Templates Window, click either
General or Spreadsheet Solutions Tabs.
4. Click on a Template to preview it. Click
OK to create a new blank Workbook with
the selected template.

Editing a cell entry

Editing is changing the contents of the cell. The cell must be selected before changing the contents by
1. Move the cell pointer to the cell to be edited
2. Double click the formula bar for the text cursor to appear in the bar. The status bar changes to
Edit.
3. Use the keyboard to delete and add contents to the formula bar then press enter key to apply. Save
the edited changes.

Selecting a Range
When working with a large amount of data using a range saves time. A Range is a rectangular
arrangement of cells specified by the address of its top left and bottom right cells, separated by a
colon (:) e.g. Range A1:C10. A Range can also be a single column or row.

Selecting multiple ranges

Using a mouse you can select more than one range without removing the highlight from the previous.
To do this hold down CTRL key while you click the next range. You will realize that CTRL selects
individually clicked cells or Range.

Hiding rows or columns

Rows / columns are hidden in order to see some details, which do not fit on the screen. To hide:
1. Highlight the columns / rows to be hidden.
2. Select the row or column to be hidden.
3. From format menu select row / column then click Hide
Alternatively, select the rows/columns to be hidden. Right click then from the short cut
menu click Hide option.

Entering data
1. Point the mouse pointer at the cell and click the left mouse button. The cell pointer moves to the
cell in which you want to enter data.
2. Type in the data using the keyboard.
3. Press Enter.

Numbers
Numbers are constant values consisting of the following characters: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 , + - ( ) / $ % E
(E is the scientific notation for power of 10). You can enter decimal fraction such as 3 ¼ or 2/3 ; or
scientific notation such as 5.871E+3 (meaning 5.871 x 103). To enter a number
1. Click the cell in which you want to enter the number
2. Type the number into the cell. Precede a negative number with a minus sign (-).
3. Press Enter or Tab key to accept the entry.
4. To enter a fraction, type a number - even if it is zero, then space, and then the fraction ( a
numerator, the slash sign / and a denominator). If you omit the zero, the fraction will be
interpreted as a short date. Examples are 4 1/3, 27 2/7 and 0 3/8 (4 1/4 , 272/7 and 3/8). Excel
simplifies fractions when you enter them, if you enter 0 4/8, for example, Excel converts the entry
to 1/2 .
NB: a cell filled with # symbol indicates that the column is not wide enough to display the number.
You can change the number format or widen the column to display the number.

Text
Text entries include a combination of alphabets, numbers and symbols up to a maximum of 255
characters in a cell. To type a number as text, for example 0755296328, precede the number with an
apostrophe (‘), for example ‘0755296328.
1. Select the cell in which you want to enter text. Then, type the text into the cell, and press Enter.
2. If the current cell is not wide enough and the cell to its right contains data, then the text you enter
will appear to be truncated. To automatically fit the column to its widest text entry, double click
the right boundary of the column.
3. To enter a “Hard Return” in a cell, press Alt + Enter. A Hard Return is a new line contained
within the cell.

Entering row and column labels

Columns and Row headings within the worksheet identify your data. Column headings are entered
across the top of data table. Row headings are entered on the side of the data table.

Saving a Workbook
To save a worksheet, one has to save the workbook in which it belongs using a unique name, on the
disk. When you save the workbook for the first time, you are prompted to specify the file name and
the location on disk in which to store it.
Use the following steps to save
1. Click the Save button or choose File/Save menu.
2. Specify a file name in the File Name box in the resulting dialog window.
3. Select the drive and folder where you want to save the file and click save
4. If it is an existing workbook, a Save message box prompts you to save the Workbook. Click Yes
to save the changes and close the file; or No to cancel changes and close the file; or Cancel to
return to the Workbook without saving.

Saving Automatically
Excel can save your Workbooks automatically, as you work on them by using the AutoSave feature.
You determine how often to Save and whether the setting is for the active Workbook or all open
Workbooks option.
1. With Excel Open, choose Tools/Options menu.
2. In the Autosave dialog box, check mark the Automatic Save Every check box and in the
Minutes text box enter the time interval for saving.
3. To Save all open Workbooks automatically, select the Save All Open Workbooks option,
otherwise, select the Save Active Workbook only option.
4. If you want to be prompted to save the Workbook, check –mark the Prompt Before Saving box
and click OK.

Retrieving a saved Workbook

This is opening a Workbook that was previously saved.
1. From File menu, click Open or click Open command from the standard toolbar. The open dialog
box appears on screen.
2. Click the Look In drop down list arrow and select the drive or folder where the workbook was
saved.
3. Double click the icon of the Workbook you want to open and the Worksheet will be displayed in
the Ms Excel window.

Closing a worksheet
Once you have finished working with a Workbook, close the file to clear it from memory. You can
close just the active Workbook or All open Workbooks at once.
1. To close just one Workbook, select it from Window menu and click File/Close menu.
Alternatively, click the close button of the Worksheet window.
2. To close all open Workbooks, hold the Shift key and click File / Close All menu.

Exiting from the spreadsheet

Before you exit the Excel program save all the loaded Workbooks so that you preserve recent changes
made to the Workbooks. When closing the program Excel displays a message box, reminding you to
save any changed workbook.
1. Choose File/Exit menu. Alternatively click the close button of the Main application window. If
you have already saved all changes in the Active Workbooks, Excel closes.
2. If a Save Changes message box appears click Yes to save changes or No if you do not want to
Save changes or Cancel to return to Excel without saving.

2.5 Cell Data Types

There are four basic types of data used with spreadsheets:
i). labels
ii). Values
iii). Formulae
iv). Functions

i). Label
Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell. Labels provides descriptive information and are
used as row and column headings to describe the contents of a row or column. A label has no
numerical significance in Excel and are aligned to the left of the cell.

ii). Values
Is a data that has numerical significance. Values includes numbers, date and time that you enter in
your worksheet. Values can be acted on by formulas and functions.

iii). Formulae
They are user designed mathematical expressions that create a relationship between cells and return a
value in a chosen cell. They perform simple calculations such as Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication
and division.
Note that a formula begins with equal sign (=) which tells Excel that the information you are about to
place in the cell is a calculation. E.g. To add the contents of two cells such as A1 and B1, and multiply
the results by 2,, the formula to use in cell C1 would be:
=(A1+B1)*2
Creating appropriate formulas requires the an understanding of the rules of precedence.

Entering a formula.
When typing formulas that have Cell References, you can either type out the cell address or click to
select the Cells. The formula also appears in the Formula bar as you type it. The cells that are referred
to in the Formula bar are highlighted with different color borders.
Spreadsheet formulas follow the same rules and logic used in ordinary mathematical formulas, the
only differences are in use of symbols and that in spreadsheet you start with an = sign.

To type a formula:
1. select the cell where you will place the formula
2. Type the equal sign (=) into the cell to begin the formula.
3. Enter the appropriate values, cell references and operators for the formula.
4. To enter a cell address you can either type the address or click on the specific cell or range.
5. When you finish typing the formula, press Enter to calculate the result.

ii). Functions
- Functions are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to create
a new one each time a calculation is to be done. OR
- Functions are ready-made formulas, built into the Spreadsheet, to perform a series of operations on
a specified range.
For example to determine the average of a series of numbers from A1 to A10, you can enter the
Function =Average(A1:A10).

Excel functions can be categorized into:

o Financial o Lookup and reference
o Mathematical; and trigonometric o Text
o Date and time o Logical
o Statistical o Database and information
2.6 Cell referencing
Cell Referencing is the location identity of a cell or range of cells on the worksheet. With cell
References you can refer to the cell containing the data rather than the data it self. This way, even if
the value in the referred cell changes the formula will still hold true.
By default, Ms Excel uses A1 reference style where a cell is identified by its column label followed
by row number e.g. B2, C4, D3, etc. You can also use R1C1 reference style where both the row and
the column are numbered e.g D20 will be R20C4. R1C1 style is useful for computing the row and
column positions in Macros and showing cell references.

There are three types of cell referencing as follows;

(a). Relative cell referencing:
Is a method of referring to a cell such that a formula copied across a group of cells changes
relative to the position of each cell into which it is copied to. The cell references keep on
changing automatically depending on their position in the worksheet. References to cells or
Ranges are based on their position relative to the cell that contains the formula.

Cell referredA B C D
to by1 B2
2 25 =A2*10
3 100
4
Fig. shows relative cell reference in a formula

When you copy the formula that uses a Relative Reference, the pasted formula will refer to a different
cell, but with the same relative position as with the original formula. E.g from the above worksheet,
when you copy the formula in cell B2 to cell B3, the formula changes from =A2 to =A3. in relative
terms, A3 is still one column to the left and one row above Cell B4. See below worksheet.

A B C D
1
2 25 =A2*10
3 100 =A3*10
4

Pasted cell – Relative reference to A3

Fig. shows relative cell reference after pasting

(b). Absolute cell reference

Is a method of referring to the cell such that a constant value can be copied across a group of cells.
The reference is made to a specific address and does not change even if the formula is copied to
another cell i.e. the cell referred to is the same, no matter which cell refers to it. To absolute a
formula, type a dollar sign ($) before the column letter and before the row number. For example from
the above worksheet fig. the formula in B2 now refers to $A$2 (Absolute Reference). When copied to
C2, the pasted formula still refers to $A$2

(c). Mixed cell reference

This is a reference that is partially absolute. The formulas may contain cell addresses where the
column is Relative Reference and the row is Absolute Reference, or the column is Absolute
Reference and the row is Relative Reference. For example A$2 or $A2.

Reference using labels and names

This involves using labels of columns and rows on a worksheet to refer to the cells that fall within
those columns or rows. A descriptive name in formula makes it readable and easier to understand the
purpose of the formula. For example, the formula =SUM(FirstQuarterSales) might be easier to
identify than =SUM(C10:C20). In this case the FirstQuarterSales represents the range C10:C20 on
the worksheet named Sales.
Names can also be used to represent Formulas or Constants. For example, you can use the name
SalesTax to represent the sales tax amount (such as 16%) applied to sales.

To create named a cell, Formula, Constant or Range:

1. Select the Cell, Range or nonadjacent cells that you want to name.
2. Click inside the Name box in the formula bar to move the text cursor inside. Delete the cell
reference that is there.
3. Type the name for the Cells, for Example SalesTax and press Enter.
NB: Names have no spaces in between. Keep them simple.

Name box displays the name of the

highlighted range C2:C5

Review question s 2.1

1.Define a spreadsheet.
2.What is an electronic spreadsheet?
3.Give four advantages each of an electronic spreadsheet over a:
a). Traditional analysis ledger
b). a calculator
4.Describe the three components of a spreadsheet.
5.State five application areas of spreadsheets.
6.What is forecasting? How can a spreadsheet help a person to do this?
7. Match the following statements with the answers.
Statement Answers
(a). Click this to reduce the Ms Excel window size to (A). Name box
an icon on the task bar. (B). Save command
(b). Displays the current / active cell address. (C). Save as command
(c). Saves the file without changing its current address (D). Minimize button
and name. (E). The row
(d). Location where you can edit the contents of a cell. (F). Formula bar.

2. Give any two methods you can use to start ms Excel.

3. Differentiate between a formula and a function.
4. Write the following formula as absolute =F10+G20
5. The formula =A1+C2 is initially typed in cell D1. what will it be when copied to cell E1?
6. Differentiate between a worksheet and a workbook.
7. State the effect of pressing each of the following key combination on the cell pointer.
a). Right Arrow key b). Shift + Tab c). Ctrl + Home
8. define each of the following:
a). cell b). Rowc). Column
9. How can you close the Microsoft Excel worksheet without exiting from the application.
10. Write the equivalent R1C1 reference for G20.
11. What is a name reference? How can you accomplish this in Microsoft Excell?
12. What is a template? Explain how you can start a spreadsheet template in Ms Excel.
13. State four data types acceptable to spreadsheets and explain each one of them.
14. a). differentiate between single and multiple cell referencing
b). what is a range?

2.7 Basic Functions and Formulae

A function consists of three elements:
(a). The = sign, which indicate the starting of a Function.
(b). The Function name, such as Sum, Product which indicates the operation to be performed.
(c). The Arguments, which are the values to be acted upon by the function e.g. numeric, logical
values or text enclosed in parenthesis. A1 Argument can be a value of 14%, a range e.g. A1:A10,
or a name e.g. SalesTax. Multiple Arguments are separated by commas. Some Functions, such as
=Now( ), have no Arguments other Functions have one Argument for example =year (37245).
Most Functions have multiple Arguments for example =Average(F2,F3,G1:G4,H5:H8), separated
by commas.

To enter Functions into the Worksheet type the Function and Arguments in the Formula Bar or click
Insert Function menu then Function or Click Insert button, in the standard toolbar which walks you
through the process of creating a Function.

The following are the categories of inbuilt functions:

i). Statistical ii). Mathematical iii). Logical iv). Date and time

a). Statistical Functions

 Average e.g. =Average(A1:A10);returns the average (arithmetic mean)of its arguments which
can be numbers or names, arrays,or references that contain numbers.
 Count e.g. =Count(B1:B5); counts the number of cells that contain values in the selected range
of cells.
 Counta Counts the numbers of cells that are not empty and the values within the list of
arguments.
 Max e.g =Max(B4:B20); returns the largest value in a range of cells.
 Min e.g. =Min(D1:D6); returns the smallest value in a range of cells.
 Mode e.g. =Mode(A10:E10),; returns the most frequently occurring value in arrange of cells.
 Rank: Returns the position or the rank of a number in a list by comparing its size relative to
others.
E.g. if C2 to C10 contains numbers, the general format is =Rank(Number to be ranked, range,
order). Also if you want to all numbers to be ranked in descending order, then the rows or both
column & row must be absolute. Therefore, =Rank(C2,C2:C10,0) will only Rank the value in cell
C2 in descending order. To Rank the rest absolute as: =Rank(C2,C$2:C$10,0) 0r
=Rank(C2,$C$2:$C$10,0) and press Enter; then copy down the formula upto cell C10. To rank in
ascending order, use order as 1 e.g =Rank(C2,C$2:C$10,1)

b). Logical Functions

 If e.g. =IF(A5>1500,”Bonus”, “No Bonus)
It allows you to place a conditional function in a cell. Tests a condition and takes an action
depending on the outcome of the test. I.e. if A5 is greater than 1500 then “Bonus” is placed in
the cell, otherwise “No Bonus” is placed in the cell. Also =If(Marks>50, “Pass”, “Fail”). Will
display a Pass if values are more than 50 else it will display Fail.
The format of IF function is: =IF(logical – test, value – if – true, value – if – false)
The remark should be enclosed in double quotes.

NB: When working with a huge range of value, you can paste upto a maximums of 7 IF Functions,
then command it to switch to place the condition in the next column. Also you can use Lookup
function for the same to paste more without breaking especially when grading.
(Attempt KCSE 2005 Qs.4)
The cells K3 to K10 of a worksheet contain remarks on students performance such as very good,
good, fair and fail depending on the average mark. Write a formula that can be used to count all
students who have the remark “very good”. (2 marks)

 Countif: Counts the number of cells within a specified range that meets the given condition or
criteria. E.g. If B2:F2 contains Eggs, Beans, Beans, Eggs, Eggs: =Countif(B2:F2, “Beans”) will
return 2.
 Sumif: It adds values in the cells specified by a given condition or criteria. E.g. If A10 to E10
contains values 40,20,60,85,50, to sum all values greater than 50 =SumIf(A10:E10, “>50”). This
returns 145.

c). Mathematical functions

 Sum e.g. =Sum(A1:B5)
Add all numbers in a range of cells and returns the result in the specified cell (Current cell).

 ROUND ()
Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places. Zero rounds off the number to the
nearest integer. E.g. =ROUND(46.678,1) returns 46.7 while =ROUND(D4,2) rounds the value in
cell D4 to two decimal places while =ROUND(49.768,0) return 50.
 Product E.g. =Product(A1:B1). Multiplies the values in the cells.
 Exponentiation (^): E.g. =A1^3
Enters the result of raising the value in cell A1 to power of 3.
 SQTR(D3) – calculates the square root of the cell specified.
 Division (/) e.g. =A1/B1
Divides the value in cell A1 by the value in cell B1
 Subtraction E.g. =B1-B2
Minus (Subtracts) the value in cell B2 from the value in cell B1

Date and time functions

Some functions have no arguments like;
TODAY( ) – returns a number that represents today’s date.
NOW( ) – returns the current date and time formatted as date and time.
 DATE – returns a serial number that represents a particular date e.g. =DATE(107,1,4) returns January
4, 2007. Since Ms Excel uses year 1900 serial number , Year = (1900 + 107), Month =1, day = 4.
HOUR( ), MINUTE( ) or SECOND( ) – function returns the current hour as number 0 to 23, minute
from 0 to 59 and seconds from 0 to 59 respectively.

Using Insert Function Feature

It is easier to create functions using Insert Function button . This feature guides you through the
process of entering a function and specify the appropriate
Arguments. Suppose you want to compute the sum,
average, maximum and minimum values of student marks.
To use the Insert Function, follow the steps below:
1. click in the cell where you want to place the function
then type = sign.
2. Select Insert/Function menu or click the Insert
Function button. The insert function dialog box
appears as shown .
3. Select the function you want to use, e.g. SUM, and
click OK. The function Argument dialog box similar
to the one shown appears.
4. Next, enter the range of cells to use as Arguments in
the Function or click the collapse button of argument’s text box to take you to the Worksheet.
5. Use the mouse to select the cells that you want to place in the Function, for example C4:C8.
6. Click the Expand button to go back to the Function Arguments dialog box.
7. As you fill in Arguments, partial function results are displayed.
8. Click OK to accept the function.

d). Arithmetic Formulae- using operators

Operator Function
+ (Plus) Adds values as specified
- (minus) Subtracts values as specified
* (multiplication) Multiplies values
/ (Division) Divides values
^ (Exponentiation) Raises a values in a cell to a specified
power.
( ) Parenthesis Encloses arguments to be calculated
first.

Order of execution
Operator Name Precedence
 1. - Negation as in -1 1
2. % Percent 2
3. ^ Exponentiation 3
4. * and / Multiplication and division 4
5. + and - Addition and subtraction 5
6. =, <>, >, <, <=, >= Relational 6

Creating appropriate formulas requires an understanding of the rules of precedence.

Whatever is in the Brackets ( ) should be calculated first. If there are imbedded brackets, the
innermost brackets are calculated first.
In the case of multiplication / division and addition / subtraction, the operators will execute in the
order they appear in the formula from left to right

Excel error messages

Error Description
#DIV/0! The formula is attempting to divide by zero. Check cell references for
blanks or zeros that may have resulted if you deleted a cell referenced by
the formula.
#N/A The formula refers to a cell that contains no value or an #N/A entry. This
error value warns you that not all the data referenced by a formula is a
available.
#NAME? Excel does not recognize a function, range or name you entered in a
formula. Verify that all names used in the formula exist, and define any
missing names. Verify also that you used the correct function name.
#NULL! The formula refers to an invalid range. Check to see if you entered the
cell or range reference correctly. Remember to use commas (not spaces)
between function arguments.
#NUM! There is a problem with a number used in the formula. Check for correct
use of function arguments.
#REF! A cell reference in the formula is incorrect. Check for changes to cell
reference caused by deleting cells, rows reflected.
#VALUE! The formula contains the wrong type of argument or operator. Check for
the correct syntax of the formula.
CIRCULAR Error appears on the status bar. The formula either directly or indirectly,
refers on the status, refers to the same cell in which the formula is
written, for example, typing =A3*c3 in cell A3
########## The column is not wide enough to accommodate the value or a negative
date or time is used. Increase the column width or shrink the contents to
fit the column. Avoid using negative time or date.

2.8 Editing a Worksheet

Copying and moving data
Copying and pasting is done:
1. To reduce effort and time taken to repeat the same information and formatting in other cells, or
sheets.
2. To facilitate the copying of information between different Excel files.
3. To facilitate the copying of information between Excel and other Window applications.

To copy a cell or a range of cells:

1. Highlight the cell or range of cells you want copied
2. Click on Copy button. This action places whatever you had selected into a temporary storage area
within the computer called the Clipboard.
3. Go to the sheet or cell in which you want to place the copy.
4. Click on the Paste button. This places whatever was in the Clipboard into your Worksheet starting
from the current position.

Copying only aspects of a range

1.
Instead of clicking on the Paste button (step 4 above), select
Special on the Edit menu.
2.
Choose the aspects you want to paste that is, formats, cell
contents or values from the resulting dialog box.

Moving data
Unlike Copy command where a duplicate is created, the Move
(Cut) command transfers the contents of the original cell(s) to a
new location.
To move (cut) a range of cells:
1. highlight the range you want to move
2. From the Edit menu select Cut or click on Cut button or press Ctrl + X.
3. Specify the location you want to move the contents to.
4. Click Paste command.

2.9 Worksheet formatting

It enhances the appearance and improve readability of the worksheet. Empty cells can be formatted
and their contents will acquire the set format
automatically.
Using the Format /cells command enables a person to
format numbers, alignment, font, border, patterns and
specify protection.

Formatting text
You can format font face, size, color, style and apply
effects using Format/Cell menu then click Font tab.
Format font dialog box appears, which you use.

Text alignment
Excel automatically aligns Text to the left and Numbers to the right. You can override this automatic
alignment and specify how you want data aligned within the cell: to the Left, Right, Center, Justified,
or Centered across a Range of cells. By using Format/Cells command and click Alignment tab.
Select one of the alignment options in the horizontal or vertical drop-down list and click OK.

Rotating text
 You can also align text so that the letters are stacked,
rotated counter-clockwise between 0 0 and 900
(reading downwards)., or rotated clockwise between
00 and -900 (reading downwards). To do this:
1. Select the cell or range containing data you want
to rotate.
2. Choose Format/Cells menu, and click Alignment
tab.
3. In the Orientation box, drag the red-tipped
pointer up or down to change the orientation; or,
specify a value between 90 and -90 degrees in the
Degrees box. Click OK.

Shrinking Text to Fit in a cell.

If you need to fit text in a cell without widening the column containing the text, you can shrink the
size of the text by using the Shrink to Fit alignment option.

To do this;
1. Select the cell or range containing data you want to format
2. Choose Format/Cells menu, and click Alignment tab.
3. In the Text Control area, select the Shrink to Fit check box. Then click OK.

Wrapping text in a cell

If you enter a long text entry in a cell, you can have Excel wrap the text so that it forms a paragraph
that fits inside that cell. The cell’s height increases to accommodate multiple lines of text. To do this:
1. Select the cell or range containing data you want to format.
2. Choose Format/Cells menu, and click Alignment tab.
3. In the Text Control area, select the Wrap Text check box and click OK.

Formatting Numbers
The formatting toolbar contains buttons to format numbers. To use these Tolls, select the cells, and
click the desired button.

Currency Style Percent Style Comma Style

Increase Decimal

Decrease Decimal
 Number formatting options
Excel’s Format Cells menu offers a wide range of Number Formats and even allows you to create
Custom Number Formats. To use the Number Format in a worksheet, follow the steps below:

1.
Select the cell that contains the values you want to format.
2.
Select Format/Cells menu and click the Number tab.
3.
Select the required Number Format category you want to
use.
4.
For each listed category, the available types of format are
listed. Select the type you want to use. The sample box
displays the Format for the selected type.
5.
Click OK to assign Number Format to the selected cells.

The various number formats are explained below.

Format Description
General Cells have no specific number format. Displays the value as you enter. It only
displays currency or percentage signs if you enter them yourself.
Number The default number format has two decimal places. Negative numbers are preceded
by a minus sign, may appear in red, or may be enclosed in parentheses.
Currency The default currency format has two decimal places and a dollar sign. Negative
numbers appear with a minus sign or may appear in red and/or parentheses.
Accounting This format is used to align dollar signs and decimal points in a column. The
default accounting format has two decimal places and a dollar sign.
Date The default Date format is Month, Day and Year, separated by slash. There are a
number of Date Formats.
Time The default time format is Hours and minutes separated by a colon. However, you
can opt to display Seconds, and am/pm (12-hour) or a 24-hour clock format.
Percentage The default Percentage format is two decimal places and a % sign. To display in
percentage, the value is multiplied by 100 and the results displayed with a
percentage sign.

Fraction The default Fraction Format is Up-To-One Digit type, but you can change it to Up-
To-Three Digit Format, or to one the common fraction formats.
Scientific e.g. 3.84E+12. The default Scientific format is one digit number with two decimal
places followed by the letter “E” (Exponent or Base 10), the plus or minus sign and
the exponent (power of) value.
Text The Text format is used to display both text and numbers in a cell as text. The cell
is displayed exactly as keyed in.
Special e.g. 000-00-0384 (Social Security Number). This format is especially designed to
 display Zip codes, phone numbers and Social Security numbers according to the
country in which they are used. You do not have to enter special characters such as
leading zeros and hyphens.
Custom Use Custom format to create your own number format. You can use any of the
format codes in the Type list and then make changes to those codes. The # symbol
represents a number placeholder, and 0 represents a zero placeholder.

Worksheet borders
Placing Borders around cells adds emphasis, define data entry areas, or mark totals and subtotals.
To do this:
1.Select the cell or range where you want to add a border.
2.Choose Format/Cells menu and click the Border tab.
3.Select the Border
option.
4.If you want to
and select a color from the palate.
5.Click OK.

F ormatting rows and columns

Adjusting (changing) column width
Adjusting column width helps to fit the data contained in those columns. Can also help you fit more
data on-screen or in a printout. If a column is not wide enough to display a Number, or Date, or Time
then Excel displays the # character in the cell.
To adjust the column width, follow the steps below:
1. Move the pointer onto the right boundary of the Column Heading . The pointer changes to a two-
headed horizontal arrow . To change the width of column B, for example, move the
pointer onto the line between the B and C headings.
2. Drag the column left or right to the desired width.
3. Release the mouse button.
 You can auto-adjust a column to fit the widest text. Double-click the right boundary of the column.
 To resize multiple columns, select the columns and drag the right boundary of one of the selected
columns, or use Format/Column width and type a column width in the dialog box.
Enhance the appearance

Adjusting (changing) row height

The height of a Row adjusts automatically to the largest font size in a row. Excel enables you to
manually adjust the row height when you need additional space between rows of data. If you reduce
the height of a row too much, the tops of the characters are cut off.
To adjust row heights, follow the steps below:
1. Move the pointer onto the bottom boundary of the Row Heading. The Pointer changes to a two-
headed, vertical arrow. To change the height of row 7, for example, move the pointer onto the line
between numbers 7 an d8.
2. Drag the row up or down to the desired row height and release the mouse button.
- You can auto-adjust a row to fit the largest font. Double click the bottom boundary of the row.
- To size multiple rows, select the rows and drag the bottom boundary of one of the selected rows.
- To resize all rows in the Worksheet, click the Select All button, drag the desired height and release
the mouse button.

Inserting and Deleting Rows and Columns

To insert or delete columns, follow the steps below:
 1. if you are inserting a column, select the Column Header of the column that will be displaced to the
right and choose Insert/Columns
2. If you are deleting a column, select the Column Header of the column you want to delete and
choose Edit/Delete.
Also can right click the selected column(s) and select Insert or Delete from the shortcut menu.

If you want to insert or delete multiple columns, select the same number of columns you want to
insert or delete, and Insert or Delete as explained above.

Inserting and deleting rows

Just as with columns, you can also insert blank rows or delete existing rows in the Worksheet.
To insert or delete rows, follow the steps below:
1. Select the Row Header or multiple rows where you want to insert or delete.
2. Choose Insert/Rows menu to insert, or Edit/Delete to delete the selected rows.
Also right clicking the selected Row(s) you can click delete or insert from the Shortcut menu.

Global worksheet formatting

Global refers to the entire Worksheet. To format the entire Worksheet globally, it must be selected as
a whole. A worksheet can be selected globally using either of
the two methods:
1. Pressing CTRL + A on the keyboard or
2. Clicking immediately on the left of column label A and
just before Row 1. i.e top left corner of the worksheet that
has a blank column header.

Using Autoformat
It allows applying one of the Sixteen sets of formatting to a
selected range on the worksheet. It creates tables that are easy
to read and are attractive to the eye. To apply:
1. Select a range e.g. A1:A10
2. Click Format menu then select the Autoformat
3. Select a format from the autoformat dialog box. Click OK to apply the format.

Data Management
Sorting: Is arranging data values in a particular order. To sort proceed as follows:
1. Highlight the Range you wish to sort
2. Click Data then Sort to display the dialog box. The sort by field is already reading the field that
you selected i.e. Criteria field.
3. Select the column you want to sort as either Ascending or Descending then click OK.

Filtering Data
You can use filters to display ONLY data that meets certain criteria. Its useful when you have a large
worksheet and you are only interested in a small portion. You can only apply filters to one list on a
worksheet at a time.
To autofilter data follow the steps below:
1. Click a cell in the list you want to filter
2. Select Data / Filter /Autofilter menu.
3. Drop –down arrows appear on each column heading. Click the drop-down arrow in the column
that contains the data you want to filter.
 4. Click the value or range you want to use OR
5. click (Custom …) to filter by a condition, for example,
COMP/STUDIES is greater than or equal to 65 (See in the Fig)
6. to apply an additional condition in custom click And or Or option, for example, And
COMP/STUDIES does not equal 70
7. To apply additional sorting on other columns, repeat from step 3.

Example:
To filter the Form 2 student spreadsheet and show only data, where the mark for COMP/STUDIES is
greater than or equal to 65 And does not equal 70 then:
1. Select Data/Filter/Autofilter.
2. Click on the drop=down list arrow of COMP/STUDIES column.
3. Choose (Custom …) to define your conditions. The Custom Autofilter dialog box opens as
illustrated in fig. above.
4. Choose the criteria to use, for example;

COMP/STUDIES is greater than or equal to 65

COMP/STUDIES is not equal to 70.

After you specify the criteria illustrated above, the results are as shown on the left. Rows which do
not meet the filter conditions are hidden.

Summarizing Data
Subtotal function
In a long list you can use subtotal to automatically outline the information on a Worksheet.
To insert subtotals in a list, follow the steps below:
1. SORT the list by the column for which you want to calculate subtotals. For example, sort the
student marks by CLASS.
2. Click a cell in the list.

3. Select Data/Subtotals. A Subtotal dialog box

appears like one shown below.

4. In the At each change in box, click the column

that contains the groups for which you want
Subtotals. This should be the same column by
which you sorted your list in step 1, in the case
CLASS.
5. In the Use function box, click the function you
want to use to calculate the Subtotals.
6. In the Add subtotal to box, select the check boxes for the columns that contain the values for
which you want Subtotals.
7. Click OK to return to the Worksheet.
On clicking OK, Subtotals will be calculated and displayed as shown below.

Total function:
You can use the Autocalculate feature in Ms Excel to automatically show the total of a selected range.
To find the total of a range, highlight it ten click the Autosum Icon on the standard toolbar.

Forms
This is a specially prepared template that can be used to enter data in a Worksheet. It is specially
formatted to enable users to enter data in a format that is more
convenient to them.

To display a form:
Click Data, then Form. A form sample of Form 2 spreadsheet is
shown on the right.

Input Validation
 To ensure that a user does not enter invalid data, set the validation criteria. An error message is
displayed when data that violates this rule is entered.
To set data validation:
1. highlight the range of cells to validate
2. On the Data menu, click Validation.
3. Click the Settings tab and select a validation criterion.
4. To display an input message when cell is selected, click the Input Message tab, type the
message to be displayed and check “show input message when cell is selected”.
5. Set the Error alert then click OK cell.

2.10 Charts/ Graphs

Definition: Charts (Graphs) are graphics or pictures that represents values and their relationships.

Importance of charts
- Enable one to present Worksheet data in graphical form.
- It helps the reader to quickly see trends in data and to be able to compare and contrast aspects of
data.

Charting Terminologies
Term Description
Gridlines Typically gridlines appear along the y-axis of the Chart and is where your values
are displayed, although they can emanate from the X-axis as well. Gridlines help
you determine a point’s exact value.
Data series The bars, pie wedges, lines, or other elements that represent plotted values in a
chart. Often data series correspond to rows of data in your in your worksheet.
However they can correspond to columns of data if that is how you have arranged
your data.
Categories Categories reflect the number of elements in a series .Categories normally
correspond to the columns in your worksheet, with the Category labels coming
from the column headings.
Axis One side of a Chart. A two-dimensional Chart has an x-axis (horizontal) and a y-
axis (vertical). The x-axis contains the data series and categories in the chart. If
you have more than one category, the x-axis often contains labels that define what
each category represents. The y-axis reflects the values of the bars, lines or plot
points.
Legend Legend defines the separate series of a Chart. For example, the legend for a pie
Chart shows what each piece of the pie represents.

Types of Charts
The Chart type you choose depends on the kind of data you are trying to chart and how you want to
present that data. The various standard types include: Column, Bar, Line, Pie, XY (Scatter), Area,
Doughnut, Radar, Surface, Bubble, Stock, Cylinder, Cone and Pyramid. The following are the major
Chart types and their purposes:
CHART Description
PIE It displays the contribution of each value to a grand total; or shows the
relationship among parts of a whole, so that the reader can assess and
compare items readily.
COLUMN Represents data as a cluster of columns comparing values across
categories. Column chart is suitable for any data type, particularly side-
by-side comparisons of numerous data values. Is used to emphasize the
deference between items.
BAR It is similar to a column chart, but displays bars horizontally rather than
vertically. Used to compare values at a given point in time.
LINE Illustrates linear or unbroken changes in a large number of values. Data
is represented as lines with markers at each data value in the x-y plane.
This chart emphasizes trends and the change of values over time.
XY (SCATTER) It is similar to the line Chart. XY (Scatter) plots two groups of numbers
as one series of XY co-ordinates. It is useful as a diagnostic tool when
looking for heavy occurrences or absences of data. It is commonly used
in scientific applications.
AREA It shows how volume changes over time and emphasizes the amount of
change. It is useful for giving a bigger sense of “mass” of a change or
concept.

Creating and saving a chart

A chart is based on values already entered in the Worksheet. You can place your new Chart on the
same worksheet as the chart data (an embedded Chart) or on a separate worksheet ( a chart sheet). If
you create an embedded Chart, it is printed side by side with your worksheet data. Embedded Charts
are useful for showing the actual data and its graphical representation side by side. If you create a
Chart on a separate Worksheet, you can print it independently. Both types of Charts are linked to the
Worksheet data that they represent. When you change the data, the Chart is updated automatically.
Use the Chart Wizard button on the standard toolbar to quickly create a chart.

To create a Chart using Chart Wizard, follow the steps below:

1. Select the data you want to include in the Chart. If you typed column or row labels that you want
included in the Chart, be sure to select those too.
2. Click the Chart Wizard button on the Standard Toolbar.

3. the Chart wizard dialog box appears as shown in the

fig. select the Chart Type and one of its Chart Sub-
type. Click Next
4. Excel will ask whether the selected range is correct.
You can correct the range by typing a new or clicking
the Collapse button of the Data Range Text box and
selecting the new range.
5. By default, Excel assumes that your different Data
Series are stored in rows. You can change this to
columns, if necessary, by clicking the Series in
Columns option. Click Next.

6. Click the various Tabs, as shown in the fig.,

to change options for your chart. E.g. select
the legend (or key table) by clicking the
Legend tab. Add chart title by clicking Titles
Tab. Add data labels (labels that display the
actual value being represented by each bar,
line, etc.) by clicking the Data labels Tab.
Click Next

7. Finally, Excel asks whether you want to embed (incorporate within) the Chart (as an object) in the
current Worksheet (or any other existing
Worksheet in the workbook) or if you want to
create a new Worksheet for it. Make your
selection as shown, and click Finish. The
completed Chart appears.
 Chart Title
Y - Axis title

Legend

X – axis title

The Charts are part of the current Workbook and are automatically saved when you save the
Workbook.

Moving and resizing a chart

To move an embedded Chart, click anywhere in the chart area and drag it to the new location. To
change the size of a Chart, select the Chat and drag on eof its handles. Drag a corner handle to change
the height and width, or drag a side to change only that side. You cannot resize a chart that is on a
sheet by itself.

Data Ranges
A data range is a rectangular block of cells that provides the base data that is used to create the chart.
The data has to be absolute.
To see the data range of a chart, right click it then select the Source Data command

Labels
Refers to each data representation on a chart which can either be labeled by a value or text label.
To label:
1. Right click the chart, select Chart Options command from the shortcut menu.
2. Click Labels Tab and choose whether you want Value or Text labels. Click OK.

Adding a Title and Legend

A chart Title tells you what the chart is all about while a legend provide colour coding (key) of
the different Data Ranges in the Chart. You can also add Axis titles that appear along the axis Titles
and Y-axis.
To add Titles and Legends
1. Click the Chart to select it. Select Chart/Chart Options. The Chart Options dialog box appears.
2. Click the Titles tab to add the Chart and Axes titles as needed.
3. To add a Legend, click the Legend tab. Click the Show Legend check box and where to place the
Legend on the chart.
4. click OK to close the dialog box and return to the chart
Legend – is a key that explains what each colour or pattern of the data representation in the chart
means.

2.11 Printing Worksheet

Print preview
This displays how the worksheet will look like when printed.
To Preview a print job, click the print preview button on the Standard toolbar or File/Print Preview.

Printing a Chart
An embedded Chart is printed when you print the Worksheet that contains sit. If you want just the
embedded Chart, click the Chart to select it, and choose File/Print menu. Click Ok to print.
Changing the Page Setup
Page Setup can be used to change the page settings of the Worksheet within a Workbook through the
Page Setup dialog box

Setting Margins
By default, Excel prints a Worksheet with 1 inch margins at the top and bottom, and ¾ inch margins
on the left and right sides of the worksheet. You can change these margins by using the Page Setup
dialog box. Follow the steps below to do this:
1. With the Worksheet open, choose File/Page Setup and click Margins tab.
2. Specify the margins you want in the Top, Left, Bottom and Right text boxes.
3. To Center the Worksheet on the printed page, under Center on page select Horizontally and /or
Vertically option.

Creating headers and Footers

You can add information to the top and bottom margins of the printed page to help document your
printed worksheet. Excel provides Predefined Headers and Footers, and enables you to create custom
Headers and Footers.
To create headers and Footers
1. With the Worksheet open, choose File/Page Setup and click the Header/Footer Tab.

2. Click the drop-down arrow of the Header / Footer list boxes to see the Predefined options and
choose the desired one and click OK.

To set Custom Header/Footer

These are user defined.
1. Repeat step 1 above.
2. Click the Custom Header / Footer Tab. Enter the desired information in the Left Section, Center
Section and Right Section.
 3. Click on the Margins tab of the Page Setup dialog box to change margin settings for the Header
and Footer.

Printing Worksheet Gridlines

Gridlines are the border outlines of the cells. Gridlines will print around each, cell in the worksheet
range, regardless of whether or not the cell contains data. This feature is useful when printing large
Worksheets with multiple columns and rows of numeric data, so you can see more easily which
columns and rows headings apply to each number. To print gridlines follow the steps below;
1. With Worksheet open, choose File/ Page Setup menu and click the Sheet Tab.
2. In the print area, click the checkbox of the Gridlines.
Note: Do not confuse the on-screen display of gridlines in the Worksheet with printed gridlines. Even
if you see gridlines displayed in the Worksheet, you still must select the Gridlines check box in order
to print gridlines.

Print options
1. To print click File then Print command.

2. The print What options are;

a). Selection – this prints the selected
worksheet area.
b). Workbook – prints all the worksheets
in the workbook.
c). Selected chart – prints the selected
chart only.
3. Specify page orientation and number of
copies.
4. After selecting all the options, click OK.

Some common printing problems

A message appears on the screen saying that the printer specified could not be found in the directory.

Possible problems and their solutions:

1. The printer could be off. Switch it in and it will start printing.
2. The data cable to the printer could be loose. Make sure it is firm at the ports.
3. The wrong printer could have been selected. . Select the right one in the print dialog box
4. A message appears on the screen reading there is paper jam. The printer is clogged with a paper
jam. Alert the lab. Technician or the teacher to clear the paper jam.

Review question
1. Describe two ways to complete an entry into a cell.
2. How does Microsoft Excel determine that an entry is a text or a formula?
3. How do you clear (erase) the contents of as cell?
4. How can you copy a formula?
5. Explain how you can print a worksheet in a landscape orientation.
6. How can you insert rows in a Microsoft Excel worksheet?
7. Differentiate between copying and moving data in a worksheet.
8. What is the autoformat feature?
9. Explain the term filter. How is a filter different from a hide command?
10. Why forms are needed in Microsoft Excel.
11. Give two examples of charts that you know.
12. Why are charts important in a spreadsheet?
13. Explain the concept of subtotals.
 14. What is sorting? Explain how you can sort data in ascending order.
15. Give three number formats in Microsoft Excel.
16. What are worksheet borders? Explain how to implement them in the worksheet.
17. What is the difference between printing a range and whole workbook?
18. Explain two ways of changing the font size in Microsoft Excel.
19. What is a legend?
20. Which chart type will be suitable to show trends?

3.0 DATABASES
Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
a). Define a database
b). Explain the concepts of database
c). Explain data organization in a database
d). Create a data base
e). Edit a database
f). Design a form
g). Apply basic concepts of queries
h). Create report and labels
i). Print queries, forms and reports

1.0 DATABASES

1.1 Introduction
Traditionally people used to manage data and information using physical files indexed on one type of
information usually alphabetically or chronologically. These traditional databases had a number of
disadvantages which included:
i). Unnecessary duplication of data
ii). Boredom and time wasting while searching for a record
iii). Misleading reports due to poor data entry
iv). Poor update of records

Today, as organizations became larger and complex electronic (Computerized) database are used to
manage information, by use of special program called Database Management System (DBMS).

Definition of a database and other terms

- A database is a collection of structured and related data items organized so as to provide a
consistent and controlled access to the items.
- Can also be defined as a collection of data stored in a computer system in some organized manner
to make the retrieval of the data easy.
Data redundancy: is the duplication of data especially in the traditional filling system, leading to
wastage of space and other resources.
Data inconsistency: arises when one piece of information in a record does not concur with the other
piece in a different file.

1.2 Database Concepts

a). Database software
- Computerized Database: creation and manipulation is achieved using DBMS software, which
facilitates creation, organization and maintenance of databases.
- Examples if Database Management System Software (DBMS) include:
o Ms Access o Lotus Approach o BD2
o Oracle o FileMakerPro o Ingress,
o FoxPro o Clipper o MySQLetc.
o DbaseIV o Microsoft SQL
Server

Functions of Database Management Software

o Allow the user to add or delete records
o Update or modify existing records
o Organize data for easy access, re3trieval and manipulation
o Ensure security for data in the database
o Keeps statistics of data items in a database.
b). Database Models
A database model is a specific method for describing the structure and processing within a database.
The main database models are:
o Flat File
This model of database holds only one set of data and is not different from the manual files. The
data is stored sequentially in one large file. No particular relationship can be drowned between the
items other than the sequence in which they were stored. Examples are Cards used in a Library
books catalogue where the cards are arranged sequentially e.g. alphabetically using books’ titles
or by authors names. Also another example is teachers assessment report consisting of
performance card for every student in a class.
Disadvantage of Flat File: locating a record is tedious.

o Hierarchical
Data items are arranged in a hierarchy (tree) form.
Access is through levels e.g. to access level 2 data items, you have to first access level one data
items. It is said to have a Parent-Child relationship and the model represents One – to - Many
relationship.

Level 1 (root component)

Path

Level 2 data item

Disadvantages:
- It is not possible to insert a new level in the table without altering the structure.
- Does not support Many-to-Many relationship.

o Network
Links are used to express the relationship between different data items. Access is through multiple
paths and from any item.
Disadvantages
Incase of large volumes of data, it is very difficult to locate the item because it will increase the
complexity of the search
Note: All the three above models are rarely used in modern database system.
o Relational
Allows data to be represented in a simple row-column (Tabular) format. Each data field is
considered as a column and each record is considered as a row of a table. Related data items are
stored together in structures called relations or tables.. Links and relationships between items of
data are included during its creation, thus allowing faster and more efficient retrieval by the user.

c). Features of a database Management Software

These refers to a collection of features that provides the user with means to manipulate data in a
database. The features include:
o Tables / file structures
This a database structure that is used to old related records. The tables are organized in rows and
columns with each row representing a record while each column represents common fields in
each record.

o Queries and query language

This is a tool used to search for or question a database on specific records. Since a query is a
question posed to the database, it returns a result for the user and this result is called a dynaset.
The query statements are written using a special language called Structured Query Language
(SQL).

o Forms / screen input

This is a graphical interface that enables the user to view and enter data into a table. It resembles
the ordinary paper forms.
o Report
Is a tool for generating reports from an underlying table / query. It has a report generator for that
provides the user with a means to specify the output layout and what is to be output or printed on
a report.
o Macro
A feature used to automate frequent database operations / tasks.
o Programming module
Is a programming environment embedded in Ms Access used to automate complex database
operations. Unlike Macro, you have control over actions taken.

1.3 Data Organization in a Database

Data is organized from the simplest form called a field to a very complex structure called a
Database.
 Fields
Is a character or a logical combination of characters that represent a data item. E.g. in a class list,
the Student Name is a filed.
 Records
Is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity. For example a students report card
may contain: Students Name, Admission Number, Class, Total marks, Average, Grade, Pints and
Position.
 Files/Tables
Is a collection of related records. E.g. the students file in a school database contains details of all
the students in the school.
 Database
Is the highest in data organization hierarchy that holds all related files or tables. For example a
school database may contain students and staff files.

1.4 Creating a Database using Microsoft Access

Unlike Ms Word and Ms Excel which provides the user with work area, Ms Access provides a
Database Window with the objects you use to manipulate a Database. The seven major objects used
to manipulate data in Ms Access are: Table, Quarries, Forms, Reports, Pages, Macros and Modules

Starting Microsoft Access

1. On Start Menu, click All Programs/Microsoft Office/Microsoft Access. Alternatively, click on
the Access icon on the Microsoft Office shortcut bar.
2. In the dialog box that appears click Create a New file …then under New dialog box select Blank
Database…
3. In the Save As dialog box that appears specify the name and location where your database will be
stored. Click Create to save the Database.
A screen similar to fig. 3.1 is displayed. It shows the
components (or objects) found in an Access database.
Microsoft Access screen layout
Ms Access application window has a title bar, menu
bar, toolbars and status bar. However instead of
having a work area it provides the user with an
Object Window from which you choose the type of
an object to work with.

Exiting from Microsoft Access

From the File menu click Exit or Click the Close
button on the title bar.
Review questions 3.1
1. What is a relational database management system?
2. Define the following terms: table, record, and field as used in databases.
3. What are the seven major objects used to manipulate data in Ms Access.
4. In Microsoft Access, what do the following terms refer to; Query, Macro, Module.
 Creating a Table/ file structure
1. From the Database window, select the Table tab; then click on the New button.
2. In the new Table dialog box, select Design View, select the Design view option and click Ok.
3. The Design View has three components: Field Name, Data Type and Description as shown in Fig.
3.2

Fig.3.2 Table Design View

4. In the grid displayed enter a unique name for each field in the table. A field must start with a letter
and can be upto a maximum of 64 characters including letters, numbers, spaces and punctuation.
5. Choose the correct data type before adding the next field. By default, Ms Access inserts Text as a
data type.
6. Save the table by clicking the Save button on the Standard toolbar or Save command from the File
menu.
7. Access will ask you whether you want to create a Primary Key. Click Yes/No
8. You can provide a brief description of the field and its contents in the Description section.

Description of field data types

Data type Description

Text It includes alphabetic letters, numbers, spaces, punctuating etc that do not
require any calculating.
Memo Long text which appears only in some records. Cannot be used in queries.
Number This field is made up of numeric numbers 0-9 that are to be used in
calculations.
Date/time Identify a field as either a Date or time.
Currency Identifies monetary values and numeric data used in calculations.
Yes / No It’s a logical field where an entry is either a Yes or a No
OLE object This data type is used with graphical user interface application for inserting
graphical objects such as an Excel worksheet, pictures, image, etc. which is
linked or embedded to the table.
AutoNumber It’s a unique number used if you want Ms Access to automatically increment
the values in the field.
Hyperlink Text or combinations of text and numbers stored as text and used a hyperlink
address.
Lookup Wizard Allow you to choose a value from another table or list of values created in the
field itself.

Field properties
This allows one to specify finer details related to fields and the table entries.
General Tab
To display the General Tab, the table should be open, then click View and select Design view or click
a button on the toolbar which look like a setsquare, pencil and a ruler. Click on Genaral Tab which is
located in the lower left corner of the Design view Window.
The various properties are:
 Field Size – allows the user to set the number of characters in a field instead of the default 50 for
text fields. For numeric fields integer, bytes, single, double or long integer is used.
 Format – used to define how data will be displayed or printed.
 Decimal places – appears in currency and number data types to define the number of decimal
places to display.
 Input mask – automatically format the field entry into a specialized format. Its limited to text ,
number, date/Time and currency data types.
 Caption – is a more descriptive field used in form labels and report heading. E.g Adm/No could
be Admission Number.
 Default value – is a value that appears automatically in the data sheet form if nothing is entered is
entered or defined otherwise.
 Validation rule – is a logical expression used to ensure that data entered is within the required
specifications. For examples if a numerical value should always be greater than zero, then type >0;
or if you want to restrict marks entered in a filed to value between zero and a hundred, type >=0
and <=100.
 Validation Text – this is a message that appears once the validation rule is violated. For example
for the above validation rules you may create a validation text to display “You MUST enter a
value greater than 0; “Enter a number between 1 and 100” whenever the user enters a value
outside this range.
 Allow zero length – allows the user to proceed without making any entry in the field set as zero
length and it limited to Text ands Memo fields.
 Required – determines if any entry must be made in the field before you proceed to the next
record or field.
 Indexed – facilitates the organization of records for easy search. A primary key is an example of
an index set to No duplicates to control double entry (redundancy).

Primary key and indexes

A primary key is a unique field name used to identify each record uniquely for easy access and
manipulation.
An index is a key not necessarily unique used to arrange data in a table.

Defining a primary key:

1. Open the table in Design view
2. Select the filed you want to set as the primary key
3. Click the Primary Key button on the Table Design Toolbox, or select the Primary key option
from the Edit menu.

Entering data into a table

1. Open the database in which the table is located.
2. Click the table you want to add records to.
3. Press the tab key to move to the next record field
The previous record is automatically saved once you move the cursor to a new row.

1.5 Editing a Database

Modifying data sheet view
Adjusting column size
Point to the column border between the field’s header then drag to the required size.
Adjusting row height
Point to the border between two rows in the row header then drag.

To reorder fields
Select the column of the field you want to move by pointing to the desired field name.
Drag the column upwards to the left to the top of the field where you want the field to appear then
drop.

Modifying Table Structure

You may need to add more fields, remove some fields, reorder fields or change field data types and
properties, once you have created a table.
Save a copy of your table to avoid losing everything
incase you make a mistake.
 To make a copy of your table
1. Right click the Table under objects window
2. In the shortcut menu displayed select Save As option
3. In the Save As dialog box displayed fig 3.5. type a new File name. Click Ok.
Modifying the original table
Fig. 3.5 1. Open the table in design view by clicking the button that looks like a Pencil and setsquare placed
on the edge of a ruler.
2. Select the field(s) to be modified and make the necessary changes.
3. Click the Save button to save the changes.

To import a table from another database:

1. File menu/Get External Data/Import
2. From the dialog box that appears, select the database you want to import data from then click the
Import button.
3. From the objects dialog box displayed, click the Tables Tab.
4. Select the table(s) you wish to import then click OK.

Review question 3.2

1. Differentiate between a primary key and an index key
2. What is normalization in reference to tables.
3. Describe various data types used in Ms Access.
4. Explain how you would set a validation rule when designing tables
5. What are field properties.
6. What is the difference between a field name and a caption.

1.6 Form Design

A form is a user interface that helps the user view records and easily make entries into an underlying
table. Forms are designed using controls, which contain tools that are designed to help users navigate
and utilise the form. Examples of controls are: text box, check box, command buttons, list box.
Combo box or shapes. These are placed on a form design grid to display data or perform actions.
There are three categories of controls namely: bound, unbound and calculated.
Bound – controls whose source data is a field in the underlying table or query. In Access you cannot
create a calculation a bound control.
Unbound – controls whose source data is not connected to any data source. These controls contain a
label or a text box. Calculations can be created from an unbound control.
Calculated – these are values calculated in the form, including totals, subtotals and averages.
You design or modify a form layout by dragging these controls to the required position.

Creating a form layout using wizard

Using the form wizard you can create a columnar, a tabular, a datasheet or a justified form layout.

Columnar form: Fields for each record are

displayed on a separate line with field labels to the
left.
Tabular form: Records are displayed from left to
right across the page and labels appear at the top of
each column and each row represents a new record.
Datasheet : the form resembles a datasheet view.
Justified: One record occupies the whole form.

Fig. 3.6

To create a form using the form wizard

 1. Open the Database for which the form is created.
2. From the Database window, select Form tab then click New. From the New Form dialog box that
appears, click Form Wizard.

3. Choose the table or Query that contains the data that your new form will reference and click OK
4. From the fields list window, select the fields to add into the form by clicking the > button or click
>> to add all fields then Click Next. See fig. 3.6
5. From the layout dialog box, select the layout you
wish to use then click Next.
6. In the form title dialog box, type the name of the
form then click Finish.

Ms Access will automatically display the form on

the Screen as shown in fig. 3.7

Fig.3.7

Creating a form using Autoform wizard

This wizard creates a form for you automatically by asking you very minimal questions and includes
all the fields from selected table.
1. Make sure your database is open
2. Click the Form tab, then New.
3. In the new from dialog box, select an autofrom layout e.g. Columnar, Tabular
Fig. 3.7
4. In the “Choose the table or query where the object data comes” select OK. The form with all the
fields will be displayed.
5. Click the save button to save form.
 Adding controls to a form
1. Display the form that you would like to edit in Design View.
2. Select the Toolbox option from the View menu. Click the button for the control you want to add.
3. In the Form window, click and drag the pointer to draw a box in the location for your new control.
Release the mouse button. The Fig. 3.8 shows a form in Design View with controls

NB: Use Labels Aa to type form header or information that does not need calculation. And text box
ab to type formulas (i.e calculations). Command buttons are mostly used in Forms. Drag it on the
grid. In the command button wizard that appears, it lets you to specify by selection the action you
want to happen when the button is pressed.

Removing controls
Use the following steps to remove a control:
1. Open the form to edit in Design View and display the toolbox.
2. Select the control you would like to remove and press the Delete key.
NB: Access dies not prompt you to verify the removal of some controls, be careful when removing
controls.

Formatting controls
The formatting toolbar has options that can be used to create professional forms.
To format a control follow the steps below:
1. Display the form in Design View.
2. Select the control you would like to format.
3. Click on the formatting button you require, for example to, if you want the field to appear in
Bold, click the Bold button on the Formatting toolbar.

Form layout
All forms must have a Detail section. This may include Page Header, Page Footer, Form Header and
Form Footer sections.
Form Header Displays information that remains the same for every record, such as a title for the
Form. A form Header appears at the top the section in Form View and at the top of
the first page when printed.
Page Header Displays information, such as a title or column headings, at the top of every printed
page. Page headers appear only on printed forms.
Page Footer Displays information, such as the date or page number at the bottom of every
printed page. Page footers appear only on printed forms.
Form Footer Displays information that remains the same for every record, such as command
buttons or instructions for using the form. A form footer appears at the bottom of
the screen in Form View or after the last detail section on the last page when
printed.

Creating Subforms
Subforms are used to display data from several tables that have a one - to – many relationship.

To create a subform follow the steps below:

1. Select Forms from the database window, then select New.
2. Choose the Form Wizard option in the New Form dialog box, then click OK.
3. Select at least two tables or queries from which the Tables/Queries section that you want to draw
data from. Add the required fields from the tables or queries, and continue with the Wizard.
4. The Form Wizard then asks if you want to format the data as Linked Forms or as a Form with
Subforms. Select the second option, and follow the instructions on screen to complete the Form
Wizard.

Data Manipulation in a form

The form has navigation buttons located at the bottom which the user uses to navigate the form as
shown bellow.
1 2 3 4 5

1. Displays the first record in the table

2. Displays the previous record
3. Displays the next record
4. Displays the last record
5. Add a new record

Review questions 3.3

1. Define the following terms: a). Form b). Bound and unbound control
2. Differentiate between tabular and columnar form layout.
3. Explain how you would create a form without using a form wizard.
4. Why would one prefer to use a form for data input rather than entering directly into a table?.
5. Explain how you would move from one record to another in a form.
6. Draw a simple sketch of a from you would create that can be used to enter all subject marks in an
examination database.

3.7 Searching for specific records in a Database

The computerized database enables efficient search and retrieval of information by simply entering an
instruction.
The two search tools in Access are:
1. Find command
2. Queries

Using queries
A query is a tool used to search for or question a database on specific records and perform
calculations on fields from one or multiple tables. Queries are the fastest way to search for
information in a database.
 Types of queries
They are two namely: action query and Select query
a) Action Query: Used to make changes to many records once. The four types of action queries
are:
 Update – updates data in a table
 Append query – adds data in a table from one or more tables.
 Make table query – creates a new table from a dynaset.
 Delete query – deletes specified records from one or more tables.
b) Select query
Most commonly used. It is used for searching and analyzing data in one or more tables based
on user defined criteria. It lets the user specify the search criteria.

Creating a select query

1. From Database window, click on the Queries object.
2. Click on Design View button.
3. In the Show Table dialog box that open select the Tables tab that you would like to include in the
new query, click Add.
4. When you have completed adding tables to the query, click Close.
5. The query design grid opens, select the fields you want to display from the tables.
6. In the criteria box of the field you want to use, specify the criterion that you want to filter the data.
7. click on the Run button to execute the query
8. The query will return the records that meet your criteria in the datasheet View. Save the query.

Parts of a query
Field row: Fields from a table(s) to be use are arranged in this row and each field should occupy its
column.
Sort row: Used to specify the sort order i.e. ascending or descending or no sort by clicking the down
arrow.
Show row: You specify whether to display the field in the query by clicking. When the box is not
checked, the field will not be displayed.
Criteria row: you type conditional statement here that will be used by query to display specific
records.
Or row: Used to specify an alternative condition e.g. if you want to display records with a field called
City with items Nairobi or Embu, type Nairobi in the Criteria cell and Embu in the Or cell.
Specifying the search criteria
To search for a particular set of records, enter a conditional statement in the criteria row using either
relational or logical operators.
Relational operators include:
< - Less than
> - Greater than
>= - Greater than or equal to
<= - Less than or equal to
<> - Not equal to

Logical Operators include: AND, OR and NOT

Common criteria
Operator Description
Between …And Finds records between two values. E.g. Between #04/7/07# And #07/6/08#;
Between 4000 And 7000
In Finds records that are part of a list e.g In(20,30, 40) in (Mon, Tue, Wed)
Null Finds records that are blank
Is not Null Finds records that are not blank
Like Finds records that match a criterion e.g. Not In (1, 2, 3) Not Like “Sun”

Wildcards
 Wildcards are characters used as placeholders for other characters when you don’t know
exactly what you are looking for, but know a part of the value, or you want to find values
that start/end with a letter or match a certain pattern. Wildcard characters work with text
and date types.
Character Description
* Matches any number of characters. It can be used as the first or last
character in the character string e.g Wh* finds what, when, while, why
? Matches any single alphabetic character E.g. B? finds ball, boy, bell, bull
[] Matches any single character within the brackets e.g. T[eo]ll finds tell,
toll but tall
! Matches any character not in the brackets E.g. b[!ae]ll finds bill and bull
but not bell or ball
# Matches any single numeric character E.g: 1#3 finds 103, 113, 123, 133,
143

Note: when using wildcard characters to search for an asterisk (*), question mark (?), number sigh
(#), opening bracket ( [ ), you must enclose the item you’re searching for in brackets.

Saving and running a query

1. Click the Save button on the Standard toolbar or File/Save command.
2. In he name box that appears, type in the name of the query then click OK.
3. To Run the in design view, click the Run Button on the toolbar or Run command from the
Query menu.

Sorting the dynaset

To sort a dynaset
1. In the Sort row, click the down arrow that appears to specify the sort order i.e. ascending,
descending or no sort of the desired field.
2. Display the dynaset.

Modifying and updating a query

To delete a field from the query grid
1. Open the query in Design view
2. Select the field column you wish to delete
3. Choose Delete from the Edit menu
4. Save the changes.

To adjust the column size in a query

1. Open the query in Design view
2. Position the mouse pointer at the boundary that separates columns then drag it to the required
size.
3. Save changes

To modify a criteria statement

1. open the query in design view
2. modify the criteria statement as required
3. save changes
4. Click the Run button to test whether the changes have been effected once he results are displayed.
Performing Calculations in a Query
Queries let the user perform mathematical calculations on numeric data unlike tables, by using Total
functions or by creating basic formulas.

Creating basic formulae

To create a formula that calculates the total marks in an underlying table E.g. Exam Table.
1. Open the table’s query in Design View
2. Create a calculated field in the immediate empty last field cell, type an expression that includes a
relevant field name E.g TOTALMARKS:[ENGLISH]+[MATHS]+[COMPUTER STUDIES]+
[PHYSICS] Or Right click then select Build ..
3. You can then set the criteria and any other query options.
4. Save the query and run it. The results of the calculations will be displayed in the dynaset.
Note: This calculated field is not added to the underlying table because query results must always be
based on the most current database.

Using total functions

With a query you can analyze all records fields using the inbuilt functions such as Sum, Average,
Minimum, and Maximum.
1. Open the query in Design view
2. Click the totals button on the query toolbar.
3. Select the field you want to analyze.
4. for each field to be analyzed, click its cell in the Total row, and then select any of the functions:
SUM: Adds all the numerical data items
AVG : Calculates the mean of all numeric data items in the field column
MIN: Returns the Maximum value from the field column.
COUNT: Returns the number of items field column

Printing query
1. Open the database window of the Database containing the query you want to print.
2. Click query tab, then the query you want to print.
3. From the File menu, click Print. Set the printing options then click OK button.

Creating a select query from multiple tables

When you create a query using fields from more than one table, the tables should be linked.
To create a query based on related tables follow the steps below:
1. Start the database Window and click the Queries tab,
2. Select Design View and click ok
3. From the Show Table dialog box, click the tables you want to base your query on and then
click Add.
4. Relationship between various tables will be displayed. Add the fields from both tables into the
QBE grid.
5. Save and Run the query.
 Types of relationships
They are three:
1. One – to – One
2. One - to – Many / Many –to - One
3. Many – to – Many
 One – to – One: for a particular field in one table(parent table), there is only one matching
record in the related table and vice versa.
 One – to – many: for a particular field in one table there is are several matching records in
another table.
 Many – to – many : for a particular records in one table there are several matching records in
other table and voce versa.

Linking tables (defining tables relationships)

1. Close all open objects (tables, queries, etc)
2. Select Tools/Relationships menu
3. Access will open a blank window
4. In the Show Table box, select each table that you would like to create a relationship for, and click
Add.
5. Select Close to exit the Show Table dialog box.
6. Create links by selecting the Primary Key in the Parent Table and dragging it to the Foreign
Key in the Child Table.
7. Check the Enforce Referential Integrity, Cascade Update Related Fields and cascade Delete
Related Record to ensure that Database integrity is maintained.
8. Click Create button to complete the relationship.

3.8 Creating Reports

Reports are used to summarize and present information from a database in a precise and
understandable manner.
A reports layout can also be designed by placing controls on the report layout grid.
Reports are very similar to form; they include a header section, the Detail and a Footer Section. Every
report also contains a section for Page header and a Page Footer, so that information can be printed on
each page of the report. The easiest way to create a report is by using the Report Wizard and then
modifying it after it has been created.
 Creating a Report
1. From the Database window, select Reports and then click New.
2. From the New Report dialog box, click Report Wizard then OK.
3. Select a table or Query then the fields to be added to the report then click Next.
4. The wizard asks you whether you wish to add any group. Grouping is used to categories records
using a particular field for better presentation or if you need to perform calculations on a group of
common items e.g. salary paid, Amount, etc. Click Next.
5. In the dialog box that appears, select the Sort option if you want to sort the records. You can also
click the summary options button in case you want Ms Access to perform some calculations on
numerical fields. (you should have added a group in step 4 above). In Summary Options dialog
box, select the summary options you want performed e.g SUM, AVERAGE, MAXIMUM and
MINIMUM. Click OK to close the summary options dialog box.
6. From Layout dialog box, select the type of layout such as Stepped, Block, Outline1, Outline 2,
Align Left1, Align Left 2). Select Page orientation either Portrait or Landscape. Click Next.
7. In the Style dialog box, specify the report style such as Bold, Casual, Compact, Corporate,
Formal or Soft Gray. Click Next.
8. Finally enter the name of your report then click Finish. The report will be displayed on the screen
in Print Preview mode. Form Print Preview mode you can print and Switch to Design view to
edit or close the report.

Parts of a Report
Report Header: Contains un bound controls that displays title of the report

Page Header Contains headings or labels of data items to be displayed in every column
Detail section Displays data items or records from an underlying table or query
Page Footer Holds a control that is to be displayed on every page such as the page number
and date. For example =Now() displays the current date and time as set in the
system clock.
Report footer Display summary from a report such as the grand total for numerical data in a
particular field column. For example to get the Grand Total of Salary Paid or
Amount; in the Report Footer use Textbox control and type the following in the
formula.
 =Sum [Salary Paid]) it will give you the sum of all records in that field name.

Modifying a report
To modify headers and footers
1. Open the report in design view
2. Click the report header or footer you want to modify
3. Make the necessary changes and then click Save button.
4. Click the print preview button to view the changes.

To add more controls on to the report layout

1. Open a report in design view
2. Display the field list by clicking the field list button or using the View
3. Select one or more field list and drag view to the Report design grid.

To resize or move controls

1. Click the select object then click the control. Position the mouse pointer on the place holder, until
the mouse pointer changes to a double-sided arrow. Drag the pointer to resize the control.
2. To move a control, select it and place the mouse pointer on the place holder until it changes to a
hand.

3.9 Creating Mailing Labels in a Report

A Label is a sticker or a piece of paper put on an item for the purpose of identification. Examples are
mailing labels and label on the floppy disk where you write your name, etc.
1. From the database window, select the reports tab and click on new.
2. Select the Label Wizard option and choose the table or query where the data will come from.
Click OK.
3. In the Wizard screen, select the size of the labels you will be using. You can even define your
own custom size if the size does not appear in the pre-defined list. Click Next to continue.
4. The next Wizard screen prompts you to select font and displays a sample of the printout.
Select the font properties, then click Next to continue.
5. In the next Wizard screen, you can modify and edit the fields that will be included on the
mailing label. Select all the fields you want printed on the label and then click Next.
6. You can now sort your printed labels by any of the fields in the current table or query. To
complete the mailing labels, type a name for this report, and then choose if you would like to
modify the report or preview it. Click Finish to complete the mailing label creation.
7. To print the labels once they are created and you are happy with the layout, select File/Print.

Modifying Labels
1. Change to design view. The label design grid is displayed. Edit the layout as desired like
changing font type, size and color, applying fill, alignment etc.
2. To view the modified label, click the Preview button from the database window.

Printing Reports and Labels

Once you have created a report or Label, view it in Print Preview mode to check that it displays the
correct information in the required format. You can use the File/Page Setup menu option to set the
paper settings and then simply click on the Print button or select File/Print to print the report or label.
If you want to print only certain pages within the report, then specify the pages to print in the Print
dialog box.

Revision questions
1. What is the importance of a report generated from a database?
2. What is the difference between a report and a label?
3. Explain how you would create a report that displays subtotals and grand totals.
4. Dr. Garaya is a pharmacist. She wants to generate labels that she can use to stick to medicine
bottles. Explain to her how she can generate labels of different sizes using Microsoft Access
database.
5. What Microsoft Access objects would you use to automate your database?
6. Assuming you have been appointed as the sales representative of an Insurance Company. Explain
how you would create annual reports that would include the company logo at the top of every
page.

DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP)

Objectives
By the end of the chapter, be able to;
a). Define Desktop publishing
b). State the purpose of Desktop publishing
c). Identify types of Desktop publishing
d). Design a publication
e). Format a publication
f). Print a publication

4.0 Definition
Publishing is a way in which information and experiences are shared by individuals, groups or
broadcast to a wide audience.
Publishing can also be defined as the process of producing publications like newspapers, cards,
pamphlets, pictures, calendars, etc that have special text and graphical layouts and designs.
Some examples of publishing media are:
 Printed material like books, magazines
 Radio, tape and digital music
 Television , satellite TV, Cable TV, teletext
 Cinema and video
 Telephones, mobile phones, and pagers
 Computers, laptops, palmtops, and handheld devices
 The internet and other networked information systems

Desktop Publishing (DTP) can be defined as

an application software used in producing publication work within the computer framework of art
and design; or
The activity of creating professional quality typeset documents, which combine text and graphics.

Compared to a Word Processor, DTP software gives the user more tools and control of the page
layout, text manipulation and graphic design than a Word Processor.

Advantages of DTPs over Word Processor

 Every item on a page is contained in a frame and can be edited and formatted independently.
 Stories can be contained in a single frame or threaded between several frames.
 Frames need not flow in logical sequence e.g a story in page 1 may be continued on page 8.
 Master pages are used to set a common layout which may be repeated on several pages e.g.
Logo, Page numbers etc.
 Publications can be printed in a form suitable for commercial printing e.g using colour
separations.
 Multiple stories from different authors can be handled with ease.

Examples of Desktop Publishers:

PageMaker, Corel Draw, Microsoft Publisher, Ventura, Microsoft Illustrator

4.1 Purpose of Desktop Publishing software

Graphic Design
Graphics falls into five major categories: Photographs, illustrations, texture, line drawing and
cartoon or caricature..
DTP allows the different types of graphics to be incorporated into a publication. A typesetter
can create and edit very complex text and graphical objects like pictures to finest details.

Page layout
Involves placement and arrangement of text and graphics on the page to produce documents
such as newsletters, brochures, books, etc. Also the user can design a page layout by setting
consistent picture and objects locations dividing page in a number of columns and creating
layer.

Printing
The main purpose of desktop publisher is to produce publications, therefore it helps the user
prepare what is refereed an artwork in commercial circles for printing.

4.2 Types of Desktop Publishing Software

There are two main categories namely: (i). Graphical based and (ii). Layout based
(i). Graphical Based
Are developed specifically to edit and format graphic objects like pictures. Examples of graphical
based software include: Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw, Adobe Illustrator, Harvard Graphic, etc.
they have superior image handling capabilities like setting resolution, brightness, contrast,
cropping, and filling images of all types with colour.
(ii). Layout Based
Is used to combine text and graphics to create publication. They have a good layout tool that
provides extensive typographical control and graphics handling capabilities. Examples of Layout
based desktop publishers are - adobe PageMaker
- Microsoft publisher
- Adobe InDesign
- QuarkXpress
- FrameMaker
- Corel Ventura
- Serif PagePlus
4.3 Designing a Publication
Desktop Publishing can be used in
- Designing texts and images
- Producing publications
- Creating illustrations
- Editing texts and graphics
- Composing templates

Types of publications
- Flyers and posters
- Newspapers
- Newsletters
- Business cards
- Announcements and invitation cards
- Certificates
- Books
- Magazines, pamphlets and journals
- Calendars
- Brochures
A brochure is a small booklet used for advertisement. They are displayed in racks, on coffee tables
of waiting rooms, at product shows, and through direct mailings. Brochures are the most
frequently used advertising media, and are used to give information on specific product, event,
service or organization. Dated information and employee names are usually not printed in
brochures in order to extend its life span.

Common features of DTP software

Most DTPs provide the user with a variety of tools for designing, manipulating and editing a
publication. The following tools are common in most DTPs:
o Select tool - Used to select, move and resize images and text.
o Text tool - Used to draw text frames, insert and manipulate text.
o Shape tool - For drawing basic shapes, rectangles, and importing objects.
o Zoom tool – for magnifying publications view.
o Rotate tool – for rotating text or graphics.

4.5 Designing a publication using Microsoft publisher

4.5.1 STARTING PUBLISHER 2003

1) On the Start menu, point to All Programs, Microsoft Office and then click Microsoft Office
Publisher 2003. New Publication task pane appears.
 2) In the New Publication task pane, choose a design template or click New to design from scratch
3) On the File menu, click Page Setup, select publication type and orientation.
4) On the Arrange menu, click Layout Guides, set margins and other
Standard properties.
toolbar
5) Click the OK button. Formatting
toolbar
Title bar
Menu bar

4.5.2 Creating a Blank Print Publication

1. On the File menu, click New
2. On the New Publication Task pane, under New, click Blank Print Publication. A blank

Horizontal ruler
Publication will appear.

NB: For examination purposes, strictly use Blank Print Publication to design your publication
and NOT templates.

To design your publication competently marry skills from Ms Word because this DTP package is an
advancement of some features from Microsoft Word.
Vertical ruler

Just like MS Word screen layout the Ms Publisher has menu bar, standard and formatting toolbar. In
addition it has Object toolbar.

Microsoft Publisher window

Printable area Paste board

Master page Toolbox
A few things are highlighted below whose approach is different from Ms Word and Adobe
PageMaker:

4.5.3 Page Setup

From File menu > Page Setup. In the dialog box that appears click the Printer and Paper tab to
select the Paper size and Orientation then Click OK.

4.5. 4 Layout guides and ruler guides

About layout guides and ruler guides

Layout guides comprise margin, column, row, and baseline guides. They are used to create a grid on a
master page. This grid appears on every page in your publication where that master page is used. Use
layout guides to organize text, pictures, and other objects into columns and rows so that your
publication will have an ordered, consistent look. Set layout guides in the Layout Guides dialog box
(Arrange menu).

Margin guides (margin guides: Guides on the top, bottom, left, and right sides of a page that are used
to define its margins. Most contents of a page are within the margin guides.), column guides (column
guides: Vertical guides that are used to divide a publication page into two or more columns.) , and row
guides (row guides: Horizontal guides that are used to divide a page into two or more sections to help
structure the layout of the page.) are represented by blue dotted lines; baseline guides (baseline
guides: Guides to which lines of text can be aligned to provide a uniform appearance between
columns  of text.) are represented by gold dotted guides; and ruler guides are represented by green
dotted lines.

Ruler guides
Are used to mark precise positioning of objects – a very important aspect of publishing.

Creating ruler guides

4.5.5 Master pages
A master page is a publication page that contains the design and layout elements that you want to
repeat on multiple pages in your publication. One advantage of using master pages for the common
elements is that it gives your publication a more consistent appearance.

Create, edit, or delete a master page

Create a master page

1. On the View menu, click Master Page.
2. In the Edit Master Pages task pane, click New Master Page.
3. In the New Master Page dialog box, do any of the following:
o In the Page ID (1 character) box, type a single-character identifier for your new
master page. This can be any single Unicode (Unicode: A character encoding
standard developed by the Unicode Consortium. By using more than one byte to
represent each character, Unicode enables almost all of the written languages in the
world to be represented by using a single character set.) character.
o In the Description box, type a brief description of your new master page.

Note  Only 40 characters will display in the Edit Master Pages task pane.

o If you want your new master page to be a two-page spread, select Two-page master.

Note  This option is not available if you are working on a Web publication.

4. Click OK.

Edit a master page

1. On the View menu, click Master Page.

 2. In the Edit Master Pages task pane, click the arrow next to the master page you want to edit,
and then click Edit.
3. Edit the page as desired.
4. To see the updated publication pages, click View publication pages, and then navigate to a
page to which the master page is applied.

Delete a master page

Every publication has one master page by default and must always have at least one master page. As
long as you have more than one master page, you can delete any master page you want. If you delete a
master page that is used by any publication pages, Publisher will apply in its place the first master
page listed in the Edit Master Pages task pane.

1. On the View menu, click Master Page.

2. In the Edit Master Pages task pane, click the arrow next to the master page you want to
delete, and then click Delete.
3. In the alert box, click Yes.

4.5.6 Setting Layout Guides

From Arrange menu, click Layout Guides. A dialog similar to one show below appears. It is from
Arrange menu under Layout Guides option where you can set Margins, Columns and Horizontal
Baseline. Baseline guides are used to align lines of text as in your ruled-notebook) to provide a
uniform appearance between columns of text.

Margin Guides
To set margin guides click the Margin Guides tab then
specify Left, Right, Top and Bottom margins as well as
Spacing between the columns. Click OK.

NB: To change the measurement preferences from the default

setting, go to Tools Menu> Options under General Tab in
the measurement
units box select
the preferred
measures e.g.
Centimeters, picas, points, pixels, then click OK as shown
in the figure below

Columns guides
To set column guides click the Grid Guides tab. Under Column Guides box, specify the number of
columns and spacing between them. If necessary Under Guides specify the number of columns and
spacing. Row guides are important if you were to design a publication and paste several copies e.g 4
or 6 instead of using ruler guides to partition. See figures below
 4.6 Working with text
To add text using text frame tool in Publisher:
1. Click tool Marked A on the toolbox.
2. On the empty area on the pasteboard or printable area, drag to define the text block.
3. Type the text.

Text hyphenation

What is Hyphen?
dash showing word break: a punctuation mark (-) used at the end of a line when a word must be
divided or to link the parts of a compound word or phrase

Hyphenate text automatically

Click in the text box or table frame that contains the text you want to hyphenate.
On the Tools menu, point to Language, and then click Hyphenation.
Click the Automatically hyphenate this story check box.
Note  If you select a text box that is part of a story, the text in all the connected text boxes becomes
hyphenated as well.

Hyphenate text manually

Change where hyphens occur in a word

You may want to control where hyphens occur in a word, especially if the word is long.

1. Select the word that contains the hyphen you want to change.
2. On the Tools menu, point to Language, and then click Hyphenation.
3. Clear the Automatically hyphenate this story box.
4. Click Manual.
5. In the Hyphenate at: box, do one of the following:
o To add a hyphen, click where you want to place the hyphen, and then click Yes.
o To remove a hyphen, select the hyphen, and then click No.

Add hyphens for words that can and cannot be separated

You might want finer control over hyphenation in some instances, such as in hyphenated names or
technical terms. For this fine control, place the insertion point where you want to insert a hyphen, and
then do one of the following:

 For a word that is always hyphenated and can be separated onto two lines, such as "two-
thirds," press hyphen (-).
 For a word that is always hyphenated and can't be separated on two lines, such as "Lydia
Brown-Smith," press CTRL+SHIFT+hyphen (-).
 For a word that can be hyphenated, but only when it's necessary to split the word onto two
lines, press CTRL+hyphen (-).

4.6.2 Creating columns within a text box

Use either of these two approaches;

a). Shortcut by Right clicking

Right-click the text box that you want to change, and then click Format Text Box.
In the Format Text Box dialog box, click the Text Box tab, and then click Columns.
In the Columns dialog box, type or select the number of columns you want in the Numbers box, and
then type or select the spacing value (gutter amount) you want in the Spacing box.
Click OK twice.

b). Format Menu option

1). Select the Text box, which you want to add columns
2). On the Format menu, select Textbox.
3). In the Format dialog box, click the Text Box tab and click Columns.
4). In the Columns dialog box, type or select the number of columns you want in the Numbers
box. Type or select the number of columns you want in the Numbers box. Type or select the
spacing value you want in the Spacing box.
5). Click OK to return to the previous dialog box. Click OK.

4.6.3 Resizing text

Text may not fit in the defined text frame. Publisher displays A… below the text frame.
To resize the text block
1). Click the text block using the pointer tool.
2). Position the pointer on the selection handle and drag to resize.

To move the text block in publisher:

1). Click the text block using the pointer tool.
2). Position the pointer tool on the object and hold down the left mouse button.
3). Drag the text object to a new position.

4.6.4 Connect text boxes

4.6.5 Fitting Text in a Textbox
Can’t see all text in the text box?

(overflow: Text that does not fit within a text box. The text is hidden until it can be flowed into a new
text box, or until the text box it overflows is resized to include it.),

Fit text in a text box

If you type or import more text than the text box can hold, Publisher stores the extra text in overflow,
where you can't see it. Here are some ways to make the text fit into the text box.

Fit text automatically

1. Click anywhere in the text.

2. On the Format menu, point to AutoFit Text, and do one of the following:
 o To reduce the point size of text until there is no text in overflow, click Shrink Text
On Overflow.
o To shrink or expand text to fit in the text box when you resize the box, click Best Fit.

Fit text manually

Here are some ways to fit text in a text box manually:

 Change the size or font of the text.

 Delete text.
 Increase the size of the text box.

4.6.6 Check a publication for misspellings

1. Click the text box (text box: A movable, resizable container for text or graphics. Use text
boxes to position several blocks of text on a page or to give text a different orientation from
other text in the document.), table frame (frame: A space, shown onscreen as a box, that
contains a particular element of your publication. Types of frames include text boxes, table
frames, and picture frames.), or AutoShape (AutoShapes: A group of ready-made shapes that
includes basic shapes, such as rectangles and circles, plus a variety of lines and connectors,
block arrows, flowchart symbols, stars and banners, and callouts.) that you want to check.
2. On the Tools menu, point to Spelling, and then click Spelling.
3. In the Check Spelling dialog box, click the option you want for each word that appears in the
Not in dictionary box.

You can leave the spelling of the word as it is, change it, or add the word to the dictionary so
that Publisher ignores it when you use the Spelling feature again. You can ignore or delete
repeated words.

4. To check the spelling in every text box, table frame, and AutoShape in the current
publication, select the Check all stories check box.
5. To stop the spelling checker before it has finished, click Close.

Note  Publisher can check for misspelled or repeated words in text boxes, table frames, and
AutoShapes, but cannot check Mail Merge fields or WordArt. For form controls, Publisher can
check text in option button and check box labels but cannot check the default text (default text:
Sample text for Web page visitors. This text will appear in the Web form control, assisting visitors in
entering information.) for command buttons, text boxes, or list boxes.

Select Spelling options

Click the text box, table frame, or AutoShape you want to check.
On the Tools menu, point to Spelling, and then click Spelling Options.
Make sure that any of the spelling options you want are selected.
Click OK.

4.6.7 Importing a Document from a word processor

To import text from a Word Processor to Publisher
1). On the File menu, click Import Word Document
2). In the dialog box select the file then click OK
3). The text is pasted onto the printable area.

4.7 Editing text and graphical objects

Deleting text and text objects
To delete some text in Publisher:
i). Click the Text tool and highlight text
ii). Press Delete or Backspace key.

To delete a text object :

Click the Pointer tool, then click the text frame.
Press the Delete or Backspace key.

4.8 Inserting pages and page numbers

To insert pages
From Insert menu click Page or press Ctrl + Shift + N. A dialog below appears where you can specify
the number of pages to be inserted and where either before or after
the current page. You also select options.

To insert duplicate pages instead of copy paste from Insert menu

click Duplicate pages or press Ctrl + Shift + U.

Deleting pages to the publication

While the publication is open turn to the page you want to
delete. Right click the page tab and select delete command, or
from Edit menu select Delete page where by it deletes the
active page.

To insert page numbers

From Insert menu click Page Numbers. A dialog like one shown
appears.

To insert Headers and footers

From View menu click Header and Footer. The Header and Footer toolbox box appears just like in
Ms Word.

4.10 Text formatting

To format text just like the other packages it must be selected. On the formatting toolbar choose font
style, size and other attributes.

4.10. 1 Line spacing and indentation

Line and paragraph spacing
Line spacing determines the amount of vertical space between lines of text in a paragraph. By default,
lines are single-spaced, meaning that the spacing accommodates the largest font in that line, plus a
small amount of extra space. If a line contains a large text character or graphic, Publisher increases the
spacing for that line. To space all lines evenly, specify an exact amount of spacing by entering a value
followed by a unit of measurement (inches, centimeters, picas, points, or pixels).

Change line or paragraph spacing

Change the space between paragraphs

1. Select the text you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Line spacing, do either of the following:
 o In the Before paragraphs box, type or select the amount of spacing you want above
the paragraph.
o In the After paragraphs box, type or select the amount of spacing you want below
the paragraph.

Tip

The default value for space before or after paragraphs is displayed in points. You can specify
other measurement units by typing the abbreviation for them after the numerical value: inches
(in), centimeters (cm), picas (pi), points (pt), or pixels (px). When you specify a unit other
than points, Publisher converts the measurement to points.

Set automatic spacing between lines of text

1. Select the text you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.

3. Under Line spacing, in the Between lines box, type or select the amount of spacing you want
between lines of text.

Tip

The default value for space between lines is displayed in spaces (sp). If you type a whole number,
Publisher interprets it as a number of spaces. You can specify other measurement units by typing the
abbreviation for them after the numerical value: inches (in), centimeters (cm), picas (pi), points (pt),
or pixels (px). When you specify a unit other than spaces, Publisher converts the measurement to
points.

Paragraph Indent

Create or modify a paragraph indent

Automatically indent the first line of paragraphs

1. Select the paragraphs you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Indentation, in the Preset list, click 1st Line Indent.

Create custom indents

1. Select the paragraphs you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Indentation, type or select the amount of indentation you want.

Tip
The default measurement units for indents are displayed in inches. You can specify other
measurement units by typing the abbreviation for them after the numerical value: inches (in),
centimeters (cm), picas (pi), points (pt), or pixels (px). When you specify a unit other than inches,
Microsoft Publisher converts the measurement to its equivalent in inches.

Create a hanging indent

In a hanging indent, the second and subsequent lines of a paragraph are indented more than the first
line. Common uses for the hanging indent are resumes and bulleted and numbered lists.
1. Select the paragraphs you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Indentation, in the Preset list, click Hanging Indent.
 Removing an indent

1. Select the paragraphs you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph, and then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Under Indentation, in the Preset list, click Flush Left

4.10.2 Bullets and numbering

4.10.3 Superscript and subscript

To format text to superscript or subscript:
Highlight the text then from the Format menu>Font mark the Superscript or Subscript and click
OK.

4.10.4 Drop Cap

1. From Format menu click Drop Cap.
2. Select either Drop Cap tab to see fig, (a) or Custom Drop Cap to see fig. (b).Using Custom
Drop Cap is just like Drop capping in Ms Word.
4.10.5Fig.
Tracking,
(a) scaling and kerning
Adjust tracking and kerning

Adjust tracking
To change the spacing between all text characters, you need to adjust tracking. Tracking is available
only if you are working on a print publication.
1. Select the paragraphs you want to change.
2. On the Format menu, click Character Spacing.
3. Under Tracking, do one of the following:
o To adjust tracking automatically, click one of the preset spacing options.
o To adjust tracking manually, click Custom, and then enter a percentage between
0.1% and 600% in the By this amount box.

Adjust kerning

To change the spacing between two specific text characters, you need to adjust kerning.

1. Select the two characters you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Character Spacing.
3. Under Kerning, click Expand or Condense to adjust spacing, and then enter a percentage
between 0.1% and 600% in the By this amount box.

Shrink or stretch the width of text characters (scaling a character)

Scaling is shrinking or stretching the width of a text characters to take the size you want and is only
available only if you are working on a print publication.

1. Select the text characters you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Character Spacing.
3. Under Scaling, enter the percentage amount that you want to shrink or stretch your text.

You can view an example in the Sample box at the bottom of the dialog box.
4.11 Creating and formatting a Table in Ms Publisher

You can use a table to organize data or create a card/receipt.

Add borders, fills, and effects to a table

You can add patterned borders and border art or transparent, gradient, texture, or pattern fill effects to
tables only if you are working on a print publication. If you are working on a Web publication, you
can apply solid borders and solid fills.

Before you begin any of the following tasks, do the following:

1. Select the cells you want to change.

2. Right-click the table, and then click Format Table.

The Format Table dialog box will appear.

To add Table borders

To create gridlines that print, you need to add a border around every cell in the table. From Format
menu select Table. The Format Table dialog box appears. Select the preset with cell border and line
style you want, then click OK.
 Add, change, or remove a line border

 Under Line, select the options you want, and then click OK.

Add colors or patterns to cells or to an entire table

 To add fills or fill effects to cells, rows, or columns, click the arrow next to the Color box and
then select the options you want.

Make cells transparent

 Under Fill, move the Transparency slider to get the percentage of transparency you want

Format a table's size, layout, and cell properties

1. Select the cells you want to change.

2. Right-click the table, and then click Format Table.
3. In the Format Table dialog box, click the tabs along the top to find the options you want, and
then enter your formatting changes.

For example, to change the margins in a cell, click the Cell Properties tab, and then select the
options you want under Text Box Margins.

4.12 Fill and stroke

Filling refers to applying a solid colour or patterns to a drawing, while stroke refers to line style. To
apply background and stroke;
1). Select the object
2). On the Format menu, click Style

4.13 Wrapping text around a picture

Formatting graphical objects
Cropping a picture
Resizing a picture only enlarges or condenses the picture while cropping reduce the size of a picture
by cutting off unwanted edges. To crop a picture proceed as follows;
1. Select the picture you want to crop
2. On the picture toolbar, select the crop tool
3. Position the crop tool over a cropping handle
4. To crop one side, drag the centre handle on that side
5. To crop evenly on two opposite sides at once, hold down CTRL as you drag a centre handle.
6. To crop evenly on all four sides at once, hold down CTRL as you drag a corner handle.

Rotating Objects
Select the object then hold down Ctrl key and rotate the green handle clockwise or anticlockwise.
NB: When you select the object, hold down the control key and drag the green rotation handle, it
creates a copy.

Arranging objects (ordering/ overlapping objects)

If an object is hidden by another, you need to arrange them in order of priority by,
1). Select the object you want to be in front or send to the back.
2). On Element menu, point to Arrange.
3). Select an arrange option from the list.

Move an object forward or backward

1. Select the object you want to move.

If the object is hidden, select any object, and then press TAB or SHIFT+TAB until the object
you want is selected.

2. Do one of the following:

Bring an object one step closer to the front

On the Arrange menu, point to Order, and then click Bring Forward.

Bring an object to the front of the stack

On the Arrange menu, point to Order, and then click Bring to Front.

Send an object one step toward the back

On the Arrange menu, point to Order, and then click Send Backward.
 Send an object to the back of the stack
On the Arrange menu, point to Order, and then click Send to Back.
Tip
To move more than one object at once, hold down SHIFT and click everything you want to select, and
then release SHIFT.

Grouping and ungrouping objects

It is crucial if you have several objects in a publication to be grouped together. To group use either of
the two approaches;
1). Hold down shift as you click each object
2). From Arrange menu select Group or press Shift + Ctrl + G in the keyboard.
Or

4.9 Printing a Publication

To print a publication:
1. From File menu, click Print. A dialog box appears.
In the dialog box that appears specify the following:
o select the printer to use
 Range to print if you do not want to print
whole document in the Ranges box.
 Number of copies to print per page in the
Number of copies box.
 Whether to print Blank pages or not.
 Whether to print both pages
 The print orientation

2. Click Print to start printing

Revision questions
1. Define the term artwork.
2. What is publishing? Howe is desktop publishing a unique form of publishing?
3. List any four application window layout components found in a typical desktop publisher.
4. Explain the function of each of the following tools:
a). pointer tool
b). rectangle
c). text tool
 d). rotate tool
5. Why are master pages important in a publication.
6. Differentiate between margins and columns guides.
7. How can you caliberate rulers to measure in millimeters?
8. Explain how you can draw a triangle of height 5cm and base 6 cm.
9. Why do you need to lock margins or objects in a publication.
10. Explain the following:
a). font type style
b). line stroke
11. How can you import a graphic into the publication
12. To change the page orientation to wide, click _______________ then __________________
and select _________ from the _______________________ dialog box.
13. To fill a polygon, click ______________ then select ________________ and ____________
from the dialog box.
14. Rotating means changing the __________ of an object.
15. The _________ tool is used to change the zoom settings of the application window.
16. _______ means cutting off the unwanted edges of a graphic object.
17. The small black objects that appear around a selected graphic are called ________________.
18. Expert tracking means _____________ while Kerning means __________________.
19. How can you change the boldface and font size of selected text at once?
5.0 INTERNET AND E-MAIL
Objectives
By the end of the chapter, be able to:
a). Define internet
b). Explain the development of internet
c). Explain the importance of internet
d). Describe internet connectivity
e). Identify internet services
f). Access internet
g). Use e-mail facilities
h). State the moral, social and spiritual issues that may emerge through access to the internet

5.1 Definition of the Internet

Internet can be defined as:
1. Internet is a large network of networks that covers the whole world and enables millions of
computers from different organizations and people to communicate globally; or
2. Internet is a vast network of networks ; or
3. Largest net of networks; or
4. Internet is a world-wide computer network linking countless thousands of computer networks,
through a mixture of private and public data and telephone lines
Internet is sometimes called the Information Superhighway because of its large size and great
volume of information that passes through it.
Computer Network is formed when two or more computers are connected together to enable
communications among them

5.2 History of Network

The Department of USA defense established an agency to fund a project to allow dissimilar
computers to communicate with each other through a WAN. This project started in 1969 and it
was referred to as ARPHANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). The military
intention was to build a network that could continue to work in the event of war even if parts of
the network were disabled. ARPHANET connected four universities which were the University of
California at Los Angeles Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa
Barbara and the University of Utah.
In 1982 the Defence Communications Agency (DCA) and DARPA(Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency) established a protocol, known as Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP), as the standard connection protocol used on the ARPHANET.
The conversion of TCP/IP on the ARPHANET was completed in January 1983, and the term
“Internet” came into use in place of “the Internet Protocol (IP)”. The Internet Activities Board
was formed so as to oversee activities regarding Internet.
National Science Foundation Network was established 1986 which established a network
connecting Five supercomputer centres to enhance and network research capabilities in the United
States (US).
As the number of computers connected to the Internet grew, the Internet work bone grew to a 1.54
Mbps WAN in 1988 and a 44.736 Mbps WAN in 1992. Today the internet has grown and covered
the whole world.

5.3 Importance of Internet

- Increased productivity
Staff in a company don’t waste time moving from one office to another to pick a document
hence promoting output.
- speedy and inexpensive communication
- Internet provides a speedy, inexpensive and convenient 24-hours world-wide service means of
communication via its electronic mail facility.
- Improved research tool: Internet is well-stocked research tool, which is able to provide any
kind of information.
- Sharing of resources and information : Devices like printers scanners and all files containing
any information can be shared.
 - business transaction
- leisure
- news and information dissemination
- Communication services: It attains three forms as follows; like E-mail, Chat (real-time one-to-
one or group conversation, with discussions in typed form), Conferencing (dynamic exchange
of all kinds of information where each participant contribute responses to any items in the
conversations. The participants are at different geographical locations.
- Education like Virtual learning whereby students log on to the Internet to attend classes.
- Software downloading: there is a large variety of software on the Internet that users can
download and use i.e Public domain (free) software.
- E-commerce like online shopping, online Banking, online travel, arrangements.

5.4 Internet Connectivity Requirements

For one to access the Internet the following requirements should be put in place:
a). Data terminal equipments – which are devices used to process, host and transmit data on a
network e.g. computer mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAS).
b). Transmission media – refers to physical or wireless pathways used to transmit data and
information from one point to another e.g. telephones lines, radio waves, microwaves and
satellite.
c). Telecommunication lines – A computer is connected to the external World through a telephone
line and has to dial a remote computer via modem on the net to establish connection for data
transfer. Dial up connection is slow and unreliable and is being replaced by Dedicated digital
leased lines and fibre optic cables.
d). Modem
The modem is a special digital to analog interface card connection, via telephone or cable- T.V
lines between your computer and a computer network that provides Internet access. Modem is a
short form for Modulator – demodulator. Modem changes data from digital to analog
(modulation) so as to be transmitted on telephone lines and on receiving end the data is changed
from analog to digital (demodulation) for computer to understand.
The Modem may be external (a separate box connected to your CPU);or internal *built into your
CPU so that you do not see it).
The wires that carry information between your computer and the outside world are plugged into
your modem, which in turn allows your computer and the outside world to connect to the
Internet.

e). Satellite transmission – is used for intercontinental transfer of data by having satellite base
stations transmitting the data through a wireless uplink channel to the satellite. The satellite then
sends the data signal to the base station on another continent where it is picked up and sent to
telephone exchanges for transfer to the destination computer.
f). Internet Service Providers (ISP’s)
ISP’s are companies that offers Internet services to end users through dial-up connections as well
as broadband services at a fee. There are several ISP services from which a user specifies the one
he/she needs. These include:
i). Limited access – this offer is for those who doesn’t need the service all the time. the user
sub-scribes for only the number of hours he/she needs the service per day.
ii). Unlimited Access - this is meant for those users who need to be connected to the Internet all
the time (24 hours).

Factors to consider when choosing an ISP

 Ease of use- do they provide you with a simple –to-install set of software that will get you
online with no hassle?
 Support – will they provide you with the help you need? Do they offer 24 hours customer
support or offer services only during business hours?
 Cost – consider setup costs, monthly costs and toll costs for extra hours of use.
 Services – should provide up-to-date tools and software to provide e-mail and Internet access.
 Trial – can you try out the services before you buy?
 Content – if you are interested in the information available within a service you should check
out their promotional material.
  Performance – watch out for sluggish performance during peak hours or excessive down time.
also ask people who have accounts with the provider about performance to assess.
 Privacy – do they have a solid privacy policy? will they assist you in how to filter undesirable
content?
Examples of ISP’s in Kenya and Africa:
o Africa Online
o Nairobinet
o Wananchi Online
o KenyaWeb
o Formnet
o Telkom
o Access Kenya®
o Swiftglobal®
o Bidii.com
o Interconnect
o Todays Online

g). Internet Software

Communication software is required to manage your connection to Internet. Windows already
has built-in communications software to access the Internet. Internet software help facilitate your
access to Internet.
To access internet services, a computer must be installed with an Internet protocol, a browser and
e-mail client.

Internet protocol
To achieve communication between computers and telecommunication devices that have
different hardware and software configuration a special software called Protocol is needed. A
protocol is a set of rules that governs how two computers can send and receive data on the
network.
There two types of protocols used with Internet:
i. Transmission control protocol (TCP)
It governs how data is transferred from one computer to the next.
ii. Internet Protocol (IP)
It determines the addressing system on the Internet.

Browsers
 Is a special program that lets the user surf or browse the internet
 A web browser can also be defined as a program used for displaying and viewing pages on
the World Wide Web. The most common Web Browser are:
 Netscape Navigator
 Internet Explorer
 Mozilla browser
Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.

E-mail software
E-Mail software is a communication software specifically designed and developed to help a person to
compose, send and receive (read) text documents on the internet. Both the sender and the receiver
MUST have an e-mail address. Examples of e-mail software:
Microsoft Outlook Express, Eudora, Yahoo mail, GMail, etc.

5.5 Internet Services

a). E-mail
This is the exchange of electronic letters, data and graphics on the Internet.
b). Electronic learning (E-Learning)
Can be defined as:
 - The use technology to deliver learning and training programs using interactive medias such as CR-
ROM, Internet, wireless and mobile media to facilitate learning; or
- Learning through interaction with special programs on the computer.
c). Electronic Commerce (E- commerce)
Is the trading in the internet where goods and services are sold over the Internet. The Internet
gives an opportunity for sellers of goods to advertise them on the websites where the consumers
can be able to place an order from any corner of the World. Payment is done via internet’s -
commerce.
Advantages of E-commerce
- Company can access customers all over the world and is not limited by space and time.
- It has allowed companies to create lo0w cost distribution channel
- It has created opportunity to new companies to enter previously impenetrable markets.
- Small companies have established websites to auction / advertise their goods reducing
operation costs and increasing sales.
d). World wide web
- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information pages called websites are installed;
or
- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information is made available; or
- WWW is a wide area hypermedia information retrieval initiative that aims to give universal access
to a large universe of documents.
The World Wide Web is driven by two fundamental technologies: HTTP and HTML. HTTP is the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol that controls how Web servers and Web browsers communicate with
each other. HTML is the Hypertext Markup Language that defines the structure and contents of a Web
page.
In order to connect a network to the internet, the local area network needs an Internet Server. This
server is given the name World Wide Web (WWW) and has all the information that others on the
internet access. This information is made available on:
Web pages
A web page is a single screen of information, which may contain text, images, animation, sound and
video. You view a web page via the web Browser software.

A website
Is a collection of web pages, or other resources located on a web server. The first page on a website is
called a home page.

Individuals and organizations establish Websites where their web documents can be placed for easy
access by external world. These sites are a special address called Uniform Resource Allocation (URL)
is used to access them.

Web portals – offer specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates, financial, news
and links to selected websites.
A blog – a website that contains personal information which can easily be updated.
Multimedia sites contain photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They are meant for
entertainment.
Examples of WWW Client programs are:
(i). Internet Explorer
(ii). Netscape
(iii). Mosaic
(iv). Lynx
(v). Charlotte

Links
To get from one Web page to another within a website, or another Web sites altogether, you have to
find Hypertext or Hypermedia on the Page you are viewing.
Hypertext - a system of storing images, text, and other computer files that allows direct links to
related text, images, sound, and other data
Hypermedia – (multi-media hypertext system): a hypertext system that supports the linking of
graphics, audio and video elements, and text. The World Wide Web has many aspects of a complete
hypermedia system.

e). Internet fax

Internet provides you with complete fax facilities from your computer. You can configure fax
settings, send and receive faxes, track and monitor fax activity and access archived faxes.
f). Instant messaging - this a messaging service that allows two or more people to communicate
directly. To get the services, you must first register with an instant messenger such as Yahoo!
messenger.
g). Newsgroup
These are organized groups of Internet users who wish to share ideas and interests. Once you join
a newsgroup, you can participate in discussion forums and debates.
h). News media on the net
All major media houses post their daily news on the Internet for clientele to access.
i). Health information
Through Internet we can get latest medical news and research findings for practitioners and
scholars.
j). Music and entertainment on the net
You can listen to music on the web and watch video clips if the computer is multimedia.
k). Chatting on the net
People can sign into a chat room and exchange ideas freely through discussions.
Try accessing www.try.com to see listings of chat topics you can participate in on-line.
(l) Searching :Search engines
Can be defined as:
o Special programs that help the user easily search for information on the internet.
o Special programs that maintain lists of hyperlinks available; or
o It is a program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the
documents where the keywords were found; or
o Are special programs that allows the user to type keywords that are run against a database.
Common search engines include:
Google (http:// www.google.com )
Hotmail (http:// www.hotmail.com)
Yahoo (http:// www.yahoo.com)
Alta Vista (http:// www.altavista.com)
Excite (http:// www.excite.com/search)
hotBot (http:// hotbot.lycos.com )

Multi-threaded search engines are search engines that allow the user to search multiple
databases simultaneously via a single interface.

5.6 Accessing the Internet

Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.

a) Log-in / Sign – in
Before you can have access to any mail box, the process of authentication must be done. This is
done by providing the correct user name and password for that account.
Logging-in/signing-in: is the process of authenticating yourself to the computer so as to be
allowed to check the contents (mails) in a mail box.
You will only be allowed entry after provision of the correct username and password. This is
normally for ensuring that there is enough security in storing mails in the internet.
To access the Website, type the full address of the website in the address bar then press enter key
or go icon. Some websites allow free access to all their pages by visitors while others require
people to be members hence a new visitor has to register (sign up).
b) Browsing / surfing
Browsing / surfing is the process of accessing Internet resources like web pages and websites,
using URL address or Hyperlinks.
c) Hyperlinks URLs and Search engine
Hyperlink are used to navigate from one web page to another. Cal also be explained as a text or
picture on an electronic document, especially web page that causes web pages to open when the
link is clicked.
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) – is the Internet address of a particular Web page, it
connects the user to a particular website.

The URL has two basic parts

 Protocol – standard used to connect to the resource e.g. Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(http://) and file transfer protocol (ftp://). E.g. http://www.google.co.ke display Google
home page is displayed.
 Domain name – name of the web server where the resource is located.

d) Downloading / saving / printing web content

Success of finding what you want online increases with experience.
Downloading
Is the transmission of data files or applications from the server on the Internet to your local
computer.
Free ware or shareware
Are software available on the web for free downloading. You do not have to pay to use them.
Basic guidelines to note when downloading something:
1) Be careful about Beta (or evaluation) software since these are not fully tested programs and
they could end up damaging your computer.
2) Only download software from trusted sites, so that you do not risk getting viruses.

Downloading procedure
1. Right click the hyperlink to the file
2. On the shortcut menu, click the Save target as command.
3. After some searching the Browser displays the Save As dialog box. Specify the folder or drive
where the file is to be saved then type a unique name for the file in the name box.
4. Click the Save button and the download progress dialog appears on the screen. Unless
otherwise selected, the download will notify the user at the down load process.
5. Open the file in its application to view it.

Printing
To print a file, open it in the application in which it was created then send it to the printer for printing.
You can also print a web page directly from the browser window by clicking File then Print.

5.7 Electronic Mail (E-mail)

E-mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters ands documents on the internet.

E-mail software
E-Mail software falls under special application packages communication software specifically
designed and developed to help a person to compose, send and receive (read) text documents on the
internet. Both the sender and the receiver MUST have an e-mail address.
The e-mails are usually stored in separate folders as described below:
Inbox – all incoming e-mails are stored here.
Outbox – contains e-mails that are waiting to be sent.
Sent – contains the e-mails that have already been sent.
Drafts – contains e-mails that have being worked on, and are not yet ready been sent.
Deleted items – contains e-mails that have been deleted. You can recover a deleted e-mail as long as
you have not emptied this folder.
Spam – contains mails from suspected sites e.g. may contain computer viruses.

An e-mail address directs the computers on the Internet on where to deliver the e-mail messages. A
typical e-mail format is described below:
Format: Username@Internat_address
Example: [email protected]
[email protected]
Each user ID is made up of two components: Username and Internet domain separated by an @ sign.
1) fauzifa – is the User name/ personal identifier and is usually coined by the user during e-mail
account registration.
2) @ is the symbol for ‘at’ which separates the username from the rest of the address.
3) Yahoo.com – is the name of the Host computer in the network i.e. the computer on which the
e-mail account is hosted.
4) The period “.” Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-mail address.
5) Com identifies the type of institution offering a particular service(s) and is called the domain
name.
6) .ke - is the country indicator.

Other domain names are

.com – commercial institution
.gov – government
.net – network centre
.edu – educational institutions
.mil – military site
.org – organizations
Most network addresses end with a country code, such as:
.ke – for Kenya
.ug – for Uganda
.tz – for Tanzania
.jp – for Japan
.au – for Australia
.uk – for United Kingdom, etc.
The two letter extension is added after the domain name to show the country where the cite is located
e.g. [email protected]

E-mail facilities
1). Mails
a) Checking mails
In order to check mail the user has to open the e-mail account by providing the correct user name
and password. In e-mail account, click the inbox folder command to view link list of all received
mails.

b) Compose e-mail
Composing implies writing. To compose click the compose command. The command header
element in the new e-mail window are:
To: here, you enter the e-mail address of the recipient.
From: here, your e-mail software will enter your address automatically.
Subject: should contain a few words outlining the nature of your message. It is not mandatory to
enter something here, but it generally helps the recipient to know what is contained in the e-mail.
Cc: stands for Carbon Copy, and is used to copy an e-mail to other recipients. The main recipient
is able to see who the e-mail has been copied to.
BCC: stands for blind Carbon Copy, meaning that a copy of your message is sent to an extra
address, without any indication of that action appearing in the main recipients copy of the
message.
Date: the date and time the message is sent are indicated automatically from e-mail software.
Attachments – the name and location of any file you may be sending along with the e-mail.
c) Sending e-mail
To send mail, type the correct e-mail address of the recipient in To: text box, type your letter
then click Send command.
d) Forward e-mail – a received mail can be forwarded to another recipient. After reading click
Forward command and then provide the address of the recipient.

2). File Attachment

E-mail software enables a person to attach other files like pictures, music, movie clips, etc. the source
of attachment files can be from the hard disk or other storage devices e.g Flash disk.
To attach click the Attach button on the window; or
i. Click the Insert menu then File Attachment. A dialog box appears where you choose the file
you want to attach.
ii. Select the file then click the Attach button. An attachment bar is inserted in the e-mail
window with a name of the file you choose.
iii. Click Send to send the e-mail.

3). On-line meeting

It’s possible to hold on-line meeting with people by sending mails to them. E.g. on-line interviews
may involve a person sending electronic mail composed of interview questions to a recipient who can
read and question back.

4). Telephone messages

Because of integration between mobile telephony and the Internet technology, wireless Access
Protocol (WAP) makes it possible to send e-mail to a mobile handset and a mobile message to e-mail
account.
5). Contact management
Most mails programs allow the user to develop an address book which holds contact information like
e-mail address of different people. To create a new contact:
i. Start e-mail window
ii. Tools menu / Address book.
iii. From the address book window click File then Contact.
iv. Click the Name tab and enter the contact details, then click Add.
v. Close the contact window then the address book.

5.8 Accessing Information on Emerging Issues

Internet is a storehouse of information, presented in the from of text, documents, pictures, sound and
even video. Emerging issues refers to things like HIV/Aids, drug Abuse, moral issues and
environmental issues.

5.9 Effect of internet on the society

Although internet is such an important resource, it has also brought with it some challenges. These
include;
 Accessibility of dirty sites such as pornography by the young hence affecting their morals.
The solution is to restrict the known offensive sites using filter programs such as CyberPatrol,
Cybersitter or net Nanny.
 Security and privacy – Internet has made it easy for criminals to illegally access
organizations private information hence posing security concerns. To improve on security,
install a Firewall and antispyware programs.
 Spread of malicious software – which includes Viruses, Trojan horse and worm. This results
in frustration and loss of data. Install Internet security program and update it regularly.

Revision questions
1. Define the term Internet
2. What is the difference between internet and Internet?
3. Explain the concept of web page.
4. Explain the following internet address http:// ww.google.com in reference to the structure of a
URL.
5. What is Internet telephony?
6. Describe the history of the Internet.
7. What is the world wide web (www)?
8. What is a browser software?
9. Draw a sketch of a simple browser toolbar and label its shortcut commands or icons.
10. Explain the process of loading a website in your browser.
11. List four e-mail services.
12. What is file download? Explain the procedure.
13. Explain the meaning of the word hyperlink.
14. Give three steps that you would follow to search for information on the web.
15. What would you do if a website refuses to load in the browser with the first attempt?
16. What is a search engine?
17. Explain the meaning of the term Internet Service Provider (ISP)
18. What three things apart from the computer itself are needed to connect to the Internet.
19. Explain the term modem.
20. What is a protocol? Write the following in full: TCP/IP, HTML,

6.0 DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL

Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
a). Define the terms data security and privacy
b). Identify security threats on ICT and possible control measures
c). Identify types of computer crimes
d). Discuss laws governing protection of information and communication technology

6.1 Data Security and Controls

Data security is the protection of programs and data in computers and communication systems,
against unauthorized modification, destruction, disclosure or transfer, whether accidental or
intentional.

It involves:
- Protection of data and information against access or modification
- Denial of data and information to unauthorized users
- Provision of data and information to authorized users.
Data control is the measure taken to enforce the security of programs and data.
Data and information privacy
Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual and must not be accessed or
disclosed to any other person unless with direct permission from the owner.
Confidential data – data or information held by a government or organization about people ,
must be protected against unauthorized access or disclosure.

6.2 Data security core principles

Also referred to as information security. They are; Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability.

Confidentiality
Sensitive data or information like employees details, business financial ,etc belonging to the
organization or government should not be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people.

Integrity
Means that data should not be modified with without owners authority.

Availability
Information must be available on demand.
6.5 Laws governing protection of information
Computer Ethics – are the moral principles and values that govern the actions and decisions of an
individual or group. They serve as guidelines on how to act rightly and justly when faced with
moral dilemmas.

ICT Legislation – these are laws that govern what information can be kept about an individual
and how that information may be used. Any activity that contravenes these laws is considered
illegal.

6.3 Security threats and control measures

Threats from malicious programs

These programs affect the smooth running of a system or carry out illegal activities. A good
example is a virus.

Viruses
The term virus stands for: Vital Information Resource Under Siege
A virus is a program that will change the operation of the computer without the user’s
information. Viruses attach themselves to computer files called executable files such that any
time such programs are run a copy of the virus is sent out. So it duplicates itself continuously.
Therefore a computer virus can be defined as:
- A self -replicating segment of computer code designed to spread to other computers by sharing
“infected” software.
- A destructive program that attaches itself to other files and installs itself without permission on
the computer when the files are opened for use.
- A program that can pass a malicious code to other non-malicious programs by modifying
them.
- A program or code that replicates itself and infects other programs, boot and partition sectors
or documents inserting itself or attaching itself to the medium.

Types of computer viruses

 Boot sector – they destroy the booting information on storage media.
 File viruses – attach themselves to files
 Hoax viruses – come as e-mail with an attractive subject and launches itself when e-mail is opened.
 Trojans Horse – they perform undesirable activities in the background without user knowledge.
 Backdoors – may be a Trojan or worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.
 Worms – it attaches it self on non-executable files and it self-replicates clogging the system
memory and storage media. When a document is emailed the worm travels with it and through that
easily spreads to other computers on a network.
 A logic bomb – infects a computer’s memory, but unlike a virus it does not replicate itself. A logic
bonb delivers its instructions when it is triggered by a specific condition, such when a particular
date or time is reached or when a combination of letters is typed on a keyboard. A logic bomb has
the ability to erase a hard drive or delete certain files.

Note: The main difference between a virus and a worm is that a viruses attaches themselves to
computer executable files while a worm attaches it self on non-executable files in the computer.

Symptoms of a computer affected by viruses

- Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screen.
- Program taking longer to load
- Slow – down of the general operation
- Unusual and frequent error messages occurring more frequently
- Access light turning on for non-referenced devices
- Programs / files mysteriously disappearing
- Executable files changing size for no obvious reason.
- Change in file size
- Loss or change in the file size
- Loss or change of data
- Disk access seeming excessive for simple tasks
- System crash
- Files and programs disappearing mysteriously
- Disk access seems excessive for simple tasks

Sources of virus into the computer system

- Copies of pirated software
- Fake computer games
- Freeware / Shareware and bulletin board programs that have not been checked for viruses.
- Using infected disks from vendors, consulting firms, computer repair shops and main-order
houses.
- Downloading and opening infected files from the Internet.
- Hackers intent on malicious destruction of networked systems to which they have gained
unauthorized.
- Infected proprietary (private) software
- Updates of software distributed via networks.
- E-mail attachments
- Contacts with contaminated systems e.g. diskettes, flash disks, CDs, etc.

Control measures against viruses

- Install the most latest version of antivirus software on the computer
- Avoid foreign diskettes in the computer system
- Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning for viruses
- Regular backing-up of all software and data files. Files back-up can be used to restore lost files in
the event of a system failure.
- When opening e-mails, user should not open attachments from unknown senders.
- All unlicensed software should be carefully examined before use.
- Always check for virus on portable disks when used to move files between computers.

Information system failure

Some of the causes include;
 Hardware failure due to improper use
 Unstable power supply as a result of brownout or blackout and vandalism
 Network breakdown
 Natural disaster
 Program failure

Control measures
  Use surge protectors and UPS to protect computer systems against brownout or black out which
causes physical damage or data loss.
 Install a Fault Tolerant system which has the ability to preserve the integrity electronic data
during hardware or software malfunction.
 Disaster recovery plans by establishing offsite storage of an organizations databases so that incase
of disaster or fire accidents, the backed up copies are used to reconstruct lost data.

Unauthorized access
Physical access to computer system should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorized person gets
access to the system.
Form of unauthorized access:
(i). Eaves dropping / wire tapping
This is tapping into communication channels to get information packet sniffers can eavesdrop on
all transmissions and activities on the system
(ii). Surveillance (monitoring)
This involves where a person may keep a profile of all computer activities done by another person
or people. The gathered information is used for other illegal works. Special programs called
cookies are used by many websites to keep track of your activities.
(iii). Industrial espionage
Spying on your competitor to get information that you can use to counter or finish the competitor.
(iv). An employee who is not supposed to see sensitive data by mistake or design gets it.
(v). Strangers straying into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
(vi). Network access in case the computers are networked and connected to the external world.

Control measures against unauthorized access:

1. Encrypt the data and information during transmission
Encryption is a process of encoding a message so that its meaning is not obvious; decryption
is the reverse process of transforming an encrypted message back into its normal form. Data
can only be read by person holding the encryption ‘key’. Alternatively the terms encode and
decode or encipher and decipher are used instead of the verbs encrypt and decrypt.
2. Reinforce the weak access points like doors and windows with metallic grills.
3. Installing alarm systems and other security devices.
4. Keeping computer rooms locked after hours and when not in use.
5. Restricting access to areas with computers so that only authorized personnel are allowed to
use passwords.
6. Use file passwords
7. Use of magnetic token or ‘SAMRT’ card or fingerprint or retinal scan for identification.

Computer errors and accidental access

Errors and accidental access to data and information may be as a result of people experimenting with
features they are not familiar with. Also people may mistaken printing sensitive reports and
unsuspectingly giving them to unauthorized persons.

Control measures
1. Set up a comprehensive error recovery strategy in the organization.
2. Deny access permissions to certain groups of users for certain files and computers.

Physical theft
This involves the theft of computer hardware and software. It involves breaking into an office or firm
and stealing computers, hard disks, data and other valuable computer accessories by being taken away
by either an insider or an intruder. Most cases of theft are done within an organization by
untrustworthy employees of the firm {Inside job} or by an intruders (outsiders) for commercial,
destruction to sensitive information or sabotage resources.

Control measures
- Employ guards to keep watch over data and information centres and backup.
- Burglar proof the computer room.
- Reinforce weak access points
- Create backups in locations away from main computing centre.
- Motivate workers to feel sense of belonging in order to make them proud and trusted custodians of
the company resources.
- Insure the hardware resources with a reputable firm.

Trespass
This is the act of gaining access or entering into a computer system without legal permission.

Cracking
Refers to the use of guess work over and over again, by a person until he/she finally discovers a weak
in the security policies or codes of software. Alternatively refers to someone using his / her
knowledge of information systems to illegally or unethically penetrate computers systems for personal
gain.

Hacking
Refers to when an individual intentionally breaks codes and passwords top gain unauthorized access
into a computer system, but without intent of causing damage.
Tapping
Tapping is when someone gains access to information that is being transmitted via communication
links. Any information that is transmitted across a network is at risk of being intercepted, if
appropriate security measures are not put in place.

Piracy
Is the act of making illegal copies of copyrighted software, information or data.
To eliminate piracy
- Make software cheap, enough to increase affordability
- Use licenses and certificate to identify originals
- Set installation password to deter illegal installation of software
- Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.

Fraud
Refers to leaking personal or organizational information using a computer with the intention of
gaining money or information.
Example of fraud is where one person created an intelligent program in the tax department that could
credit his account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was
discovered.

Alteration
Refers to illegal changing of data and information with the aim of gaining or misinforming the
authorized users. When a system is compromised the data lacks reliability, relevance and integrity.
Example of data alteration are when students break into system to alter exam results, or someone
breaks into a banking system to change account details or divert money.

Spam
A spam is unsolicited electronic junk mail, often commercial, message transmitted through the
Internet as a mass mailing to a large number of recipients. Is send by a person gaining access to a list
of e-mail addresses and redirecting the e-mail through the Mail Server of an unsuspecting host,
making the actual sender of the spam difficult to trace. Spam is annoying, but usually harmless,
except in cases where it contains links to web sites. Clicking on these links may sometimes leave your
system open to hackers or crackers.

Junk – is meaningless or worthless information received through e-mail

6.4 Description and protection against computer crimes

Audit trail
Computer Audit Trails are used to keep a record of who has accessed a computer system and what
operations he or she has performed during the given period of time. Audit Trails are useful both
 for maintaining security and for recovering lost transactions. Audit Trails help to detect
trespassing and alterations. Incase the system is broken into by a hacker; an Audit Trail enables
their activities to be tracked. Any unauthorized alterations can be rolled back to take the system
back the state it was in before the alterations were done

Data encryption
Data encryption is a means of scrambling (or ciphering) data so that it can only be read by the
person holding the encryption ‘Key or ‘algorithm’. The key is a list codes for translating
encrypted data – a password of some sort. Without the key, the cipher cannot be broken and the
data remains secure. Using the Key, the cipher is decrypted and the data remains secure. Using
the Key, the cipher is decrypted and the data is returned to its original value or state. Each time
one encrypts data a key is randomly generated. The same key is used by the data recipient to
decrypt the data.
Data encryption is a useful tool against network snooping (or tapping).

Log files
They are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and
resources of the information system. The information system administrator can therefore easily
track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the system.

Firewalls
A firewall is a program or hardware that filters information coming through the Internet and
connection into your personal computer or network. Firewalls can prevent unauthorized remote
logins, limit or stop Spam, and filter the content that is downloaded from the Internet. Some
Firewalls offer virus protection, but it is worth the investment to install Anti-Virus software on
each computer.

Security monitors
These are programs that monitor and keep a log file or record of computer systems and protect
them from unauthorized access.

Biometric security – is unauthorized control measure that takes the user’s attributes such as
voice, fingerprints and facial recognition.

Authentication policies such as signing users log on accounts, use of smart cards and Personal
Identification Number (PIN).

Difficulty in detection and prevention of computer crimes

1. the crime might be complex
2. it’s not easy to find clear trail of evidence leading to the guilty party e.g. No finger prints
3. there are no witness
4. Few people in management and law enforcement know little about computers to prevent the
crime.

6.6 Policies and laws governing information security

Bodies governing data security internationally
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
- Information Security Forum (ISF)

Regulations and laws in Kenya, United Kingdom and USA that govern data processing and
information security.

ICT Related Acts in Kenya

- The Science and Technology Act, Cap.250 of 1977
- The Kenya Broadcasting Act of 1988
- Kenya Communication Act of 1998.
Kenya ICT policy
Was developed by the government to address issues of privacy, e-security, ICT legislation, cyber
crimes, ethical and moral conduct, copyrights, intellectual property rights and piracy. Down load a
portable document file (pdf) from the Government website titled National {Information &
Communications Technology (ICT) Policy, Ministry of Information & Communications, January
2006.}

United Kingdom Data Protection Act 1998

Protects an individuals privacy

Family educational rights and privacy act (USA)

Is a USA Federal law that protects the privacy of student’s education records. To release any
information from a student’s education record, there must be a written permission from the parent or
the student.

Security Breach Notification laws

Businesses, nonprofit and state institutions are required to notify consumers when unencrypted
personal information is compromised, lost or stolen.

Copyright and software protection laws

Hardware and software are protected by either national or international Copyright, designs and patents
laws or Acts.

In Kenya, the Copyright Act was amended in 1996 to include protection for computer programs
and software copyrights.
1. Data and information should be kept secure against loss or exposure
2. Data and information should not be kept longer than necessary
3. Data and information should be accurate and update.
4. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
5. Data and information should be collected, used and kept for specified lawful purposes.
6. To observe copyrights for those who create original works.

Some laws governing privacy and confidentiality have been created, and can be summaries as
follows:
1) No secret databases – no keeping of personal data exclusively secret in government or private
organizations.
2) Right of individual access – an individual must be able to find out what information about
themselves is recorded and how it is used.
3) Right of consent – information obtained for one purpose cannot be used for other purposes
without owner consent.
4) Right to correct – an individual must be able to correct or amend records of his or her
information.
5) Assurance of reliability and proper use – data must be reliable.

Effects of ICT on health

Some health concerns on the use of ICT devices such as computers and cellular phones are:
 Eye strain and headache – this can be controlled by taking frequent breaks, using TFT LCD
displays or antiglare screen on CRT monitors.
 Back and neck pains – use adjustable and right sitting posture
 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) – also known as repetitive motion injury or cumulative trauma
disorders results from fast repetitive tasks such as typing. This results in damage of nerves
and tendons. make sure correct use of the keyboard and take frequent breaks in between.
 Noise – some noise, such as that of an impact printer, may leave a person with “ringing ears”.
Use non-impact printers, head mounted earphones and microphones.
Effects of ICT on the environment
Disposal of dead computer parts, consumption and emissions have resulted in environmental
pollution. Environmental Protection agency (EPA) has created the energy star compliance policy,
which coerces electronic components manufacturers worldwide to comply to acceptable levels of
environmental pollution and radiation.
Computer manufacturers are also avoiding excessive use of harmful chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons and nickel cadmium and other heavy metals in their productions.

Revision questions
1. Differentiate between private and confidential data
2. Why information is called a resource?
3. Explain any three threats to data and information.
4. Give two control measures you would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and information.
5. Explain the meaning of industrial espionage.
6. Differentiate between hacking and cracking with reference to computer crimes.
7. What reasons may lead to computer fraud?
8. Explain the term “information security”.
9. Why would data and information on an externally linked network not be said to be secure even
after burglar proofing a room?
10. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information?
11. Define a computer virus.
12. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working with data and
information.
13. Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
14. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
15. Explain the measures you would take to protect your computers from virus attacks.
16. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
17. How can you control the threat of user errors to data and information?
18. Data and information security has recently become very important. Explain.
19. Explain tapping while dealing with computer crimes.
20. Why do we need copyrights for data and information?
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTION AND REVISION QUESTIONS

1.0 WORD PROCESSORS

Review Question 1.1
1. A computer program that enables a person to create, save, retrieve, edit, format and print text-
based document.
2. (a). Writing letters
(b). Writing projects
(c). Writing reports
(d). Writing essays
(e). writing books
3. (a) Creating documents
(b). printing documents
(c). saving documents
(d). Formatting a document
4. One that is the initial copy for proofreading.
5. Making a document attractive by bolding, italicizing, bordering, coloring, etc.
6. Typeover – deletes current text at cursor position and inserts new text
Inserting – pushes old text away as new text is inserted at cursor position.
7. Moving a word to the beginning of a new line if it cannot fit at the end of the previous line.

Review questions 1.2

1. Microsoft Word, WordStar, Lotus, WordPro, WordPerfect
2. A group of shortcut command icons arranged on a single graphical structure.
3. Use passwords to prevent opening or editing.
4. Creating – typing text in a new document screen.
5. (i). Click File > Save AS Command
(ii). In the Save As dialog box, select a format type in the File of type box.
(iii). Click Save button to save
6. Moving of on screen pages up, down, left and right.
7. Helps the user to interact with the application because it displays the processing status of the
application.

Review questions 1.3

1. Selecting a string of text in order to work with it as a whole e.g. a word, sentence or paragraph.
2. Copying – making a duplicate copy of text.
Moving – relocating text from one place in a document to another.
3. To find words that you want replaced by others.
4. A special character e.g. * or ? That is used to represent a set of words that have some similar
characteristics. For example searching for “Wel*” will find all words that start with: Wel” e.g.
Welcome, Welsmith etc..
5. Searching for a word will find the word even when it is part of other words e.g. searching for
spell will also find Spelling and Spellchecker. However, if you search for a whole word, only the
whole independent text will be found.
6. To remove mistakes and improve document wording selections.
7. (a). Spelling and grammar checker.
(b). Thesaurus
8. (a). Standard dictionary
(b). Custom dictionary
9. (a). Title Bar (d). Rulers
(b). Menu bar (e). Toolbars
(c). Editing screen (f). Status bar

10. Enhancing its appearance by bolding, italicizing, etc.

11. Bolding setting tabs
Font coloring underlining
Text alignment italicizing
Font type font size
12. Thesaurus provides synonyms or words that have same meaning to the selected.
13. Autocomplete – helps a person to type quickly by completing a word that has already started to be
typed by the user automatically.
Autocorrect – automatically replaces mistyped words with the correct one as set by the user.
14. Set the autocorrect feature to automatically replace the word God with Good.
15. Undo – reverses the latest action
Redo – does the undone action.
16. Times New Roman, Arial, Bookman Old Style, Comic Sans MS, etc.
17. Resize the image or change the page orientation to landscape.
18. A tab spacing is a short distance moved by the text cursor when the tab key on the keyboard is
pressed. It is used to align text on the page.
19. Drop cap emphasizes a particular word in a paragraph.
20. The distance between two text lines in a document. Examples include single spacing, double
space , etc.
21. Hard page break – inserted on page even before the end of the page, e.g. by pressing Ctrl +
Enter or setting a page break.
Soft page break – the text cursor moves or creates a new page automatically when at the end of
the current page during typing.
22. Cursor moves to beginning of new line automatically when it reaches end of current line.
23. (a) left (d). Right (c). Right alignment

Review questions 1.4

1. Header – text above the top margin of a page.
Footer – text below the bottom margin of the page
2. enables quick navigation and reference throughout the multipage document.
Insert Menu > Page Numbers
3. Drawing – use the pen tool to draw the table.
Insert table – use the Table>Insert >Table command.
4. Cell – intersection between row and column.
Row – horizontal arrangement of cells.
Column – vertical arrangement of cells.
5. Create page breaks in the document and insert page numbers in each section separately.
6. Non-printing (visible) text limiting borders that mark the distance that text starts on a page away
from the edge of the page.
7. To create larger cells in a table without increasing the height or width of existing cells.
8. Arranging text in ascending or descending order.
9. Linking – Object imported can only be edited in the original application from which it was
created.
Embedding – Object imported becomes part of the current application and can be edited there.
10. Click it to select it, then drag handles to increase s
11. (a). Import from File.
(b). From Clip gallery
(c). By drawing.
12. (a). View Page layout.
(b). Go through document before printing
(c). Save paper and toner of printer because errors on printouts that may require reprints will be
minimal.
13. Super script – text formatted to be a slight higher in a line.
Subscript – Text formatted to be slightly lower in a line.
14. (a). Select a page size depending on the document page size needed.
(b). To comply with printer capabilities.
15. Highlight the text then click Table > Insert > Table
16. getting ready made objects and text from other applications into the Word processor
17. (i). Moves text cursor one column to the right in the same row.
(ii). Moves the text cursor one column in the left same row.
(iii). Increases cell height
18. Mathematical formula that accomplish calculations in a table.
19. (i). Common letter (main document) that is to be personalized.
(ii). A file of data records of the people that will receive the form letter.
(iii) Combining the data source with the form letter or main document.
20. (a). Merge to fax
(b). Merge to printer
(c). Merge to e-mail
(d). Merge to new document

Revision questions
1. A graphic is a non-text object like a picture, drawing etc.
2. (a). Click it to select then drag
(b). Click it ten click the increase brightness button on picture toolbar.
3. Microsoft clip gallery, scanner, using drawing tool.
4. A graphic image that is predefined in shape but the user draws it by selecting it then dragging its
size on the screen.
5. (a). Select it then choose a different line thickness on the drawing toolbar.
(b). Select it then choose a fill pattern from the fill bucket on toolbar.
(c). Right click the autoshape then select the Enter text command. Type the text then click a blank
area on the screen to apply.

2.0 SPREADSHEETS
Review Questions 2.1
1. A ledger sheet is made up of rows and columns for entering / writing data.
2. a computer software that5 looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows and columns for entering
data that can be manipulated mathematically.
3. (i). (a). Electronic software that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows and columns for
entering data that can be manipulated mathematically.
(b). Electronic spreadsheet has inbuilt formulae called functions that are nonexistent in
manual worksheet.
(c). Electronic spreadsheet uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
(d). Superior formatting and editing qualities of electronic spreadsheet make it better than the
manual worksheet.
(ii). (a). Has more memory than calculator
(b). Able to perform more complex and even logical operations but a calculator cannot.
(c). uses large storage capacity of computer that calculator doesn’t have.
(d). Large work area that calculator does not have.
4. (a) Worksheet
(b). Database
(c). Graphs
5. (a) Scientific applications
(b). accounting
(c). Forecasting
(d). Data management
(e) Mathematical operations
6. Predicting future trends using the goal seek command.
7. (i). D (ii). A (iii). B (iv). E
8. (a). Double click the shortcut icon on the desktop, OR
(b). Select Microsoft Excel from the programs menu
9. formulae – arithmetic and user developed
Functions – Inbuilt formulae. Some of them are macro functions.

10. =$F$10+$G$20
11. =B1+D2
12. one page in a workbook is called a worksheet
13. (a). Moves cell pointer to that cell.
(b). Moves cell pointer to end of current row.
(c). Moves cell pointer to cell A1
14. (a). Intersection between row and column
(b). Horizontal arrangement of cells
(c). Vertical arrangement of cells
15. click the File > Close command
16. R20C7
17. It is a cell reference that is a name.. To name a range, select it then type a name in the name box
then press enter key to apply the name.
18. A pre-formatted worksheet document used as a master layout for other. To start a template:
(i). Click File > New command
(ii). In the new dialog box click the spreadsheet solutions tab then double click the template that
you wish to start.
19. values, labels, formulae, functions
20. (i). Single referencing – for one cell, e.g. A1
Multiple referencing – for many cells, e.g. A1:B3
(ii). Range – a group of rectangular cells.

Revision Questions
1. (i). select a cell then type at keyboard; OR
(ii). Select a cell then double click the formula bar and type the value in the bar
2. Formulae have equal sign at the beginning while text has either letters or a combination of letters
and numbers
3. Select cell then press delete key on the keyboard.
4. Click the cell that has the formula than click the Edit > Copy command. Click the cell to copy
then click the Edit > Paste command.
5. (a). Click File > Page Setup command,
(b). On the Margins tab of the page setup dialog box, select the page orientation then click OK
button,
Send document to printer
6. click the insert > Rows command
7. Copying – makes duplicate of data.
Move – relocates data from one section of document to another.
8. A feature that applies a pre-formatted format on a selected range of the worksheet
9. a filter hides all the rows that do not have a particular selected value in a column
10. (a). A form helps users to enter values in a table with minimum errors.
(b). It hides the base data of the table hence enhances data security
11. Pie charts, Line Charts, Bar charts, Scatter charts, Column charts.
12. a chart represents sets of data in pictorial form hence makes the data easier to understand and
interpret.
13. Subtotals command groups and finds totals of similar data records of similar data records in the
spreadsheet.
14. Sorting is arranging data values in a particular order.
Procedure:
(i) Highlight data range to be sorted
(ii) Click Data – Sort command
(iii) In the sort dialog box, select the order of sort in the key fields than click OK.

2. i). Number ii). Currency iii) Textiv). Scientific v). Fraction iv). Time
3. Are printable borders inserted around cell borders.
a). Select the range then click Format – Cells command.
b). On the Borders tab, select the border styles then click OK to apply.
4. Print range – print a selected range. Print whole document – entire worksheet that has data.
5. Highlight range then select font size from formatting toolbar.
6. Is a key that shows the meaning of different data values in a graph that are usually represented by
different colors.
7. A line chart.

3.0 DATABASE
 REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.1
1. A relational database is a model where information is stored in related structures
called tables or relations.
2. Tables: A structure used to store related records.
Records: related fields that represent a single data or entity.
Field: logical combination of characters that can be manipulated.
3. Objects which help the user easily manipulate data in a database include:
 Tables  Reports
 Forms  Macros
 Queries  Modules
2. To start Ms Access, click start button, point to All Programs then Microsoft Access.
To exit, Click exit or simply click the close button on the title bar.
3. Query : a database feature used to analyze data in a table.
Macro: a feature used to automate database operations.
Module: a programming environment embedded in Ms Access used to
Automate database operations.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.2

1. Primary key - unique field used to identify each record uniquely for easy access
and manipulation.
An index is a key not necessary unique used to arrange data in a table.
2. Normalization -breaking information into smaller component for easy management
hence reduce f data redundancy.
3. Data types used in Ms Access - refer to handout notes on: description of field data
types.
4. Setting validation rule:
a. Select the field you want to set validation rule.
b. In the field properties section, click the insertion pointer in the validation rule
cell.
c. Type in the validation rule.
2. Field properties - characters of such as size, format, etc.
3. Field name is a combination of characters that identifies a data item while a
caption is a full descriptive name that tells what a field name stands for.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.3

1. Form - user interface that helps the user view records and easily make entries unto a
table.
a. Bound controls -Data field in a layout grid that is used display data from the
from the underlying table.
b. Unbound controls -Data field in a form layout grid that is not based
c. On any source data.
2. Columnar form -Displays one record at a time with the fields arranged downwards.
a. Tabular form - Records are displayed across the screen from right to left.
3. Creating a form without using a wizard - refer your handout.
4. To provide an interface that let the user enter and view the data easily.
5. Using the navigation button.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.4

1. Query and find command.
2. To eliminate chances of entering non existing data.
3. A table is a structure used to store related records while a query is a database
feature used to analyze data in table.
4. Between 90,000 And 240,000.
5. (i). Click the cell that you want to use to sort a query in the sort row
(ii). From the drop down list ,select the sort order i.e ascending or descending
Order.
 6. Select query - used to search and analyze data in a table while action query is used
to make changes to underlying query.
7. Access gives a warning message and denies the user from entering the next record.
8. Refer to your handout.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Report -used to give a summarized information for the purpose of presentation.
2. A report gives a summarized information for the purpose of presentation while a
label is a sticker placed on an item for the purpose of identification or description.
3. To create a report that displays subtotals and grandtotals, click Summary options
button in the report design grid in the grouping field footer and report footer
respectively.
4. Generating Dr. Garaya labels –refer to your handout notes.
5. Macros and Modules.
6. Drag the logo and drop it in the page header in the report design.

4. 0 DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP)

Review questions 4.1
1. Desktop publishing refers to the process of creating a professional document by marking
areas for text and graphical objects.
2. Desktop publisher is an application software that enables a person to design a document
layout by marking area for text and graphical objects while word processor enables a person
to create, save, edit, format and print text documents.
3. Examples of Desktop Publisher software – Adobe PageMaker, Ventura, Microsoft Publisher
and CorelDraw.
4. By placing the logo at the top of the master pages.
5. These are the default pages in a publication used to define basic design elements such as
headers and footers that are to appear in every page or particular pages in a publication.
6. Layering – placing text objects on top of each other. This may be used to create watermarks.
7. Pasteboard – where text and objects are placed for editing before transferring them to the
printable area while printable page refers to the area enclosed in margin guides.
8. Importance of every tool in the toolbox – refer to the handout.
9. Portrait – Tall, Landscape (wide)
10. Printing, laying out pages, printing.

Review questions 4.2

1. Nonprinting guides – lines that helps the user position text and graphical objects .
2. (a). Margin (b). Ruler guides. (c). Column guides
3. Creating different columns on the same page – refer to your handout.
4. Gutter – space left in addition to page margin to allow for binding. It is also used to refer to
space that separates columns
5. Defines the printable area.
6. To lock column, from view menu, click lock guides.

Review questions 4.3

1. Creating text using text tool and text frame – refer to the handout.
2. to create a hexagon,
3. select a polygon you want to reshape
4. From element menu click polygon settings
5. In the polygon settings dialog box, enter number of sides.
6. Click OK.
7. A text frame is a graphical object used to create various shapes various shapes of text objects.
To convert a graphical object to a text frame, From Elements menu, point to a Frames then
click Change to Frame.
8. Control palette – a strip that contains command buttons and list boxes that lets the user easily
manipulate a publication.
9. (a). To format text, make sure that the text attribute button is pressed.
 10. (b). To format a paragraph, ensure that the paragraph attributes button is pressed.

11. Tracking refers to changing the visual denseness or openness of characters in a line while
kerning is fixing particular pairs of letters that are too close or too far apart from each other.
12. Change case – change text case from upper to lower, sentence, title and toggle case while
drop cap refers to making the first character in a line bigger and drops down to occupy the
space in the next lines.
13. Fill and stroke – a stroke refers to a line style while a fill refers to applying background
pattern such as shading.

Review questions 4.4

1. Transformations – rotating, skewing and reflecting.
2. Rotating an object – refer to the Handout.
3. to lock an object;
- select the object
- From Elements menu, select lock position.
4. to import an object using place command
- From File menu, click Place.
- Select the object the file that contains the object you wish to import then double click.
- Position the loaded pointer where you want to place the object then click OK.
5. to group,
- click each object while holding down Shift key
- from Elements menu, click Group.
6. Text wrap – controlling text flow over or around a graphical object .
7. Cropping – the cutting off unwanted edges of an object using the crop tool.
8. Select it then use the rotate tool to hold its place holders then rotate.
9. Joining objects in order to manipulate them as one object.
10. Formatting an object to allow text to flow around it without displaying it.

Revision questions
1. it is a publication that is ready for printing
2. The design and production of text and graphics layouts in mass.
3. (a). printable area (b). paste board (c).rulers (d). Menu bar
4. a). select text and graphic objects.
b). insert and select text in the application
c). drawing rectangles
d). moves objects around a fixed focal point.
5. helps user set general layout options that apply to all pages in the publication
6. Margins mark text areas on the page along the edges while column guides divide the page into
several fields.
7. right click a ruler then select millimeters
8. Drag ruler guides on the screen to mark a rectangle area of 5cm x 6cm on the screen. Draw a
rectangle in the guides. Select the rectangle and then click Element followed by polygon setting
dialog box, select 3 sides then click OK.
9. to hold them in place in order to avoid losing the format.
10. (a). The size, boldface, italics of font etc.
(b). Thickness of a line
11. click File then Place command. Browse for the file. Double click its icon. The mouse pointer
changes to become a loaded icon. Click anywhere on the pasteboard to place the graphic.
12. file – Document setup – Wide – Document setup.
13. element – Fill and stroke – Fill and colour type – Fill and Stroke dialog box.
14. angular placement
15. magnifier
16. cropping
17. place holders
18. Tracking refers to changing the visual denseness or openness of characters in a line while
kerning is fixing particular pairs of letters that are too close or too far apart from each other.
 5.0 INTERNET AND EMAIL
Revision questions
1. It is a network of networks that covers nearly the whole world and enables transfer of
messages, data and information across continents.
2. Internet – organizational intranets and extranets.
Internet – an interconnection of internets and other networks and individual computers
globally.
3. A hypertext page prepared to display content on the web.
4. Http – hypertext transfer protocol.
www – world wide web
google – name of computer with web content
.com – commercial organization.
5. Transmission of voice data over the Internet.
6. Started with ARPAnet as detailed in the handout.
7. A virtual space on the Internet that allows web pages and sites to be accessed.
8. Software that allows viewing of web content.
9. Refer in the handout.
10. Start the browser software like Internet Explorer. Type the URL address of the web page you
wish to access in the address bar then press the Enter Key to load the website.
11. (a). sending/receiving text
(b). sending / receiving attachments
(c).Sending fax
(d). Keeping address book
(e). Mobile mail to mobile devices
12. Downloading or saving files form remote hosts on the Internet on to your computer.
- Right click the link to the file
- Select the Save target as command
- Select a folder and name for the file in the Save as dialog box then start saving the file.
13. A text or picture that is a link to another webpage on the Internet.
14. Check newsrooms for latest information on the topic then use a search engine to look for links
to the information required.
15. Click the refresh button.
16. A search engine is a special program that collects and stores links to information websites
allowing user to search its database for them.
17. 17 a company that offers Internet Services to end users.
18. Modems, Internet software, Internet service provider, Telecommunication lines, TCP/IP
protocols.
19. Modem – term stands for modulator demodulator.
20. Are special communication rules that govern sending and receiving of message by computers
on a network. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Internet Protocol (TP)

6.0 DATA SECURITY AND CONTROLS

Revision questions
1. Private data – belongs to individual and held by him/her
Confidential data – data held by Government or organization.
2. Because of its importance in transactions, sharerability and high value attachment to it.
3. Unauthorized exposure
Unauthorized access
Destruction by natural calamities
Fraudsters and computer crimestars
4. (i). keep data and information in well secured and restricted places.
(ii). Use passwords and access permission policies to control access to the data
(iii). Use firewall to enforce security policy
(iv). Audit trials to identify threats to data and information.
5. The stealing of data and information for commercial gain and for competitors.
6. Hacking – breaking security codes.
Cracking – looking for weak access points in software in order to get access to data and
information
 7. For economic gain, Ego, etc.
8. Is the ensuring of safety of data and information against threats.
9. Access can be through the network
10. Enforce copyright laws and other regulatory frameworks.
11. A virus is a destructive program that installs itself on storage media causing improper
functioning of the computer system.
12. (i). data should not be used for gain unlawfully
(ii). the owner of data and information has a right to know what data is held by the person /
organization having it.
(iii). do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for the purpose etc, refer to
handout.
13. (i). Trojans (ii). Boot sector viruses (c). Backdoors
14. A software update that when incorporated in the current software make it better
15. Install anti-virus software. Also restrict foreign storage media in thee computer room.
16. Changing stored data without permission. This changes the information inferences from the
data.
17. Defines roles to various categories of users..
18. because information is one of the most valuable business resource for any organization or
Government
19. Listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being transmitted
20. To deter illegal copying.
`
1. DATA REPRESENTATION IN A COMPUTER
Specific objectives:
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
(i) Explain concepts and reasons for data representation in a computer.
(ii) Define the terms bit, byte, nibble and word.
(iii) Explain the types of data representation in the computer.
(iv) Perform binary arithmetic operations, convert decimal numbers to binary and vice versa.

Introduction:
- In digital computers the user input is converted and transmitted as electrical pulses represented
in two states: “1” and “0” before processing.
- Data stored in a computer is usually in forms of bits/ binary digits. It is only in this form of
representation and the computer micro- processor can retrieve stored information and
manipulate it.
- The computer system is made up of logic that works only with states “ON” and “OFF’
represented by the two distinct digits “0” and “1” respectively.

1. Digital and analog data representation:

- Digital signal (a) rises suddenly to peak
amplitude of +1, holds for sometimes then
suddenly drops to -1 level.
- Analog signal rises to +1 and falls to -1 in a
continuous version (b).
- The two graphs repeat themselves at equal time
intervals. Electronic signals or wake- forms of
this nature are said to be periodic because the
signal waves repeat themselves at equal time
intervals.

- Parameters describing a periodic wave :

Amplitude (A)
Frequency (f)
Periodic time (T)
Amplitude (A): the maximum value a wake can attain e.g. 1.
Frequency (F): the number of cycles made by the wake in one second. It is measured in hertz
(Hz), which is equivalent to 1 cycle per second.
 Periodic time (T): is the time taken by a signal to complete one cycle. It is given by the formula
T=1/f , where f is the frequency of the wave.
- When a digital signal is to be sent over analog telephone lines e.g. e-mail, it has to be
converted to analog signal by connecting a device called modem to the digital computer.
- The process of converting a digital signal to analog signal is known as modulation.
- On the receiving end, the incoming analog signal is converted back to digital form by use of
demodulation.

2. Concepts of data representation in digital computers

- Data and instructions cannot be entered and processed directly into computers using human
language. Any type of data entered must first be converted into machine- readable form i.e.
binary form.
- A computer together with it’s peripheral devices handle data in it’s electronic circuits,
magnetic media and in optical devices.
QN KCSE 2004
3. Explain why computers use binary numbers in data representation. (2 marks)
Answer: computer’s CPU carry out arithmetic and logical operations by binary numbers. Data is
stored in computers in binary form.

KCSE 2006
1. What is meant by?
- Analog data: they are quantities that are continuous and infinite variety of values e.g.
temperature, pressure, flow rate, current, voltage.
- Digital data: they are input data, which uses two discrete states e.g. ON/OFF, YES/NO,
HIGH/LOW, RIGHT/WRONG.

(i) Data representation in electronic circuits:

Electronic components such as microprocessors are made up of millions of electronic circuits.
Availability of a light voltage (ON) in these circuits is interpreted as ‘1’ while a low voltage (OFF)
is interpreted as ‘0’.

(ii) Data representation on magnetic media:

- The presence of a magnetic field in one direction on magnetic media is interpreted as ‘1’
while the absence of a magnetic field is interpreted as ‘0’.
- Magnetic technology is mostly used on storage devices that are coated with special
magnetic materials such as iron oxide. Data is written on the media by arranging the
magnetic dipoles of some Iron Oxide particles to face in the same direction and some others
in the opposite directions.

(iii) Data representation on optical media:

In optical devices, the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’ while its absence is interpreted as ‘0’.
Optical devices use this technology to read or store data.
The shine surface of CD-ROM has very tiny holes called pits and the areas that do not have pits are
called land. When a laser beam falls on the shinny surface its reflected and interpreted as a ‘1’. On
the other hand, when the laser beam falls on the pit or bump, there is no reflection and this is
interpreted as a ‘0’ bit.
 Reasons for use of binary
It is difficult to develop devices that can understand or process natural language directly.
Digital devices are more reliable, small in size and use less energy as compared to analog device
1.3 bits, bytes, nibble and word
These terms are used widely in reference to computer memory and data size.
Bits: is a binary digit which can either be a ‘0’ or ‘1’. It is the basic unit of data or information in
digital computers.
Byte: a group of 8 bits which represent a character. It is the basic unit of measuring memory size in
computers.
Nibble: it is a half byte or a group of 4 bits.
Word : It consists of one or more bytes and is the largest amount of memory that the computer can
handle. E.g. a word can have a length of 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits etc.
Word length – is the number of bits in each word of a computer.

Kcse 2005
Arrange the following data units in ascending order of size BYTE, FILE, BIT, NIBBLE (2 marks)
Answer: BIT<NIBBLE<BYTE<FILE {marked as a whole}

Kcse 2007
Explain the term nibbles as used in data representation in computers. (1 mark)
Answer:
A nibble is a group of four binary digits usually representing numerical numbers.

1.4 Types of data representation

Computers can only process numbers, letters and special symbols. Although they can process
complex types of data like pictures and sound, these takes a lot of memory and processor time when
coded in binary form so the need for higher number systems.

Number system and their representation

Number systems can be classified into four major categories:
1). Decimal number system
2). Binary number system
3). Octal number system
4). Hexadecimal number system

1. Decimal number system

Deci is a Latin word meaning ten. Consist of 10 digits namely 0 – 9because the system has 10 digits it
is also called a base ten number system or denary number system. The decimal number should always
be written with a subscript (base / radix) 10 e.g. x10.
The magnitude of a number can be considered using three parameters.
1). Absolute value or positional weights
2). Place value or positional value
3). Base value

Absolute value is the magnitude of a digit in a number i.e. weight. Positional values are in increasing
powers of the base as we move left and decreasing powers of the base as we move right, i.e. whether
tens, hundreds or thousands.
e.g. N10 = 3 9 4 6

6x1 = 6
4 x 10 = 40
9 x 100 = 900
3 x 10001 = 3000
3946
The base value (radical base) depends on the type of number system that is being used, for decimal
system is 10. The weight of each position is multiplied by the corresponding digit to obtain the value
of that positional. The values of each position are then added to obtain the number.
 In any number, the right most digit has the most value and is called the most significant digit (MSD)

The positional weights in powers of ten can be expressed as given below

Ones 1 = 100
Tens 10 = 101
Hundreds 100 = 102
Thousands 1000 = 103
Tens of thousands 100001 = 104 ,etc.

Each position weight is the base of the number raised to a specific power. E.g.
= (3 x 103) + (9 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (6 x 100)
= 3000 + 900 + 40 + 6
= 3946.

2. Binary Number System

Uses only “0s” and “1s” to represent numbers in a computer. The advantages of binary representation
is that it is easier to design logic that has two states instead if ten states. The positional weights of a
binary number are expressed as powers of two since two is the base of the binary system, (X 2)
The right most digit has a place value of 1 x 2 0 while the left most has a place value of 1x 2 3 in a
binary number such as 10112.

The decimal equivalent can be worked out as follows:

3 2 1 0
1 0 1 1

N10 = (1 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20)

N10 = 1110
i.e.
1x8 = 8
0x4 = 0
1x2 = 2
1x1 = 1
Total 11

3. Octal Number System

Consist of eight digits running from 0 – 7. The place value of octal numbers goes up in factors of
eight from right to left. The base of octal number system is 8 i.e. N 8
e.g. 7245 will be represented as

72458 7 x 83 = 7 x 512 = 3584

2 x 82 = 2 x 64 = 128
4 x 81 = 4x8 = 32
5x8 0
= 5x1 = 5
The decimal equivalent is : N10 = 3749

4. Hexadecimal number system

The highest value in a binary is 1, in decimal system 9, octal system 7, then a hexadecimal system has
15 which is the largest.
The hexadecimal system popularly known as Hex system is a base sixteen number system that
consists of sixteen digits ranging from 0 – 9 and letters A – F where A is equivalent to 10, B to 11
upto F which is equivalent to 15 in base 10 system. The place value of hex numbers goes up in factors
of 16 e.g. the hexadecimal digit 946 in factors of 16 is
9 6 6
16 2
16 1
160
The equivalent between hexadecimals and decimal numbers is shown below
Decimal (Base 10) Hexadecimal (Base 16)
0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F

The 16 symbols used in this system are decimal digits 0 to 9 and the alphabets A to F. a hexadecimal
number is usually denoted using 16 as a Subscript or capital letter H to the right of the number, e.g.
94B can be written as 94B10 or 94BH
The decimal equivalent of 94B16 can be worked out as
n10 = (9 x 162) + (4 x 161) + (11x 160)
= (9 x 256) + (4 x 16) + (11 x 1)
237910.

Reasons for use of hexadecimal notation in a computer

- Helps to manage long binary digits properly
- Helps to improve the processing speed and optimize memory usage.

Note:
The main advantage that the octal and hexadecimal numbers have over decimal numbers is that they
can easily be converted to and from binary numbers.

Further conversion of numbers from one number system to another

- Conversion between binary and decimal numbers
- Converting binary numbers to decimal numbers
i). Write the place values starting from the right hand side
ii). Write each digit under its place value
iii). Multiply each digit by its corresponding place value
iv). Add up the products. The answer will be the decimal number in base
10. e.g. 1011012 to a base 10 (or decimal) number
Solution
Place value 25 24 23 22 21 20
Binary digit 1 0 1 1 0 1

N10 = (1 x 25) + (0 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20)

N10 = 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 4510
Note:
Remember always to indicate the base subscript since it’s the value that distinguishes the different
number systems.
Multiply each digit by its place value

Review questions 1.2

Convert the following base two numbers into denary (base 10) numbers
1. 01012 2. 11112 3. 101011011102
4. 101111112 5. 10110012 5. 1110001112
 Attempt these questions
1). What is the base for binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal number systems?
2). What is the hexadecimal equivalent of 11 and 15?
3). What base does each of the following numbers represent?
a). 12310 b). A1H c). 11012 d). 768
4). convert 1100.012 to decimal

b). Converting decimal numbers to binary

There are two possible methods the long division and the place value method.
In the long division method, divide the decimal number repeatedly by 2 until the quotient is 0. Then
write the remainder which is either 1 or 0 to the right of quotient, and read it in reverse order i.e. from
the bottom upwards. The series of 1’s and 0’s obtained represent the binary equivalent of the number.
Example\convert 157 to binary.
2 157 Rem
2 78 1
2 39 0
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1

Therefore 15710 = 100111012

Converting fractional decimal to binary

For fractional numbers, the number is divided into 2 parts: the whole number part and the fraction
part. The part (whole) is converted to binary individually as indicated above. The fraction part is
repeatedly multiplied by two, noting the complete . The procedure proceeds until the fraction becomes
a zero or starts ending or repeating itself.

Note
Whatever is on the left of the period is equated to zero when multiplied or you simply have it as a
zero. The equivalent of the fractional part is extracted from the products by reading the respective
integral digits from top to down.

Example
Convert 76.2510 to binary
2 76 Rem
2 38 0
2 19 0
2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1

7610 = 10011002

To convert the fractional part

0.25 x 2 = 0.50 The fractional part has become a

0.50 x 2 = 1.00 zero, hence stops.

Therefore 0.2510 = 0.102

Combine the two parts together to get the binary equivalent.
Therefore 76.2510 = 1001100. 102
 Read on your own how to convert a decimal number to binary using place value method from
Longhorn Form 3 page 11-12, or any other textbook.

Test your knowledge by convert the following to decimal numbers to binary.

1. 3810 2. 0.67187510 3. 95410

Review questions 1.3

Using the long division and place value methods convert each of the following base 10 numbers to
their place value.
1. 1010 2. 4310 3. 36510
4. 51210 5. 14310 6. 95410
C. Converting a binary fraction to decimal number
When a decimal number has both an integral and fractional part is called a real number . the weight of
the integral part increases from right to left in factors of 10 while that of the fractional part decreases
from left to right in factors of 10-x.
e.g. 87.537 will be represented as follows

Place value 101 100 . 10-1 10-2 10-3

Decimal digit 8 7 . 5 3 7
Value 80 7 . 0.5 0.03 0.007

For a binary is the same approach only that the weights are based on factors of 2 e.g 11011011 2
Place value 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5
Binary digit 1 1 . 1 1 0 1 1
Value in base ten 2 1 . 0.5 0.25 0 0.0625 0.03125

Work out the integral and fractional parts separately then combine them when converting a real
number from binary to decimal.

Example:
Convert 11.0112 to a decimal number
Place value 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3
Binary digit 1 1 . 0 1 1
Value in base ten 2 1 . 0 0.25 0.125

Work out the integral part first

21 x 1 = 2
20 x 1 = 1
310

Work out the fractional part 0.0112

21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3
1 1 . 0 1 1
2 1 . 0 0.25 0.125

0.5 x 0 = 0.000
0.25 x 1 = 0.250
0.125 x 1 = 0.125
0.37510

Therefore 11.01110 + 0.37510 = 3.37510

Review questions 1.4

1. convert the following binary numbers to their decimal equivalents
a). 0.100112 b). 0.00102 c). 0.101012
d). 11.01102 c). 101.111102 f). 100.1102
2. Convert the following decimal numbers into their binary equivalents.
a). 0.62510 b). 0.45010 c). 2.50010
 d). 5.162510 e). 7.187510 f). 0.35010

d). Converting octal numbers to decimal and binary numbers

i). Converting octal numbers to decimal numbers
The maximum absolute value of an octal digit is 7. The procedure is the same as from binary to
decimal, but weights are assigned in terms of 8’s.
Example 1:
Convert 5128 to its base 10 equivalent.
Soln:
Write each number under its place value
Place value 82 81 80
Octal digit 5 1 2

Multiply each number by its place value

N10 = (5 x 82) + (1 x 810) + (2 x 80)
= (5 x 64) + 8 + 2
N10 <=>33010.

Example 2
Convert the octal number 11118 to its base 10 equivalent.
Soln.
Place value 83 82 81 80
Octal digit 1 1 1 1
Work out
512 x 1 = 512
64 x 1 = 64
8x1 = 8
1x1 = 1
585
Therefore 11118 => 58510.

Review questions 1.5

Convert the following octal numbers to decimal numbers
1. 778 2. 648 3. 1028 4. 12008 5. 10008
6. 1738 7. 1238 8. 7778 9. 3458 10. 1668

i). Converting fractional octal numbers to decimal numbers.

The fractional octal numbers are converted to decimal using the same procedure as that of converting
fractional binary to decimal, but the division in by multiples of eight.
Example: Convert 142.18 to decimal
Soln.
1 4 2 . 1
82 81 80 . 8-1

=(1 x 82) + (4 x 81) + (2 x 80) + (1 x 8-1)

= 64 + 32 + 2 + 1/8
= 98.12510
Therefore 142.18  98.12510.

ii). Converting octal numbers to binary numbers

Each digit is represented by 3 binary digits because the maximum octal digit, 7, can be represented
with a maximum of 3 digits. This is done by writing down the octal number, then you write the binary
equivalent below it using three bits patterns.
E.g. convert 24578 to binary.
2 4 5 7
010 100 101 111
 Combine the binary equivalents of the 4 octal digits from left to right.
Therefore 24578 = 0101001011112
iii). Converting a binary number to octal
NB: To convert Octal to binary, you use the long division method of dividing with 2 repeatedly then
add a zero on the left if the bits are not three.

Octal Digit Binary Equivalent

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Example: Convert 5238 to binary.

Octal Digit Binary Equivalent
5 101
2 010
3 011

Combine the three from Left to Right. Therefore 5238  1010100112

iv). Converting a fractional binary number to Octal number

To convert binary to octal, arrange the bits in groups of three staring from the Right.
Then change each group to its Octal equivalent.

Example:
Convert 0111011.0102 to octal.
First group into three bits from right to left in the integral part, then from Left to Right in the
fractional part.
222210 222210 222210 2-12-22-3
000 111 011 . 010
0 7 3 . 2

Therefore 0111011.0102 <=> 73.28.

Review questions 1.6

Convert the following octal numbers to their binary equivalents
1. 2448 2. 2478 3. 1628 4. 5658 5. 2228
6. 33708 7. 14138 8. 13318 9. 63478 10. 466538
E). Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal and binary numbers
i). Converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal numbers
The procedure is the same as from Binary to Decimal with the weights assigned in terms of
16’s.
NB:
If a digit is a letter e.g. ‘A’ write its decimal equivalent.
Example:
Convert 7AE16 to decimal
Soln.
7 A E
162 161 160
(7 x 162) (10 x 161) (14 x 160)
1792 160 14
1966
Therefore 7AE16  196610
 Review questions 1.7
Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into decimal numbers
1. 3216 2. CCD16 3. EFE16 4. 11916 5. 32816
6. ABD16 7. 10AFFD16 8. DDFF3416 9. 11ABDF16 10. CDFF3116

ii). Converting hexadecimal numbers into binary numbers

Convert each hex digit into binary individually using groups of four bits. For the binary digits
that do not have a pattern of 4 bits, just add extra zeros to the left.

Example: Convert AC2716 to binary.

A C 2 7
1010 1100 0010 0111

Therefore AC2716  10101100001001112

Hexadecimal Binary equivalent

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0110
6 0111
7 1000
8 1001
9 1010
A (10) 1011
B (11) 1100
C(12) 1101
D (13) 1101
E (14) 1110
E (15) 1111

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.8

Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary form
1. 29416 2. 24716 3. EFD16 4. 90716 5. BAD16
6. CBDF16 7. 585C16 8. ABCD16 9. 55C3A16 10. 33111CF16
11. Convert 1111000110111 to its hexadecimal equivalent.

iii). Converting hexadecimal to octal

Look for binary equivalent of each digit individually. Group the binary equivalent into 3 bits
starting from Right, then convert into octal. Or get the decimal equivalent then convert from
decimal to octal by dividing repeatedly by 8.

Example:
Convert 91B16 into Octal.
Soln.
9 - 10012
1 - 00012
B(11) - 10112
100100011011
Group into 3 bits

222120 222120 222120 222120

100 100 0 11 011
 4 4 3 3
Then convert into octal equivalent

(1 x 22+ 0x21 + 0 x 20), (1 x 22+ 0x21 + 0 x 20), (0 x 22+ 1x21 + 1 x 20), (0 x 22+ 1x21 + 1 x 20),
4 4 3 3

Therefore Octal equivalent = 44338

or get decimal equivalent
Decimal equivalent
(11x160) + (1 x 161) + (9 x 162) = 2331 10
8 2331 R
8 291 3
8 36 3
8 4 4
8 0 4
Therefore = 44338

Conversion from decimal to hexadecimal

Divide the digit repeatedly by 16 until the last result of the division is 0. then write the remainder of
the numbers upwards.
Example:
Convert 52910 to hexadecimal
16 529 R
16 33 1
16 2 1
0 2

Therefore = 21116
Conversation from decimal to Octal
Divide repeatedly by 8 until the last result of the division is 0. Then write the remainder of the
numbers going upwards.

Example
Convert 5710 to octal.
Soln.
8 57 R
8 7 1
0 7
5710 = 718

Converting decimal real number to octal

To convert the fractional part in decimal real number to octal. E.g. Convert 123.5 10 to octal.
Convert the integer part as above i.e. using long division

8 123 R
8 15 3
8 1 7
0 1
For the fractional part, multiply this part by 8, that is you can only
0.50 x 8 = 4.00
For the fractional part, multiply this part by 8, that is 0.5 x 8 = 4.00.
You only use complete units and you read downwards, 123.510  173.48
Converting octal number to hexadecimal
Convert 3768 to hexadecimal.
Soln.
3 = 0112
7 = 1112
 6 = 1102
Group into 4 bits 0 ,1111, 1110 then convert into hexadecimal as follows:
i). ( 23 x 1 + 22 x 1+ 21 x 1 + 20 + 1) = 15 (F)
ii). (23 x 1 + 22 x 1 + 21 x 1+ 0 x 20) = 14 (E)
Therefore 3768  FE16
Or
Change octal to decimal first then from decimal to hex as follows;
3768  3 x 82 + 7 x 81 + 6 x 80 = 25410
Divide the decimal repeatedly by 16 to change to hexadecimal.

16 254
16 15 R 14(E)
0 R 15 (F)
= FE16

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION USING CODING SCHEMES

The coding schemes are the Binary Coded Decimal (BCD), Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC) and American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).

(i). Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Is a data encoding method where each decimal digit is represented with a 4 bit code / binary
equivalent. It is used in simple electronic devices like calculators and microwaves because it makes it
easier to process and display individual numbers on their LCD screens.
A standard Binary Coded decimal is an enhanced format of Binary Coded Decimal which is a data
encoding method where each alphanumeric is represented with a six-bit binary equivalent.

Question:
Write the number 45110 in BCD notation.
Soln.
Workout each digit binary equivalent independently, where he digits are less than 4 add 0s on the left
to make 4 bits
4 = 0100
5 = 0101
1 = 0001
45110 = 010001010001BCD
ii). Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
EBCDIC is pronounced as “Eb-See-Dick”. It represents characters using 8 – bits which allows
representation of more characters 256 i.e. 2 8. EBCDIC is mainly used on IBM computers. The eight
bits of EBCDIC are divided in two pieces. The first four bits are called the zone bit which represent
the category of the characters, whereas the last four bits are called the data bits and identify the
specific character.

iii). American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

is a 7-bit code, which means that only 128 i.e. 27 characters can be represented. There is an 8 th bit to
this coding scheme which can provide for 256 characters. The 8 th bit is added for parity checking. E.g
A can be represented as 10000012.

Binary arithmetic operations

There are four basic operations applied on numbers and they are addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.

Representation of signed binary numbers (Negative numbers)

Signed numbers (negative or positive numbers) can be represented using three methods as follows;
(i) Ones complement
(ii) Two’s compliment
(iii) Signed magnitude(prefixing an extra sign bit to a binary number)
 Ones complement
The 1’s complement of a binary number is found by simply changing all 1’s to 0’s and all 0’s to 1’s
e.g. -2110 can be represented in binary as a negative value as follows.

2110= 101012
Therefore -2110  010102 (by complementing each binary digit / bit).
Therefore -2110 = 010102 (1’s complement method.)

-4510 = 1011012 (1’s Complement 010102)

- 1710 = 100012 complement = 0100102
-1710 = 100012 complement = 011102

Two’s complement
The 2’s complement of a binary integer is formed by finding the 1’s complement of the number and
adding 1 to it.
Advantages of 2’s complement
There is no two ways of representing a zero as in 1’s complement and signed magnitude.
Effective addition and subtraction can be done even with numbers that are represented with a sign bit.
Question: Using six bits, find the two’s complement of -2310. (4 marks)
Solution:
Step 1: Binary equivalent 2310 = 101112
Step 2: Add 0 in front of the MSB to make it six bits number = 0101112
Step 3 Find one’s complement = 101000
Step 4 Add 1 to number 101000
+1
101001

Signed magnitude
In decimal numbers, signed numbers has a prefix “+” for a positive number e.g +3210 and “-“ for a
negative number e.g. -3210. in binary a negative number may be represented by prefixing a digit 1 to
the number while a positive number may be represented by prefixing a digit number 0. i.e. 1710 =>
100012 (unsigned)
-1710 => to indicate it’s a negative number we add an extra bit (1)100012
+1710 to indicate its positive we add an extra bit (0) 100012

Binary addition
The binary addition is same as for decimal numbers only that any complete unit of two’s is carried to
be added to the next significant digit. The five possible additions are

A B Sum carry
1. 0 + 0 = 0 0
2. 0 + 1 = 1 0
3. 1 + 0 = 1 0
4. 1 + 1 = 10 1{read as 0, carry 1}
5. 1 + 1+1 = 11 1{read as 1, carry 1}

Examples:
i). Find sum of 1112 + 0112
Soln.
1 1 1
+ 0 1 1
10 1 02

ii). Find the sum of 101102 + 10112 + 1112

soln:
Add the two first numbers and then add the sum to the 3rd number as follows
Step 1
 101110
+ 1011
100001

Step 2 1000012
1112
1010002

Review questions 1.9

Work out the following binary additions
1. 10102 2. 11112 3. 10112
+ 1112 + 1112 + 11102

4. 111012 5. 10001112 6. 11012

+ 101102 100102 + 1012

7. 1111102 8. 1000112 9. 1011102

1112 101012 11112
+ 102 + 1112 + 112

Binary subtraction
There are four possible direct subtractions in binary as illustrated below:
1) 0 – 0 = 0
2) 12 – 0 = 1
3) 12 – 12 = 0
4) 10 2 – 12 =12{borrow 1 from the next most significant digit to make 0 become 10 2, hence 102 – 12
= 12}

When subtracting binary numbers the above rules should be understood and adhered to.
Examples:
1). Workout the following binary subtraction
11012
- 10102

Step 1 1-0 = 1
Step 2 10 – 1 = 1 {borrow 1 to make the current value 10 2
(22) from the next significant digit)
Step 3 0–0=0
Step 4 1–1=0

Therefore 11012 – 10102 = 112

Review questions 1.10
Work out the following subtractions
1. 110012 2. 1012 3. 110112 4. 11002
- 10102 - 1002 - 1112 - 0112

5. 1110112 6. 1000102
- 1102 - 112
 6. 1000102 – 112 7. 011012 – 10112 8. 1111112 – 101011012
9. 111011012 – 1001112 10. 1000002 - 11112

Subtraction using 1’s complement

This method allows us to subtract using addition. To subtract X (minuend) from Y (subtrahend)
proceed as follows:
Determine the 1’s complement of the minuend (X).
1). Add the 1’s complement of the minuend (x) to the subtrahend (Y).
2). Remove the carry (overflow bit) and add it to the result.

Example
Subtract 100112 from 110012 using 1’s complement.

Step 1
Minuend => 1’s complement of 100112 = 011002

Step 2
Add minuend 1’s complement to subtrahend 110012
11001
01100
(1) 00101
Add overflow bit to the result + 1
001101
00110

Final result =
001102.

Example: Using 8 bits, find ones complement of 1310.

13 = 000011012 complement 111100102

Subtracting using two’s complement (2’s)

2’s complement is done by forming the 1’s complement of the minuend and adding 1 to it. Then you
add the result to the subtrahend. You ignore the overflow bit.

Example:
Subtract 3 from 5 in 8-bits 2’s complement.

+5 Subtrahend 00000101
+(-3) Minuend 00000011

Step 1 Forms 1’s complement of (3) 00000011 which is 11111100

Step 2 Add 1 to 1’s complement which becomes 11111100
+1
11111101

Step 3 Add the two numbers now i.e. add the binary equivalent of 00000101
5 (Subtrahend) to the 2’s complement of 3 (Minuend) 11111101
(1)00000010

Step 4 Ignore the overflow bit

Therefore the result is 000000102 which is equivalent to
+2.
 Two’s complement table showing a bit range
Decimal Binary two’s complement
representation
7 0111
6 0110
5 0101
4 0100
3 0011
2 0010
1 0001
0 0000
-1 1111
-2 1110
-3 1101
-4 1100
-5 1011
-6 1010
-7 1001
-8 1000

Review questions 1.11

1. Convert the decimal number -7 to 8 – bit binary using ones and twos complement.
2. using 8 – bit length, find the twos complement of the following decimal numbers:
a). -3110 b). -2810c). -510
3. using ones and twos complement perform the following arithmetic operations
a). 1410 – 710 b). 2810 – 1210 c). 3410 – 3310
d). 10010 – 5010 e). 10210 – 6410

Revision questions
1). Explain the two types of data signals.
2). Differentiate between
a). Octal and decimal number systems
b). Binary and hexadecimal number systems
3). Convert the following binary numbers to their decimal equivalents
a). 1011102 b). 57010 c). 4210 d). 3010
4). Convert the following decimal numbers to their decimal equivalents.
a). 78910 b). 57010 c). 4210 d). 3010
5). Find the sum of the following binary numbers
a). 11102 + 11112 = b). 0012 + 1002 =
c). 11012 + 10112 + 1002 = d). 10102 + 1012 = e). 1112 + 112 =
6). Workout the following binary subtraction using direct, ones and twos complement methods.
a). 11001 – 1101 b). 1000 – 101 c). 100011 – 111
d). 10101110 – 1000110 e). 10001000110 - 101
7). Write down the character represented by the following codes.

a). ASCII b). EBCDIC

i). 0110000 i) 11110000
ii). 0110111 ii). 11110111

iii). 1000011 iii). 11000001

iv). 1011001 iv). 01011101

8). Find the ones and twos complement of the following decimal number in binary form.
a). -7510 b). -8010 c). -10010
9). Determine the value of X in the equations:
a). 1001102 – X2 = 0010102 b). X2 + 11012 = 7010
 10). Work out the decimal equivalents of the following binary numbers.
a). 0.100102 b). 101.112 c). 11.1012 d). 0.0012
11). Work out the binary equivalents of the following decimal numbers.
a). 0.3510 b). 2.5010 c). 0.2010 d). 7.12510

2.0 Data Processing

This chapter focuses on how computers manipulates the data that it stores.

2.1 Definition of terms

Data – raw / basic facts that have little or no meaning. It refers to the codes represented by the
computer before processing.
Information – data that has undergone processing and is meaningful to the user when he/she need it.

Data processing
Refers to;
1) Transformation of raw data into meaningful output (information)
2) The preparation, storage or manipulation of data / information.
3) The collection, manipulation and distribution of data to achieve a certain objectives.
Data processing can be done manually, mechanically or electrically.

Data processing cycle

Refers to;
1) Input – process – output stage that data goes through to be transformed into information.
2) Is when data is collected, input, processed and output manually or by means of a computer.

2.2 stages of data processing cycle

They are four namely;
a). Data collection
b). Data input
c). Processing
d). Output
Feedback sometimes may be included as a stage.

Data collection

Output Data input

Processing

a). Data collection (fact finding)

Involves looking for or getting the data needed for processing.
Methods of data collection
Depending on the method of data collection used, the process of data collection may involve
the following:

i). Data creation

Data can originate from source documents i.e. clerically prepared documents. Dat a can also
be prepared in machine sensible form at the source an dread directly using data capture devices like
scanners, digital cameras etc.
ii). Data transmission
This is the act of moving data from source to where processing is done. The transmission can be
physical or electrical.
iii). Data preparation
 Refer to conversation of data from a source to a machine readable / sensible form. It involves
transcription (copying) and verification (checking for errors manually) processes.
Data collected using devices that capture data in digital form do not require transcription or
conversation.
iv). Media conversation (data conversation)
Data may need to be converted from one medium to another e.g. moving data from diskette to
tape / Hard disk for faster input
v). Input validation
Data entered has been moved from a different deviceis now checkd for errors by a computer
program before being procecessed to ascertain error free data processing.*(subjecting data to
validity and verification checks before processing)
vi). Verification
Checking that what is on input document is exactly the same as what is entered into the
computer.
vii). Validation
Is identification and removal of errors by the computer through the control of the
program.
viii).Sorting
Data is arranged in a given order depending on the processing requirements.
ix). Control
All stages must be controlled to ensure that data is processed, its integrity is maintained, error
detection, correction and reprocessing is possible, prevention and detection of fraud is
possible.

b). Data Input.

Is the process where the collected data is converted from human readable form to machine- readable
form.

c). Processing
Transformation of input data by the CPU to a more meaningful output.

d). Output
Is the final activity of data processing cycle which produces the desired output (information)? The
information is then distributed to the target groups or stored for future use.
Distribution (dissemination)
Is the making information available to those who need it.

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF ERRORS IN DATA PROCESSING

The accuracy of the data entered in the computer determines the accuracy of the information given out
hence the saying Garbage In Garbage Out, GIGO.

Types of data processing errors.

(i) Transcription errors

These errors occur during data entry i.e. errors made in copying data from one form to another. Data
entry errors- are runtime errors that occur if a wrong type is read into a variable such as character
instead of integer. These errors include:

a) Misreading errors.
They are brought about by incorrect reading of source document by the user and hence entering
wrong values. Example typing 2754 instead of 2154; typing wrong characters e.g. datat instead of
data. There are also omission errors where a character has been missed onto. These errors may be
caused by bad handwriting or confusion on the source document. Example 0 instead of letter o.

b) Transposition errors
 Are errors which occur due to a mistake made by interchanging (incorrect arrangement) of two
correct characters or numbers during typing e.g. typing 7754 instead of 7745. Transcription errors
can be eliminated by use of data capture devices.

ii). Computational errors

They occur when an arithmetic operation does not produce the expected results. They include:
a). Overflow errors

b). Truncation errors

c). Rounding errors.

This results from raising or lowering a digit in a real number to he required rounded number e.g a
number 3.59 can be rounded to 3.6
d). Algorithm or logical errors.
Algorithm is a set of procedural steps followed to solve a given problem. Algorithms are used as
design tools when writing programs.
These errors occur as a result of wrong algorithm design. The program runs but gives erroneous
output.

Other errors include;

 Missing source documents
 Errors in a program (Bugs).
 Machine hardware faults.
 Source documents on which entries are omitted, dubious or replaced.

Talk of controls methods to ensure data integrity is maintained.

DATA INTEGRITY
 Refers to the accuracy and completeness of data entered in a computer or received from
information system.
 Can also mean the condition in which data is unchanged from its source and has not been
accidentally or maliciously modified, altered or destroyed.

Factors to determine data integrity

 Accuracy – it should be error free otherwise it is rejected and delays may occur. If correct
instructions and data are entered, computers produce accurate results efficiently.
 Timeliness – time value has to be adhered to. Data and information should reach the required
destination at the right time and speed. Otherwise it becomes expensive and at times useless.

 Relevance – the data entered must be pertinent to the processing needs at hand and must meet
the requirements of the processing cycle.
 Audibility – auditability referred to as verifiability. This is the ability of users to check the
accuracy and completeness of information.

Threats to data security

Threats to data security can be minimized through the following:
1) Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data.
2) Design user interfaces that minimizes chances that of invalid data entry.
3) Using devices that capture data directly from source e.g. scanners etc.
4) Control access to data by enforcing security measures.
5) Backup data preferably on external storage media.

2.5 Data processing methods

Data can be processed using one of the following methods;
i). Mechanically
ii). Manually
iii). Electrically
i). Manual data processing
The tasks are done manually using a pen and a paper by a person who is involved. Incoming tasks
(input) are stacked in the “in tray” and processed tasks are then put in the “out tray”.

ii). Mechanical data processing

Operations/tasks are done using mechanical machines which help in automating the manual tasks.
Manual processing is cumbersome processing is cumbersome and boring especially when processing
repetitive tasks. Examples of machines are calculators, typewriters, printing press, etc.

iii). Electronic data processing

Data is manipulated using electronic programmable devices such as computers to produce
information. This method is faster and more accurate than the manual or mechanical where large
volumes of data are processed. The method involves use of computers and other electronic machines
like mobile phones, washing machines, modern digital Tvs etc.

Factors to determine the methods of data processing

1) Size and type of business
2) Timing aspects
3) Link between application

2.6 Computer files

A file is a collection of related records that give a complete set of information about a certain item or
entity. A file can be stored manually in a file cabinet or electronically in computer storage devices.
Files can be read from or written to storage devices e.g main memory, hard disk, magnetic tape etc.

Elements of a computer file.

A computer file is made up of 3 elements namely:
i). Characters: A character is the smallest elements in a logical file. The characters can be
numeric or alphabetic e.g A, B,1, 2, 3 etc that can be entered, stored and output by a computer.
A character is made up of 7 or 8 bits depending on the coding scheme used.
ii). Fields: a field

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Specific objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
a). Define computer networking
b). State the purpose of computer networks
c). Describe the elements of a network
d). Describe the various types of networks
e). Describe the various types of network topologies

1.1 Definition of Terms

A network is a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a manner as to exchange
data, information or resources.
Telephone networks are called voice networks.
A computer network –
- A series of computers and other devices connected through data communication links or
channels for the purpose of sharing information and programs or
- A collection of two or more computers connected together using transmission media e.g.
telephone cables, or satellites for the purpose of communication and sharing of resources or
- Is a set of two or more computers linked through telecommunications hardware, software and
media to share resources and data.

Transmission media is any physical or non-physical link between two or more computers and in
which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.
 Examples of shared resources include: programs, printers, fax machines, modems, storage devices,
communication links, etc.
Communication: is the process of transmitting data from one person or device to another.
Data communication:
- it is the transmission of data between a user and a computer or between computers, or
- the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through the network.
Computer networking is the most efficient and reliable means of transmitting data.
Tele-communication: refers to data communications over large distances.

Terms used in Data Communication

Communication channel/link or line – this is the path that data follows as it is transmitted from one
computer to another.
Signal: is an electrical stream of information carried by a wire or telephone line, or perhaps by radio
wave. In data transmission there are two main types of signal used: Digital signal and analog signal.
Data signal: Is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. Data signal can either
be analog which is made up of continuous varying waveform or digital non-continuous discrete.

Signal modulation and demodulation: conversation of data signals to a form that is suitable for
transmission over a transmission medium. E.g. a modem converts digital signal to analog, a process
called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a
process called demodulation.
Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium e.g. a wire
conductor. Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.
Computers share a single cable, different data signals are made to have different frequencies on the
cable so that they don’t interfere with one another. The different frequencies create different logical
Demultiplexor
Multiplexer

channels in the medium.

Multiplexed line
To computers
From computers

Throughput: is the measurement of how much data is being put through the wires (media)
connecting computer systems and devices. The data transmission rate is measured in bits per second
(bps).

Bandwidth:
- is the range of frequencies that can be accommodated on a particular telecommunications
medium; or
- the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any one time e.g. 100mps
(megabits per second).

There are two main types of bandwidth namely Baseband and Broadband
 Broadband transmission: It send analog signals with different frequency over the transmission
medium. Two computers can send signals at the same time in a network but at different
frequency. The advantage of broadband is that it transmits audio, video and digital data at the
same time. using a particular frequency. Several data signals can simultaneously be sent through
the same medium but at different frequencies unlike in Baseband signal.
 Baseband signal: is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium
directly without modulation. Signals are send at different times i.e. only one signal can be send at
a time. Two computers can send signals to the same network one at a time. Make use of
transceivers to transmit and receive digital data. Because signals are un-modulated, no modems
are required. Base band is simpler, cheaper and less sophisticated than broadband.

 Test your knowledge
a). Explain the term broadband and base band
b). Differentiate between broadband and baseband.
Answer:
Baseband broadband
 - transmits only digital data  - transmits digital, video
and analog (audio)
 Uses transceivers no modems  Uses modems
 A computer has to send a signal  Signals of different
each at a time frequencies can be send
simultaneously

c). State two ways in which collision can be avoided in a wired network ( bounded media)
 Sending signals at different times (baseband)
 Sending signals with different frequency (broadband)s

Attenuation refers to signal loss i.e. the strength of the signal reduces as the distance increases or the
decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively moves along a transmission medium. Is
corrected by placing signal amplifiers (repeater stations) along the medium at appropriate distances in
order to receive the weak signal, clean it and amplify it then retransmit it.

Advantages of digitals signals

- Digital lines are usually faster and more accurate compared to analog.
- Easy data storage
- Flexible processing
- Various transmission options

Disadvantages
- They require a greater bandwidth than analog signals
- Digital processing of data is very complex i.e. converting data from analog form to digital form.

Modes of data communication

They are three:
a). Simplex
Data flows only in one direction on the communication media.
Examples: radio or TV where the listener or viewer cannot communicate back through the
radio or TV receiver back to broadcaster. Also communication between a computer and a
printer.

b). Half duplex (Bi-directional)

Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time on the data communication
medium.
Examples:
 Network chat
 Using walkie - talkie where each person takes turns when talking. If they both try
talking, nothing happens.

b). Full duplex

Data flows in both directions simultaneously (at the same time). Full duplex operates on a two-
wire line which have the ability to separate a receive signal from the reflection of the
transmitted signal by either frequency division multiplexing or by echo cancellation (EC).
Example is telephone conversion.

1.2 Types of computer networks

There are six most common types of networks classified according to size:
i). Personal Area Network (PAN)
A computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person e.g.
PDAs, personal computers, printers, scanners, fax machines and even video consoles. Such a
 PAN may include wired or wireless connections between devices. The reach of a PAN is
typically at least 6 – 7 meters, but this is expected to increase with technology improvements.
ii). Wireless PAN (WPAN)
Is a personal area network that uses radio rather than wires.
iii). Local Area Network (LAN)
Is a computer network covering a relatively small geographical area like school, home, office
or group of buildings in a college or airport. It is owned by one organization. One LAN can be
connected to other LAN over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media. Most
LANs connect PCs and Server Computers on a small network. A server computer is a computer
dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other computers (workstations) on a
network.
Each workstation has its own Central Processing Unit with which it executes programs, but it
can access data and devices anywhere on the LAN.
Advantages
 Sharing files and software
 Sharing printers
 Sharing disks
ii). Wireless LAN (WLAN)
This is a LAN that uses radio waves as its carrier. The last link with the user is wireless. This
link gives a connection to users in a building or large institution.

Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs use
high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the
workstations and the file server or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network
has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data.
iii). Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These are large networks that spans a university or city. They typically use fibre optics
connections to link LANs in different geographical area. It is a bigger version of LAN.
Advantage
 Sharing of resources in different LANs.
iv). Wide Area Network (WAN)
Refers to computers connected together by telephone line, satellite or microwave linked over a
wide geographical area. The largest WAN is the Internet which uses point – to – point data
transmission method. This is a computer network covering a large geographical area such as a
country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many LANs and MANs connected
together to form one large network. The Internet is a good example of WAN.

Advantages
 Faster data transmission
 Allows communication between users in remote locations.

NB: Only three are the basic: LAN, MAN and WAN.

Other terms used in categorizing network include;

 Internet which is a set of linked networks that operate all over the world and facilitate data
communication services such as remote login, transfer of files, electronic mail, the WWW, video
conferencing & newsgroups.
 Intranet which is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only within that
organization.
 Extranet this is where a company allows some access from outside to its intranet but access is
controlled via usernames and passwords and/or firewall (software or hardware which only allows
permitted users to access the data).

1.3 Purpose and limitation of networking

Purpose of networking
Resource sharing.
A resource is anything that can be shared on a network. Users are able to share software, data
and hardware resources such as printers, file storage, image scanners, routers etc. by connecting
them to the LAN via a server, which handles requests from the network users. Data can be held
centrally on a file server to be shared and this leads to less wastage of time and hence greater
productivity. Software required by a number of users has to be installed only once in a file server
rather than been loaded on the hard disks of many individual work stations.

Computer server
A computer server is a computer in a network that provides services to other computers on the
network.
There are different computer servers depending on their functions:
1). File server - are generally powerful PCs with a large RAM and large amount of hard disk space
dedicated to storing files in a network.
2). Server software – is a specials program run by network servers which controls computers on
the network and listens to client requests to service them over the network.
3). Print server is a computer that manages one or more printers in a network. It also distributes the
various printing work to different printers in a network.
4). Network server – is a computer that manages the network traffic, files, documents, emails that
travel in a network i.e. computer dedicated to servicing requests from other computers on the
network.
5). Email server - is a computer that acts like a post box. It manages the incoming and outgoing
mails in a network. It provides storage for emails and a set of defined rules for local users. The
rules determine how the server should respond to the destination of specific messages. It also
stores all the recognized accounts of the users in a network.
6). Proxy server - is a computer that acts on behalf of the client computer and the server in a
network. Proxy server provides security for incoming and outgoing data. It translates the
addresses to which data is being transmitted to.

Clients / work stations refers to other computers on the network that send requests to the server.

Remote communication
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different geographical locations. It enables people to share ideas and pass
messages over the Internet.
The computer mailing a remote request is called a remote client while the computer that is being
accessed is called a remote host.

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing is a configuration in which terminals with processing power are located in
a wide geographical area i.e. data is manipulated in different processors/computers, which are on
the same network but placed in separate locations. Files reside on the users computer rather than
on a central computer.
Advantages of distributed processing
- Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals
- Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage

Cost effective
Although the initial purchase and laying down of network components may be expensive, the
savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make them a ready choice for
enterprising managers. Network increases the efficient use of scarce resources e.g. printers, fax
 machine, optical drives, files and applications. Transport and communication costs can be cut down
by use of video conferencing and electronic messages.
Reliability
Data can be transferred with a minimum error from source to destination. Incase one computer
breaks down, a user can still access data and information from other computers using another
computer on the network.
Speed
You can share and transfer files very fast. Otherwise, you have to copy the files to floppy
disks, then carry or send the disks from one computer to another. This method of transferring
files (called sneaker-net) takes a lot of time.
Security
Different user access levels and passwords can be created to restrict or block unauthorized
people from accessing or using files and programs. You can also make it impossible for any
user to copy network software by designing them as ‘copy inhibit’.
Easy installation of software
All software running in a network is normally loaded in one file server. No time and energy is
spend installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the computer
installation.
Electronic mail
Because networks have both hardware and software that is necessary for the use of email this
helps in speeding communication among staff. A teacher can give students an email based
exercise which they can do and send it back as an attachment. Also a teacher can address
students within or outside campus using video conferencing resources.
Online collaboration
For schools that are connected to the internet students can collaborate with others in real time
(synchronously) or asynchronously. It has been tried out in UK using Gemini Project and
Japan has initiated online collaboration project called PANGAEA - a Greek word meaning
‘all lands’. For more information please visit: http://www.abcgemini.org and
http://www.pangaean.org
Networking helps in better control of resources and improved productivity.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many
users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at
various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new
curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.

Limitations of networking
Costly to install:
The high initial cost of buying networks hardware and software is very high. You also need an expert
to set up the network.

Security issues
Networks are vulnerable to hackers, disgruntled employees or even competitors. These people can
easily try to break into a network system to read or damage crucial information. Much effort is thus
spend on trying to prevent unauthorized access to data and software.

Cables may break

Incase cables break in some network topologies the entire system is affected.

Moral and cultural effects

Chartrooms and messaging services from peers and adults on the net may have bad intentions to
underage children. Access to pornographic and other negative materials have complicated the fight
against social problems such as HIV/Aids, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse.

Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities. Each flow of
information from one place to another keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the low
communicating easily. Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business
communications.
Over-reliance on networks
Modern organizations have phased out most manual operations, meaning that all business and the
society depend on computer networks. If the network fails or goes down, then many systems will be
brought to a halt e.g if all mobile phones services were brought to a halt.

Slow response time

The file server shares its processing time and memory equally between each user. The more users
accessing a file server at the same time, the slower the server will be in handling each request. To
avoid this: Have enough RAM, add additional file servers to network to share the workload.

Access limitations for shared resources

Sharing printers cab cause delays in production of work due to long documents being printed by a
user or by a large number of users sharing the same printer causing long print queues.

Ethics: Some employees can use network for non-business activities.

Review questions 1.1

1. List four network systems that are not computer-based networks.
2. define the term computer network
3. define the term data communication
4. differentiate between a baseband and broadband signal
5. state four advantages of networking
6. give two disadvantages of networking
7. differentiate between a network server and a workstation
8. explain the concept of distributed processing in networking
9. why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers
10. explain the three most common types of computer networks in use today
11. Differentiate between remote client and remote host.
12. Explain the term bandwidth.
13. What is a “resource” in networking?
14. Differentiate between half duplex and full duplex transmissions.

1.4 Elements of Networking

There are three major categories of elements/components namely;
i). Data communication media
ii). Communication devices
iii). Networking software

(i). Data communication media

A data communication medium (transmission media) is a pathway used for carrying data and
information from one point to another. The transmission media dictates the type of signal that will
be used to transmit a message. Packets of data can be transmitted on the network as electrical
signal in electric wires, light signals in fibre optic cables as electromagnetic waves through space.
Each of these media has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The data communication media is divided into two:
o Physical i.e. Communication using cables (bounded media)
o Wireless communication (unbounded media)

a). Physical transmission media (bounded)

In bounded media data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination through a restricted
pathways such as a cable.
The four types of bounded transmission media are:
o Two wire open line cables
o Twisted pair cables
o Coaxial cables
o Fibre optic cables
i). Two wire open line cables
 Is the most basic form of electrical cable consisting of two insulated copper wirers. Two-wire
cabling is suitable for low-speed transmission and is used in telecommunication networking to
transmit voice signal (analog).

Insulator Wire
conductor
Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line interface, if several pairs of two-wire lines
lie side by side, transmission suffers from cross-talk (a problem where signals in one pair of wires
produces a magnetic field, which in turn causes a signal to flow in another pair of wires or unwanted
signals: unwanted sounds or other signals picked up by one channel of an electronic communications
system from another channel, e.g. between telephones or loudspeakers ). This problem sometimes
occurs with the telephone system when someone else’s conversation is heard on the line. Also the
wires capture environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves causing noise in the transmission channel.
Noise is random unwanted signals picked up by the channel.

ii). Twisted pair cables

Consists of two insulated copper wirers twisted in a spiral pattern to minimize electromagnetic
interference (induction) and cross talk. This enables a large number of twisted pair to be packed
together in large cables. It is used in conventional telephone wiring for both voice and data
transmission. Twisted pair is the cheapest media and by far the most common transmission
medium for both analog and digital signals. It has a bandwidth of 2 to 100Mbps.

A cable pair
The two common types of twisted pair are: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP).

a). Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school
networks (See fig. 1). UTP cables don’t have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference
(RMI) from the environment. It is susceptible to noise and signal interference. UTP is not suitable for
environments that are electrically noisy.

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has
four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to
help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting,
the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic
Industry Association / Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP
and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Use

Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

b). Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Twisted pair

Unlike UTP the shielded twisted pair (STP) a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or
protect them from noise. The extra covering in STP wiring protects the transmission line from
electromagnetic interference (EMI) leaking into or out of the cable. A disadvantage of UTP is that it
may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is
suitable for environments with electrical interference; it is difficult to tap data from an STP cable
however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky and harder to install. Shielded twisted
pair is often used in Token Ring and Apple Talk networks.
Advantages of twisted pair cabling
- It is easier to set up network media like telephone systems using UTP
- Installation equipments is cheap and readily available.
- It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.

Disadvantages of twisted pair cabling

- It suffers high attenuation
- It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping
- It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

iii). Coaxial Cable

Cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside
interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers and also prevents any internal fields
from escaping. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Coaxial cables
transmit electrical signals that run through the central wire and the metal braid. Coaxial cable have
greater bandwidth of upto 1Gbps. These cables are widely used to connect 2 or more separate LANs
or worksites for Local Area Networks, office buildings and cable television to connect TV aerials.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition,
it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are; Thicknet and Thinnet (cheapernet)

Figure: Coaxial cables

a). Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet or Cheaper – which has one dielectric insulator.
b). Thick coaxial (Thicket) – which has two dielectric insulators around the core and is thicker
than the thinnet. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does
not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Advantages of coaxial cables

- Very stable even under high loads
- Have large bandwidth upto 1 Gbps compared to twisted pair
- Carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously
- Are more resistant to radio and EMI than twisted pair cable.
Disadvantages
- Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with
- Are expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair

iv). Fiber Optic Cable

Electrical signals from source are converted into optical signals; they are then retransmitted through a
glass fiber and reconverted into electrical signals. It transmits light which can travel over long
distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation and
transmission speed could go upto as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber optics is
hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than twisted – pair wire.
This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing
and interactive services.

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials
(See fig. 5). LED is used at the transmitter to convert electric signal to light then at the receiving end a
photosensitive device is used to convert light back to electric signals that can be processed by
computer. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its
immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fibre optic cable is made up of core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the jacket.
The core is the central region an optical fibre through which light is transmitted. It is made up of glass
or plastic fibers.
Cladding is a single protective layer made of glass surrounding the core. It has a lower index of
refraction i.e. it has some light bending characteristics in that when the light tries to travel from the
core to the cladding it is redirected back to the core.
Buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
An outer ‘protective layer’ or ‘jacket’ the layer is made up of Teflon or PVC and serves to protect the
core and cladding from damage.

The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install
and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Jacket Buffer(Kevlar fibre) Cladding Core

Fig.5. Fiber optic cable

There are three types of fibre optic cables namely;

 Single mode fiber

 Stepped multimode fiber

 Graded index multimode fiber

Single mode fibre: has a very small core diameter of approximately 8 microns. It allows only one
mode of light to propagate. This makes it to have very low attenuation rate an d is preferred for long
distance transmission. It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps.

Stepped multi-mode fibre: it has a relatively large core diameter of 50 to 100 microns (one millionth
of a meter) – much smaller than the diameter of a human hair. It allows many ‘modes’, ‘paths’ or
‘rays’ of light to bounce around inside the core reflecting off the cladding. This results in some rays
taking long path while others take a shorter path through the core.

Graded index multimode fibre: it has a gradual change in the core’s refractive index. The light rays
thus gradually bend back into the core path. This results in a better receive signal than with stepped
index.

Both stepped and graded index allows more than one mode light source to be fed in the cable, so
distortion occurs. Have a high attenuation rate and are used for shorter distances unlike single mode.

Light signal propagates through the core in a process called total internal reflection caused by
refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses boundary of two mediums that have
different density. Light is refracted back to the core from cladding hence propagate through the cable.

Advantages of fiber optic cables

- Since they transmit light rather than electronic signals they do not suffer from electromagnetic
interference, radio interference or cross-talk.
- Are immune to the effects of moisture and lighting

- Transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair

- Have a high transmission rates from 100 Mbps way up to 2 Gbps enabling services like video
conferencing and interactive services.

- Distance of transmission can be upto 2000 metres without a repeater.

 - Are flexible in size and weight thus ideal for space limited situations.

- Are more weather resistant

- Data can be transferred digitally

- Have low transmission loss.

- Security – it is hard to tap into an optic line.

Disadvantages
- Are very expensive to install and difficult to work with.
- Are more fragile than wire and difficult to split.
- Physical vibration at times shows up as signal noise.
- Are difficult to configure or fix together
- If a cable breaks is difficult and expensive to repair.

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

Factors to consider when choosing different types of cables:

 Ease of installation i.e. how easy it is to install a cable type
 Shielding – know whether the area of installation in noisy
 Is there a problem of cross-talk?
 Data transmission speed
 Attenuation – each cable type is limited by a certain distance of transmission, if you exceed the
specified limit the data degrades,
 Expense which is determined by the segment length of the cable.
Cables summary

BOUNDED MEDIA

Two wire open Twisted pair Coaxial cable Fibre optic cables
lines cables cables

Single mode fibre

Unshielded Thinnet
twisted pair
Thicknet Stepped multi-mode
fibre
Shielded
twisted pair Graded index multi-
mode fibre
Ethernet Cable Summary

Cable Type Maximum length

Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

Thin Coaxial 185 meters

Thick Coaxial 500 meters

Fiber Optic 2000 meters

Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

b). Wireless / unguided media

Consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path or
channel. Data is transmitted from one point to another without using physical connections, are not
bound to a cabling media and are therefore often called unbound media. Transmitting antenna and
receiver aerial facilitate the communication. The signals flow through the air and are classified by the
type of wave propagation. Wireless transmission media are used when it’s inconvenient, impractical
or impossible to install cables. Transmission of waves takes place in the electromagnetic (EM) range
or spectrum
The carrier frequency of the data is expressed in cycles per second called Hertz (Hz).Low frequency
signals can travel for long distances through many obstacles but cannot carry high bandwidth of data
High frequency signals can travel for shorter distances through few obstacles and carry a narrow
bandwidth. Also the effect of noise on the signal is inversely proportional to the power of radio
transmitter, which is normal for all FM transmissions.
Examples of wireless communication
a). Microwave
b). Radio waves
c). Infrared
d). Mobile / cellular telephone / radio transmission

Transmission and reception for wireless media are usually achieved by means of an antenna and can
be one of the following.
Directional: point – to – point focused beams employing high frequencies.
Omnidirectional: Waves propagating in all directions using signals of lower frequency

Broad types of wireless media based on wave propagation

Radio communication (RF) Propagation

In radio communication signals are transmitted in all directions i.e. omnidirectional and can be
received by any one with a suitable receiver. They start from a central point and spread outwards in all
directions. Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcast.

Radio waves are of three types namely;

i. high frequency (HF),
ii. very high frequency (VHF)
iii. ultra-high frequency (UHF).

Three types of Radio Frequency (RF) propagation exist which are;

i. Ground wave which uses VHF
ii. Ionospheric which uses HF
iii. Line of sight which uses UHF

Ground wave propagation

Follows the curvature or warping of the earth. Ground waves have a carrier frequency of up to 2
megahertz. An example of a ground wave propagation is AM radio.
Ground wave propagation uses Very High Frequency (VHF) radio waves which are transmitted along
the Earth’s curvature. Due to the curvature of the earth the signal will most likely alternate at the
horizon, therefore repeater stations have to be strategically placed to maintain line of sight, in order to
receive, amplify and propagate the signal from on area to another. The technology is popular for hand
 held radio devices like walkie talkie. To overcome obstruction on the Earth’s surface like mountains
and buildings, repeater stations are built on raised areas.

Ionospheric propagation
Definition of ionosphere: ionized layers in upper atmosphere: four layers of the Earth's upper
atmosphere in which incoming ionizing radiation from space creates ions and free electrons that
can reflect radio signals, enabling their transmission around the world.

This propagation bounces off the earths ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere. It operates in the
high frequency (HF) of 30-85 MHz. because it depends on the earths ionosphere it changes with the
weather and time of day. The signal bounces off at the ionosphere and back to earth’s surface and the
receiver will pick the signal. The limitation of high frequency communication is signal interception by
unauthorized parties. AM radios operates in earth’s atmosphere.

Line of sight propagation

It uses the line of sight principle and transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receiver station must be
in view of the transmit station. This means that there should be no barrier between the sending and the
receiving aerial. They require smaller aerials e.g. TV aerial for HF is bigger than the one for VHF
radio wave because VHF can be made to follow narrower and direct path to the receiver than VHF
radio waves. This transmission is limited by the curvature of the earth for ground based station.
Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio, microwave and satellite.

Bluetooth
A short range wireless technology. Operate at approximately 1Mbps with range from 10 to 100
metres. Blue tooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances.
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, small enough to
be inserted in small devices. A network of Bluetooth enabled devices is called a wireless personal
area network (WPAN) or piconet. Bluetooth is best suited for personal or hand held devices thus
making it very popular in mobile communication and Internet connectivity.

Microwave Transmission
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed signal transmission. The transmission process
involves sending signals from one microwave station to another.

What is a microwave station?

This is an earth based reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers and other equipment
necessary for microwave communications.
Microwave frequency ranges from 3 to 10 Ghz or 21 – 23 GHz and it6 can be focused into beams and
transmitted between special receiving dishes. They carry large quantities of data due to their large
bandwidth. Microwave transmission is a line of sight transmission and the transmitter station must be
in visible contact with the receiver station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations
depending on the location of transmission. Due to earth curvature, repeater station must be placed so
that the data signal is transmitted smoothly. Due to their small wavelength, microwaves releases their
energy in water as heat therefore used in making domestic kitchen appliances like oven.
One would need to use microwave when you want to send data across a gorge or falls, cabling would
be totally impractical.
Microwave transmission is used for both point to point connections over land or water (called
Terrestrial) or Satellite communication.

NB: Terrestrial microwaves bend with the curvature of the earth.

Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station and the microwave earths stations make parabolic dishes with
an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space. Satellite
communication is often used for long distances communications. Signals are send from earth station
to a satellite. Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on
another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. A satellite transmission system
has three main components:
a). Transmitter earth station – that set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data. The
uplink has unique frequency.
b). A satellite – its in space where it receives, amplifies and retransmits the signal to a receiving
earth station via a downlink frequency different from that of the uplink to avoid signal
interference.
c). Receiving earth station - receive the sent signal on the other side of the globe.

New trends in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT)
technology which is a very small satellite dish used in data, radio and TV. It enables direct access to
satellite communication.

Infrared transmission
Is a form of light which is invisible to the human eye but can be used in the same way as laser beams
to carry data. Communication is through transceivers, which must be within a line of sight in the same
room. It is used in TV remote controls but can also be used to communicate between computers or
between a computer and a printer at a short distance. Just like TV remote control, the signal needs a
clear “line of sight” between the sender and the receiver. Infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles
like walls unlike radio signals. But the signals can be reflected off surfaces like walls and ceiling until
they reach their destination.
Example: an infrared transceiver on mobile phones once activated enables two people in the same
room to send messages to each other without going through the mobile service provider hence avoid
being charged.
In computer networking environment, the technology used to connect devices in the same room to
each other without need for cables e.g a computer to a printer.

Cellular radio
Use several radio communication technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic area.
Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the
next are.
With so many users, it would be impossible to allocate individual radio frequencies to each cellular
telephone. With a cellular radio system, the country is divided into a number of geographical areas
called cells. These vary in size according to the number of mobile phones users in the area. Within
each cell, the phones can each operate on a different frequency so that privacy and security is
maintained.

Advantages of wireless communication

o Is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices can be moved around without
losing access to the network.
o Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
o It can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have cost physical
infrastructure like telephone lines.
o Less susceptible to vandalism
Disadvantages of wireless communication
o Difficult to establish or configure
o Initial cost is very high

COMMUNICATION DEVICES:
For the network to be fully operational computers and transmission media require communication
devices, to be used as interfaces or junctions between the terminal devices. Examples of data
communication devices are;
o Network interface card s(NICs)
o Modems and codecs
o Hubs
o Bridges
 o Repeaters
o Gateways
o Switches
o Access points (AP)
1. Network interface card (NIC)
- Enables each computer on the network to be connected to the network cable. The NIC transmits
data from the computer to the network and receives the data packets from the network to the
computer.
- A network card is a circuit board with a back plate which slots into one of the expansion slots
at the back of the computer.
- It is also referred to as a network adapter card or a transceiver.
- Every card must have a network card driver (software) loaded in the computer, which provides
the communication between the card and the network operating system software.
- Currently, a good number of NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot
inside the computer.
The main role of the network interface card is to:
(i) Provide a physical connection between a computer and data transmission media.
(ii) Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
(iii) Send the data to another computer.
(iv) Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
NB: the performance of NIC depends on the card bus width (equal tot the computer bus width) and
the speed of the card.

2. Modems and coders.

A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over the
analog media, while a codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital
medium. A modem can be external, add – on card or built on the motherboard.

3. Hub
Also called multi port repeater or concentrator, operates at the Physical layer and are simple devices
that pass all traffic from both directions they link. Hubs forward everything they receive. Hub
connects and amplifies digital signals from one computer, and transmits them to all other computers
in the network by broadcast. A hub will usually connect networks that have a common architecture
software usually called protocols. Protocols. Several hubs can be connected one after another to
expand a network. This increases the broadcast range which may lead to broadcast storms on the
network. Broadcast Storm: a condition where a network is overwhelmed with message broadcast
due to malfunctioning of network interface cards or hub related problems.
Purpose of Hubs: Provide a physical start topology. At the centre of the star is the hub, with the
network nodes located on the tips of the star
Disadvantage: hub may cause broadcast problem.

4. Repeater:
- Repeater works at the Physical layer and are fast in performance. A repeater solves the problem of
attenuation, which is the loss of power of a signal. A repeater takes an incoming signal and
repeats it, but at a higher power and noise- free. A repeater not only amplifies but also
regenerates signals.
- Signal regeneration means that the original signal is absorbed, copied and retransmitted along
another segment of cabling.
- The new signal has been beefed up and cleaned up and when it leaves the repeater is both
renewed and noise free.
- Under OSI model the repeater functions on the physical layer to regenerate BASEBAND digital
signals.
- A repeater does not check errors and does not re-package the original signal. If the signal had
become corrupted before reaching the repeater, the device would pass the corrupted data onto the
attached segment.
- Both segments connected by a repeater must use the same access method i.e. the logical link
protocols must be the same in order to send a signal.
- Repeaters can move packets from one physical medium to another e.g. they can take an Ethernet
packet from a thinnet coaxial cable and pass it on to a fiber- optic segment. In this case, the same
access method is being used on both segment but a different medium is used to deliver the signal.
- Because repeaters broadcast data from one segment to the next and back, are simplest to expand.

5. Bridges:
Operate at the Data Link layer and are fast in performance. Connect similar types of LANs (i.e.
Ethernet to Ethernet, Token Ring to Token Ring) over a wide area communication links. They
understand only data link layer protocols and addresses. They may connect similar types of cables.
- A bridge selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which a message is meant
for delivery through address filtering. A bridge can divide a busy network into segments to
reduce network traffic.
- A bridge is informed of where data is going to, and based on that information can make an
intelligent call whether or not to allow the data to go to the destination.
- Bridges operate on the data link layer of the OSI model. On this layer network systems group
packets from data off the wire and make a determination as to where the data goes.
- Each device on the network has a unique physical station address. This identification is used
by devices on a network to determine how to send data to one another. A bridge allows two
networks to be connected to one another, each moving its own group of devices with unique
station addresses.

Purpose of a bridge
o Isolates networks by Media Access Control (MAC) addresses i.e. it takes an overloaded
network and splits it into two networks, therefore they can divide the network to isolate traffic
or problems and reduce the traffic on both segments.
o Manages the network traffic by filtering packets. The term filtering packets refers to the
process of deciding whether or not to forward a packet.
o Translates from one protocol to another on the data link layer.
o Extend the length and the number of stations that a segment can support.

Comparison between a bridge and a repeater:

 Bridges regenerate data at the packet level.
 Bridges accommodate more nodes than repeaters.
 They provide better network performance than repeaters because they segment the
network.
 A bridge can be external, stand alone piece equipment or it can be installed on a server.

Advantages of bridges:
 Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments.
 It is possible to interconnect different segments, which use different MAC protocols.
 Since bridges work at MAC layer, they are transparent to higher-level protocols.
 By subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased.
 Used for non- routable protocols like NetBEVI, which must be bridged.
 Help localize network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as required
unlike repeaters.
Disadvantages:
 The buffering of frames introduces network delays.
 Bridges may overload during periods of high traffic.
 Bridges, which combine different MAC protocols, require the frames to be modified by
transmission onto new segment, thus causing delays.
 In complex networks, data is not sent over redundant paths, and the shortest path is not
always taken.
 Bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the network.

6. Routers:
- Routers operate at the Network layer. The router interconnects different networks and directs the
transfer of data packets from the source to the destination. Routing depends on network address
enabled by a special internetworking protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP).
 - All the computers on the same network have the same network address but different host
numbers.
- The router receives a packet from another router on the internet work and checks the destination
network address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the data packet to the
destination host by reading the host address otherwise the packet will be routed to the next
network address.
- A router links physically dissimilar LANs like Ethernet to token ring LANs. Some modem
routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and a router using a device called a
brouter.
- Routers determine the best path for data to flow and filter broadcast traffic to the local segment.
They do NOT pass on the broadcast traffic.

In summary:
 Require specific addresses.
 Only pass packets to the network segment they are destinated for.
 Routers do not talk to remote computers, only to other routers.
 They can segment large networks into smaller ones.
 They act as safety barrier (firewall) between segments.
 They prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts and bad data not forwarded.
 Are slower than most bridges.
 Can join dissimilar access methods.
 Routers do not look at the destination computer address but NETWORK address and only pass
on the data if the network address is known. This leads to less traffic.

Disadvantages of routers:
 Do not send corrupted broadcast packets or corrupted packets.
 Cannot transform information from one data format to another e.g. TCP / IP to PX / SPX.
 Processing is intensively CPU.

7. Brouters
Are devices that combine the functions of both Bridges and Routers. It combines the best
qualities of both bridges and routers. When a brouter receives a data packet to be forwarded to
the remote segment, it checks to see if it recognizes the Network layer protocol. If the Brouter
does, it acts like a Router and finds the shortest path. If it doesn’t recognize the Network layer
protocol, acts like a bridge and forwards the data packet to the next segment.
Brouters connect mainly different types of LANs together like Token ring and Ethernet.
Brouters are more cost effective than individual bridges and routers.

8. Switches:
- Like Bridges, Switches operate at the Data Link layer (again understanding only data link layer
protocols and addresses.
- Unlike a Hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting. A
node is data terminal equipment such as a workstation or computer on the network. Switches
connect two nodes point to point thus reducing the broadcast problems on the network.
- Switches are enhanced version of the hub and one switch may be used as a bridge to connect
several hubs thus reducing the collision caused by broadcasts.
- Switches are more expensive than hubs.

9. Gateways
A gateway is a translator which allows communication between dissimilar systems or environments
which do not use the same protocols, data formatting structure, languages and architecture.
Gateways work at the Application layer making communication possible between different
architectures and environments. They perform protocol and data conversion / translation by taking
the data from one environment, strip it, and re-repackage it in the protocol stack from the destination
system. They repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each
environment can understand the other environments data so that each environment can understand
the other environments data . Gateways can translate protocols and data.
 Disadvantages
- They slow things down because of the work they do
- They are expensive
- Difficult to configure

Wireless communication devices

a). Access points (AP)
it is an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless devices such as personal
digital assistants (PDA’s), laptops and computers with wireless links.

b). Wireless antennae

Access points will have two antenna, where one is wireless, so that the one that receives the best
signal at any particular time is used.

c). Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) cards.

PCMCIA is an add-on card inserted into a device such as personal digital assistants or laptop in order
to enable wireless communication between the devices and a wired network server.

Network software
The software is classified into two main groups namely;
1. Network operating system s
2. Network protocols.

1. Network operating system

The network operating system (NOS) coordinates the activities of many computers across the network
thus acting like a director to keep the network running smoothly. It will optimize the network
computers ability to respond to service requests. Servers run on a NOS.
Functions of the network operating system (NOS)
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers, folders, files.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently
3. Supports inter-process communication i.e. enables the various processes on the network to
communicate with one another.
4. respond to requests from application programs running on the network
5. supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols
6. implementing network security features.

Network operating systems are designed as multiuser operating systems that run the network server
program. Once installed on the right hardware platform and configured as a server, the OS will
provide network management tools to network administrators. These tools can be used to;
1. Secure network against unauthorized access
2. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network.
3. Ensure inter-operatability between various systems on the network.
4. Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network

Examples of Network Operating System:

 Windows NT
 Windows 2000 Server
 Windows 2003
 Linux
 Novell Netware
 UNIX
 Banyan Vines
 AppleShare
 Artisoft’s LANtastic
 Windows for Workgroups
2. Protocols
 A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that control communication between computers on the
network .
How protocols work
Data transmission over the network is broken down into discrete systematic steps. At each step, a
certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the network
protocols. The work is so coordinated through protocol layering so that there are no conflicts or
incomplete operations. Network protocols are designed after the open systems interconnection (OSI)
model. The OSI is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered protocols. It has
seven layers each performing distinct functions.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing
protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer
in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the
hierarchy.

Layer Description Device Protocol

This layer supports application and end-userGateway NCP, SMB,
processes. Everything at this layer is application- SMTP, FTF,
Application
specific; Data to be transmitted to the network enters SNMPM,
(Layer 7)
the OSI model through this layer; provides flow Telnet,
control; provides flow control and error recovery. Appletalk
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across Gateway andNCP, AFP,
Presentation a network, providing freedom from compatibilityredirectors TDI
(Layer 6) problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
 
This layer establishes, manages and terminates Gateway NetBios
connections between applications. The session layer
sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations,
Session
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at
(Layer 5)
each end. It deals with session and connection
coordination.
 
This layer provides transparent transfer of dataGateway NetBEUI,
between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for TCP, SPX and
Transport
end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures NWLink
(Layer 4)
complete data transfer.
 
Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as Gateway NetBEAU, IP,
Network well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, IPX, NWLink
(Layer 3) congestion control and packet sequencing.
 
At this layer, data packets are encoded and decodedSwitch, None
into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledgebridge and
and management and handles errors in the physical router
layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The
data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The
Data LinkMedia Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical
(Layer 2) Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer
controls how a computer on the network gains access
to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC
layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and
error checking.
 
Physical This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse,Multiplexor None
 light or radio signal -- through the network at theand repeater
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the
hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
(Layer 1) carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical
aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols
with physical layer components.
 
Figure : Seven Layers of Networking (OSI Model)

The seven layers of networking is sometimes referred to the OSI Model, Open System
Interconnection. Networking is broken down by traveling through several layers or protocols. This
process is broken down into seven layers; Application Layer, Presentation Layer, Session Layer,
Transport Layer, Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer. When a person communicates
to another person on a network the information passes through these layers. It begins at the
Application Layer, works its way through to the Physical Layer and then back up to the Application
Layer.

 (7) Application Layer- This layer is where the end-user (computer user) begins the
communication process. At this layer user authentication is identified and protocols like FTP,
TELNET, E-MAIL, and other file transfer protocols begin with the user starting the process.

 (6) Presentation Layer - This layer is where encryption occurs. This layer converts the file
and/or information into a language (format) that the remaining layers can read and handle
without any compatibility problems.

 (5) Session Layer - This layer is where the communication is coordinated. Applications are
managed in this layer. This layer manages the exchange of information by creating and
terminating all communication between the application layer at both ends.

 (4) Transport Layer - This layer is responsible for ensuring the data completes it's
transmission to the other user. It's also responsible for flow control and error recovery.
  (3) Network Layer - This layer is where the routing and switching takes place. Packet
sequencing, addressing, congestion control, and internetworking happen at this layer. Logical
paths are created at this level to allow users to communicate to each other. This layer utilizes
IP addresses.

 (2) Data Link Layer - This layer is where packets (information) is broken into bits through
encoding and decoding. At this layer you have two sections; Media Access Control (MAC),
and Logical Link Control (LLC). The MAC section is where packets (information) is
gathered and gets permission to transmit the data. The MAC section is where your computer's
MAC address is located to allow proper delivery to a specific system (computer). The LLC
section controls synchronization, flow control, and error checking.

 (1) Physical Layer - This layer is where your hardware such as ethernet cable, Network
Interface Cards, etc., provide the transmission through electrical impulse, light, and radio
waves. This layer is the hardware means of sending and receiving data (information).

Some ways to remember the seven layers are:

All People Seem To Need Data Processing
All Players Seem To Need Daily Practice.

Down upwards the layer

Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.

The top four layers have been grouped together and are called ‘Application Set’ mainly concerned
with controlling how the various applications currently running are making use of the network.
The bottom three layers are called the ‘Transport Set’ concerned with passing of information through
the network.

Basic rules about the OSI model:-

 Each layer can only talk to the one above it or below it.
 Passing information from one layer to another is done in a standard way
 Any layer does not care or need to know how the layers beneath it work.

Advantages of using the OSI model

- Any hardware that meets the OSI standard will be able to communicate with any other
hardware that also meets the standard.
- Any software that meets the OSI standard will be able to communicate with any other hardware
or software that also meets the standard
- Consumers are given a wider choice since hardware / software from any manufacturer will
work together
- OSI is independent of country, it doesn’t matter where the hardware / software is made.
- OSI is not dependent on the operating system used
- The protocols for OSI are defined at each stage
- Any errors that occur are handled in each layer
- The different layers can operate automatically

How data is sent via the OSI model

Data is normally passed from one layer down to the next lower layer at the sending computer, till it is
finally transmitted onto the network cable by the physical layer. As the data is passed down to a
lower layer, it is broken up into a larger unit (each layer adds its own layer information to that which
it receives from a higher layer). At the receiving end, the message is passed upwards to the desired
layer, and as it passes upwards through each layer, the encapsulation information is stripped off.(See
OSI model diagram above)

Network protocols defines a language of rules and conventions for communication between network
devices.
Examples of network Protocols
Application layer Protocols
1. simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) used to send e-mail
2. File Transfer protocol (FTP) allows files to be transferred over the internet
3. Apple share – apple computers networking suit.
4. AppleTalk – it allows for sharing of files and printers.
5. NCP
6. telnet (TELetype NETwork) – provide a method for establishing an interactive connection
between computer systems.
7. SNMP
8. SMB

Presentation layer Protocols

1. NCP
2. AFP
3. TDI
4. Session layer protocols
5. NetBIOS – allows applications to interface with the network

Transport Layer Protocols

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – internetworks dissimilar systems; delivers sequenced
data over the network.
2. Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – do packet exchange / sequential packet exchange
(IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
3. NetBEUI – Establishes communication sessions between computer.
4. apple Transmission Protocol (ATP) – Apple computers communication session and data
transport protocol.
5. NWLink

Network layer protocol

1. Internet Control Protocol (IP) – provides the routing and packet forwarding.
2. IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) – does Packet forwarding and switching
3. NetBEUI
4. NWLink

Other Protocols are;

- SLIP
- PPP- point to point protocol
- POP3 – allows email messages to be transferred.
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – for requesting and receiving HTML pages
- Network File System (NFS) – extend the file system to support access to directories and disk
on other computer systems.

1.6 Network topologies

Network topology is the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is
passed from one computer to another in the network.
Network topologies is classified into two: logical and physical topology.
The logical topology describes how the network works while a physical network describes how the
network has been cabled.

Logical topology (Signal topology)

Types of logical topologies
 Ethernet
 Token ring
 Local talk
 Ethernet
In this topology all computers wanting to transmit on the Ethernet first perform a preliminary check to
determine whether the medium is available or whether a transmission is currently in progress and can
only send data when none of the computers is sending.

Data sent over the Ethernet exists in the forms of frames. An Ethernet frame contains a header, a data
section, and a footer having a combined length of no more than 1518 bytes. The Ethernet header
contains the addresses of both the intended recipient and the sender.

Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection). In this method, the computer senses that the cable is free then data is transmitted. If data is
on the cable, no other computer can transmit until the cable is free. If a collision occurs i.e two
computers attempt to transmit at the same time, the computers wait a random period of time and
retransmit. Each Ethernet device tests each frame to determine if it was intended for them and reads
or discards the frame as appropriate. Network adapters incorporate this function into their hardware.

The Ethernet protocol supports linear bus, star or tree topologies.

 Local Talk
It uses the method called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
How CSMA/CA works
The computer broadcasts a warning packet before it begins transmitting on the wire which
eliminates almost all collision. No computer attempts to broadcast when another computer
sends the warning packet. All other computers wait until the data is send.
The only drawback is that network is very high due to the broadcasting of the intent to send a
message.
The Local Talk protocol supports linear bus, star or tree topologies.

 Token Ring Topology

The computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to
another in a logical Ring. Stations on a token ring LAN are logically organized in a ring topology
with data being transmitted sequentially from one ring station to the next with a control token
circulating around the ring controlling access.

How Token Passing Works

A special packet or electric token is passed from computer to computer. If a computer does not have
information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. A computer that wants
to transmit must wait for the free Token to send data. A computer that wants to transmit must wait for
a free token. Token Ring uses beaconing to detect `faults which make the method fault tolerant. There
no contention i.e. equal access is given to all computers on the network. This method has no
collisions.
The Token Ring protocol supports a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable.

Physical Topology
Main Types of Physical Topologies
 Linear Bus
 Star
 Star-Wired Ring
 Tree
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
 Summary Chart

Linear Bus
Also called multidrop/Ethernet/parallel
The file Server has a long data cable called the bus or backbone with a terminator at each end (See fig.
1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connect to a central cable. Wiring is usually
done point to point using coaxial cable. Data is broadcast along the cable with an identification. The
transmitted message is visible to all computers connected to that cable. The workstation with the right
ID takes the message while all the others ignore it. Data flows to and fro.

Terminator

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

The bus network topology use Ethernet which uses CSMA/CD {Carrier Sense Multi Access with
Collision Detection}

What is the meaning of;

Carrier Sense: refers to the fact that each station listens to see if no other station is transmitting
before sending data.
Multiple Access: refers to the fact that in bus system, each station has access to the common cable.
Collision detection: refers to the principle of listening to see if other stations are transmitting whilst
we are transmitting.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Data flow is fast because of broadcast

 It can hold many work stations along the cable
 Easy to connect and a remove a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Cheap because it requires less cable length than a star topology.
 In one network station fails operations of other computers on the network are not
affected
 Stations communicate independently of each other.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
 Frequent data collisions
 Limited range by length of cable thus suitable for small LANs
 It can take some time to isolate faults thus need for a LAN meter.
 If the min cable fails the whole network goes down
 The network degrades dramatically when highly loaded

Star Topology

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub or concentrator or switch. (See fig. 2).the main computer is the file
server or network server. Communication between any two stations is via the server. The ne6twork
server is the computer that controls all other computers and monitors user’s access to the shared
resources.

Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The
hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the
data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with
coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 If one cable fails it affects only one computer
 It is easy to isolate faults through the central hub/ switch
 It is easy to add and remove computers
 Different computers can transmit at different speeds
 The system is more secure as messages are sent directly to the central computer and
are not seen by other computers.
 There is a direct link to the data bank (file server) therefore access to the server is
fast.
 It is easy and cheap to install and maintain
 Communication is very fast since each computer on the network has a direct line to
the server.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
 It can only hold a few work stations
 There can be delay for requests if there is heavy traffic.
 Installation is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a
similar topology, called the star-wired ring.

Users

Supermarkets, bank halls, airline booking, water billing offline mostly where similar tasks are done
by all workstations.

Ring Topology (loop) / peer – to – peer LAN

 The ring topology is actually a logical ring, meaning that the data travels in circular fashion from one
computer to another on the network. It is not a physical ring topology. Figure 4 shows the logical
layout of a ring network.

Figure 4 Logical design of the ring network.

All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is
connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it. Data flows in one direction thus
reducing the risk of data collision. To allow orderly access to the ring, a token is passed from one
computer to the next around the ring. When a data packet arrives with an address (destination) the
workstation takes it if it belongs to that address, otherwise it passes it on. A computer can only
transmit when it captures the token. A token is used to exchange data from one station to another.
Each station is responsible for regenerating and transmitting signals. In a ring topology, if a single
computer or section of cable fails, there is an interruption in the signal. The entire network becomes
inaccessible. Network disruption can also occur when computers are added or removed from the
network, making it an impractical network design in environments where there is constant change to
the network.

Ring networks are most commonly wired in a star configuration. In a Token Ring network, a
multistation access unit (MSAU) is equivalent to a hub or switch on an Ethernet network. The MSAU
performs the token circulation internally. To create the complete ring, the ring in (RI) port on each
MSAU is connected to the ring out (RO) port on another MSAU. The last MSAU in the ring is then
connected to the first, to complete the ring. Table 3 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of
the ring topology.

Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ring Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
- Cable faults are easily - Expansion to the network can cause network
located, making disruption.
troubleshooting easier. - A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire
- There is no data collision network.
- There is efficient flow of - Trouble shooting can be difficult
data because it travels in - One must break the ring to add an extra workstation
one direction - Network is within a small area as cables cannot be
Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ring Topology
Advantages Disadvantages
- Each workstation acts as a too long
signal booster
- More workstations can be - If any computer breaks down, may affect the entire
accommodated within a network unless a Multi Station Access Unit (MSAU)
small area. is used for station bypass if a station fails.
- There is equal access for
all users.
- Each workstation has full
access sped to the ring
- Ring networks are
moderately easy to install.

Tree / Hierarchical Topology

It’s a Hybrid topology because it combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists
of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 4). In this
topology the main file server connects to other File Servers and workstations, whereby the
workstations by be connected to other workstations. This network is very complex and on a Wide
geographical area. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools
to configure a network to meet their needs.

Fig. 4. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 It supports many work stations
 It can operate over a wide area
  If there is a problem in one workstation / File server, it does not affect the network

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 It is expensive the Main File Server is usually a maintenance computer.
 It requires highly skilled personnel to operate

Users:
Large organizations e.g. National Banks, airlines, universities etc. which have operations over a wide
geographical area.

Mesh Topology
In this topology each computer on the network is connected to the others. Is mostly used in wide Area
Network where there are many paths between different locations. Devices are connected with many
redundant interconnections between the nodes. Every node has a connection to every other node in the
network.

Users:
Offices e.g. Newsroom, accounts department, etc.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
- Faster communication between work stations while still having access to the File Server.
- Efficient flow of data because data does not have to go through the file server.
- Suitable for a busy network
- It is highly fault tolerant. A single cable break will not stop network communications between
any two computers.

Disadvantages
- Used in a small Geographical area
- Supports few work stations
- It uses a large amount of network cabling making it expensive

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
  Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.

Summary Chart:

ology Common Common Protocol

Cable

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Coaxial LocalTalk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Fiber LocalTalk

Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Coaxial
Fiber

10BaseF - Ethernet specification for fiber optic cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per
second) with a distance limit of 2000 meters per segment.

10BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5), transmits
signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.

100BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit data at
100 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.

1000BaseTX -Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to trasmit data at
1 Gbps (gigabits per second) with a distance limitation of 220 meters per segment.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - A network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155
Mbps and higher. It is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks.

AppleTalk - Apple Computer's network protocol originally designed to run over LocalTalk networks,
but can also run on Ethernet and Token Ring.

AUI Connector (Attachment Unit Interface) - A 15 pin connector found on Ethernet cards that can be
used for attaching coaxial, fiber optic, or twisted pair cable.

Backbone - A cable to which multiple nodes or workstations are attached.

Bit - Binary digit in the binary numbering system. Its value can be 0 or 1. In an 8-bit character
scheme, it takes 8 bits to make a byte (character) of data.

BNC Connector (Bayone-Neill-Concelman) - Standard connector used to connect 10Base2 coaxial

cable.
Bridge - Devices that connect and pass packets between two network segments that use the same
communications protocol.

Cable - Transmission medium of copper wire or optical fiber wrapped in a protective cover.

Client/Server - A networking system in which one or more file servers (Server) provide services;
such as network management, application and centralized data storage for workstations (Clients).

CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance is a network access method in
which each device signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. This prevents other devices
from sending information, thus preventing collisions from occurring between signals from two or
more devices. This is the access method used by LocalTalk.

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection is a network access method in which
devices that are ready to transmit data first check the channel for a carrier. If no carrier is sensed, a
device can transmit. If two devices transmit at once, a collision occurs and each computer backs off
and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. This is the access method used by
Ethernet.

Coaxial Cable - Cable consisting of a single copper conductor in the center surrounded by a plastic
layer for insulation and a braided metal outer shield.

Concentrator - A device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals. Most concentrators contain the ability to amplify the electrical signal they
receive.

DIN - A plug and socket connector consisting of a circular pattern of pins in a metal sleeve. This type
of connector is commonly seen on keyboards.

Dumb Terminal - Refers to devices that are designed to communicate exclusively with a host (main
frame) computer. It receives all screen layouts from the host computer and sends all keyboard entry to
the host. It cannot function without the host computer.

E-mail - An electronic mail message sent from a host computer to a remote computer.

End User - Refers to the human executing applications on the workstation.

Ethernet - A network protocol invented by Xerox Corporation and developed jointly by Xerox, Intel
and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD and run over a variety of cable
types at 10 Mbps (megabits per second).

Expansion Slot - Area in a computer that accepts additional input/output boards to increase the
capability of the computer.

Fast Ethernet - A new Ethernet standard that supports 100 Mbps using category 5 twisted pair or
fiber optic cable.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) - A network protocol that is used primarily to interconnect
two or more local area networks, often over large distances.

Fiber Optic Cable - A cable, consisting of a center glass core surrounded by layers of plastic, that
transmits data using light rather than electricity. It has the ability to carry more information over much
longer distances.

File Server - A computer connected to the network that contains primary files/applications and shares
them as requested with the other computers on the network. If the file server is dedicated for that
purpose only, it is connected to a client/server network. An example of a client/server network is
Novell Netware. All the computers connected to a peer-to-peer network are capable of being the file
server. Two examples of peer-to-peer networks are LANtastic and Windows for Workgroups.

Gigabit Ethernet - An Ethernet protocol that raises the transmission rates to 1 Gbps (gigabits per
second). It is primarily used for a high speed backbone of a network.

Gigabyte (GB) - One billion bytes of information. One thousand megabytes.

Hub - A hardware device that contains multiple independent but connected modules of network and
internetwork equipment. Hubs can be active (where they repeat signals sent through them) or passive
(where they do not repeat but merely split signals sent through them).

Infrared - Electromagnetic waves whose frequency range is above that of microwaves, but below that
of the visible spectrum.

Intranet - Network internal to an organization that uses Internet protocols.

Internet - A global network of networks used to exchange information using the TCP/IP protocol. It
allows for electronic mail and the accessing ad retrieval of information from remote sources.

LAN (Local Area Network) - A network connecting computers in a relatively small area such as a
building.

Linear Bus - A network topology in which each node attaches directly to a common cable.

LocalTalk - Apple Corporation proprietary protocol that uses CSMA/CA media access scheme and
supports transmissions at speeds of 230 Kbps (Kilobits per second).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) - A network connecting computers over a large geographical
area, such as a city or school district.

MAU (Multistation Access Unit) - A Token Ring wiring hub.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) - Devices that convert digital and analog signals. Modems allow
computer data (digital) to be transmitted over voice-grade telephone lines (analog).

Multiplexer - A device that allows multiple logical signals to be transmitted simultaneously across a
single physical channel.

Network Modem - A modem connected to a Local Area Network (LAN) that is accessible from any
workstation on the network.

Network Interface Card (NIC) - A board that provides network communication capabilities to and
from a computer.

Network Operating System (NOS) - Operating system designed to pass information and
communicate between more than one computer. Examples include AppleShare, Novell NetWare, and
Windows NT Server.

Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached to a network such as
file servers, printers, or workstations.

Node Devices - Any computer or peripheral that is connected to the network.

PCMCIA - An expansion slot found in many laptop computers.

Peer-to-Peer Network - A network in which resources and files are shared without a centralized
management source.

Physical Topology - The physical layout of the network; how the cables are arranged; and how the
computers are connected.

Point-to-Point - A direct link between two objects in a network.

Ports - A connection point for a cable.

Protocol -A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a
network exchange information.

RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) - A configuration of multiple disks designed to

preserve data after a disk casualty.

RAM (Random Access Memory) - The working memory of a computer where data and programs are
temporarily stored. RAM only holds information when the computer is on.

Repeater - A device used in a network to strengthen a signal as it is passed along the network cable.

RJ-45 - Standard connectors used for unshielded twisted-pair cable.

Router -A device that routes information between interconnected networks. It can select the best path
to route a message, as well as translate information from one network to another. It is similar to a
super-intelligent bridge.

SCSI (Small Computer Serial Interface) - An interface controller that allows several peripherals to
be connected to the same port on a computer.

Segment - Refers to a section of cable on a network. In Ethernet networks, two types of segments are
defined. A populated or trunk segment is a network cable that has one or more nodes attached to it. A
link segment is a cable that connects a computer to an interconnecting device, such as a repeater or
concentrator, or connects a interconnecting device to another interconnecting device.

Sneaker-Net - Refers to a manual method of sharing files in which a file is copied from a computer to
a floppy disk, transported to a second computer by a person physically walking (apparently wearing
sneakers) to the second computer, and manually transferring the file from floppy disk to the second
computer.

Speed of Data Transfer - The rate at which information travels through a network, usually measured
in megabits per second.

Star Topology - LAN topology in which each node on a network is connected directly to a central
network hub or concentrator.

Star-Wired Ring - Network topology that connects network devices (such as computers and printers)
in a complete circle.

Tape Back-Up - Copying all the data and programs of a computer system on magnetic tape. On tape,
data is stored sequentially. When retrieving data, the tape is searched from the beginning of tape until
the data is found.

Terminator - A device that provides electrical resistance at the end of a transmission line. Its function
is to absorb signals on the line, thereby keeping them from bouncing back and being received again
by the network.
Thicknet - A thick coaxial cable that is used with a 10Base5 Ethernet LAN.

Thinnet - A thin coaxial cable that is used with a 10Base2 Ethernet LAN.

Token - A special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger or carrier between each computer
and device on a ring topology. Each computer must wait for the messenger to stop at its node before it
can send data over the network.

Token Ring - A network protocol developed by IBM in which computers access the network through
token-passing. Usually uses a star-wired ring topology.

Topology - There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical topology of a network
refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Logical topology is the method
used to pass the information between workstations. Issues involving logical topologies are discussed
on the Protocol chapter

Transceiver (Transmitter/Receiver) - A Device that receives and sends signals over a medium. In
networks, it is generally used to allow for the connection between two different types of cable
connectors, such as AUI and RJ-45.

Tree Topology - LAN topology similar to linear bus topology, except that tree networks can contain
branches with multiple nodes.

Twisted Pair - Network cabling that consists of four pairs of wires that are manufactured with the
wires twisted to certain specifications. Available in shielded and unshielded versions.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port - A hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the
keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and telephony devices.

WAN (Wide Area Network) - A network connecting computers within very large areas, such as
states, countries, and the world.

Workgroup - A collection of workstations and servers on a LAN that are designated to communicate
and exchange data with one another.

Workstation - A computer connected to a network at which users interact with software stored on the
network.

1.7 network security

2. APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(ICT)
Specific objectives:
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Describe the use of computers in different application areas.
b) Write a report on the use of a computer in any one of the computer application areas visited
by students.
This chapter is not very different from what was covered in Form One under the subtopic “areas
where computers are used”, only that it gives an in- depth analysis and explanations of the same.

Introduction:
The use of computers is spreading virtually in all areas. Some companies are using it for competitive
advantage while others are using it to be abreast of the latest in technology. Computers have been
applied in the contemporary society to add value to the information systems of various organizations.
An information system: is a collection of specific human and machine efforts required to support the
decision making process, data processing, information output and presentation.
APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
1. FINANCIAL SYSTEMS:
Enable organizations to manage their finances and they include:
(a) Payroll systems.
(b) Accounting systems
(c) Banking systems.
(a) Payroll systems: it deals with the production of pay slips for employees and the maintenance of
records required for taxation and any other deductions. This happens at the end of each pay
period. The system processes the accurate information for employees including: gross pay,
deductions and net pay.

(b) Accounting system: are popular in business management. There are six business accounting
activities/subsystems as follows:
(i) Customer order entry billing: records incoming customer orders, authorizes delivery of
items or services ordered and produces invoices for customers who do not pay in
advance or on cash basis.
(ii) Inventory management: keep track of the items in stock and help the management
determine which items to reorder. Management will make enough stock at all times to
meet eh needs of the customers.
(iii) General ledger account: also known as nominal ledger. It contains a summary of all
business accounts. It is used in preparing balance sheet, profit and loss account, trial
balance, day book/journal, list of accounts, and so on.
» It is used to keep track of how much a business makes and is worthiness by summarizing
the financial transactions. It produces reports on income, sources of income, expenses,
and the net profit or loss earned.
(iv) Accounts receivable: keeps the money owed to a company by its customers e.g. when
goods are sold to a retailer, money owed on the sales is an account receivable item until
the payment is received. This helps the management to make a follow-up by billing the
customers for overdue charge.
(v) Accounts payable: keeps track of the amount the business owes to the others e.g. when
a wholesaler purchases goods from a manufacturer, money on the purchase is an
accounts payable item until the bill is paid. This helps the management to produce
cheques for payment of these amounts.

2. BANKING SYSTEMS:
Modern banks are self- service. Most of the work is done by the customer and not the bank
staff. The computerized banking services include:
(a) Processing customer transactions: computers are used in banks to carry out financial
transactions such as recording deposits, withdrawals and calculating interests on loans and
saving.

(b) Cheques clearing and processing: the use of Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) details of
the cheques are automatically entered into a computer for cheques processing. The characters
identify the bank in which the cheque is drawn, the customer account number, the cheques
number and the amount of the cheques.

(c) Electronic funds transfer (EFT): is a method of transferring money from one bank account to
another without paper money changing hands. The money can be transferred instantly or at a
stated period of time.
Uses of EFT:
» Government departments and companies use it to deposit payroll into the employees
accounts directly.
» Individuals transfer money electronically from one account to another within the same
bank.
» Payments of goods purchased from a supermarket or any other retailer that has a
provision for electronic fund transfer.
» Paying electricity
» Direct payment of mortgage
Advantages
» Is quick and reliable
» Risk of loss or stolen or misdirected payments is minimized.
» The bank’s processing costs is lowered

Disadvantage
Customers are compelled to a fixed standard time of payment.

{EFT is the movement of money using Information and Communication Technology e.g. when
paying for goods using a credit card, payment is transferred electronically from the customer’s
account to recipient account.
 Electronic method of moving money from one bank account to another without any paper
transactions.}

(d) Internet Banking (E-banking)

Enables users to access their Bank Accounts through the internet for account statements, pay bills
and transfer funds electronically.
(e) Mobile Banking (M- banking)
Cash transfer is taking place with support of some mobile companies like Safaricom (M-Pesa)
and Zap of Zain whereby you need not have Bank .Account. An account holder can perform
banking transactions using his / her mobile phone like Cash transfers, settling bills electronically
and performing account queries.

(f) Cash dispensers (ATMs): they are set outside banks and are linked to the central computer. An
ATM is simply a data terminal with two inputs and four output devices.
Input devices: card reader, a keypad.
Card- reader captures the account information stored on the magnetic stripe on the back of
an ATM/ debit or credit card.
A keypad is used by the card holder to tell the bank what kind of transaction is required e.g.
cash withdrawal, balance inquiry, deposit of cash, etc. it is also used to enter the cardholder’s
personal ID (PIN) for verification.
Output devices: a speaker, display screen, a receipt printer, the safe and cash dispensing
mechanism.
ATMs allow customers to do their banking at any hour of the day or night.

Advantages of using ATMs to the company:

 The employees do not spend all their time doing repetitive transactions, instead they
spent more time on marketing the company.
 Less staff is needed since the machine does most of the work.
 Customer’s demands are fully met unless the ATM crops a technical problem.
 Customers can only withdraw cash if they leave it in their account.
 Queuing in banks is reduced.

Advantages to the customer of using ATMs

 Ideal for customers who work late.
 Customers can withdraw whatever amount they need depending on the maximum
withdrawal amount of different banks.
 Getting cash is very fast.
 Customers do not have to queue for a long time.

General disadvantages of ATMs

 They are very expensive to manufacture.
 They can break down just like any other machine.
 Some of the ATMs can only be used if you are a member of a particular bank.
 A customer can be waylaid by thugs and asked to withdraw all his or her money.
 Most banks make a maximum amount that you can withdraw at a given deal.
 Transactions like asking for a loan will not be very friendly when you are using an ATM.
  It can lead to job losses for bank employees.

Types of cards used for ATMs:

There are two main cards used with ATMs:
(i) Debit card: money is taken directly from your bank using electronic means.
(ii) Credit card: with this card, money is not taken straight away from your account.
Instead, you receive a bill at the end of the month. You can pay the full amount or pay
a particular percentage of the total account. This usually attracts an interest. If you fail
to settle the bill, you can be surcharged or your card can even be blocked for any
further transaction.

3. RETAIL SYSTEMS:
(a) Stock control: this is managing sensibly the amount of goods in stock. A computerized stock
control system enables a user to manage stock more efficiently.
Aims of stock control:
 To keep enough of each item in a stock so that they do not run out.
 To avoid making too much of any item(overstocking)

A stock control system does the following jobs:

 Keep a check on exactly what goods are in stock.
 Work out what goods are selling and fix the maximum and minimum stock levels for each item.
 Reorder goods to replace the items which are sold so that stocks are kept between the maximum
and minimum levels.

(b) Transaction handlings at the electronic point of sale terminals(EPOS)

 Is a point of services that is equipped with electronic equipment that can display prices and
record transactions. The equipment is connected to a Computer Server that contains the stock
prices of the goods sold in a supermarket or a retail shop. When the customers check out with
goods, it provides the cost and processes the total. Some point of sale also provide electronic
funds transfer services that enables customers also to pay for their goods electronically using
ATM or Credit cards.
 { EFTPOS is a method where funds transfer takes place at a point of sale terminal. EPOS is a
computer terminal used in retail stores to input and output data at the point where sales are
transacted e.g. at the supermarket checkout counter.
 An EPOS terminal has all facilities of a normal cash register, but with additional direct data
capture devices e.g. barcode reader, card reader, monitor and a receipt printer.
 During payment process, each item’s barcode is passed over a barcode reader/ wand or laser
scanner built into the point of sale terminal (POS). the barcodes contains the product details,
manufacturer, country of origin and a check digit. The terminal is linked to the main computer
via network links. The check digit is calculated and compared to the scanned one. The till beeps
if they match. The main computer stores all the products sold. The computer sends the price and
the description of the item back to the POS terminal.
 NB: it is important to note that price is NOT in the barcode. It is contained in a different file. }

Advantages of EPOS system:

 Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
 Faster since the attendant does not need to make or enter details manually.
 The system is very accurate; cases of wrong charge are not likely to happen.

4. RESERVATION SYSTEMS:
Are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make bookings in such areas as:-
(a) Hotel booking: booking and reservation of rooms in hotels are made from a remote
terminal connected to a centralized computer database. A customer makes enquiries via
the remote terminal connected to the central computer.
(b) Airline booking: major airlines have centralized databases. This means that all flights and
passengers records are stored in a computer system in one location. Travel agent from all
over the world can access each data via communication lines. In that way, agents book in
client where tickets have not been bought.
Reservation systems use real time processing.

5. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS:
(a) Computer Aided Learning (CAL): it involves using the computer as an aid to normal
teaching. Some CAL programs improve basic skills with drill and practice exercises
which provide extra motivation. Also have graphical presentations such as video clips and
voice for demonstrating or explaining difficult concepts. Can also be used to replace
difficult, dangerous or lengthy science experiments.

(b) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI):

 Refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice particular educational
principles. The learner is presented with explanation of the concept. The
computer then presents the questions from which the learner is to select the
correct answer.
 Some CAI programs present learning content in form of educational games which
make learning more fun e.g. typing tutor program that teaches a person to learn
typing skills.
(c) Electronic learning(E- learning)
 This is a self- placed interactive training program produced on CD or the web that
contain multimedia elements (i.e. sound, video, animations) and automated test
questions that provide instant feedback to the trainee.
 It is also known as web- based training, online learning, distributed learning or
technology for learning.
 E- learning can be CD-ROM based; Network based Intranet/ Extranet based or
Internet based.
 It can be very rich learning experience that can even surpass the level of training
you might experience in a crowded classroom.

Advantages of E- learning:
 It can work from any location and any time.
 Courses can be tailored to specific needs.
 Asynchronous reading is possible when communication takes place in turns.
 It is very flexible.
 You can save on traveling costs.
 You do not spent a lot of time away from work.
 It can lead to increased retention and a stronger grasp on the subject.
 It can be updated easily and quickly.
 It provides a consistent message.

Disadvantages:
 It can at times make boring slides.
 There may be monotonous speeches.
 There might be little opportunity for interaction.

Categories of E- learning:
1. Knowledge of databases.
2. Online support.
3. Asynchronous training.
4. Synchronous training.

(d) E- curriculum: is the concept of learning with computers rather than learning about
computers. In this system all curriculum materials are loaded into a computer with sound,
animation and activities to rationalize the thinking and imagination of school- age
student.
 (e)Computer based simulation: refers to the science of representing the behavior of a real
life situation by using computerized models. This program creates real situation which
replaces very dangerous and expensive experiments in science mainly used in areas where
practical skills have to be learnt like training pilots, engineers etc.
Common uses of simulation
Traffic lights {read more on page 192 Sec computer studies book 4 by Herman Oduor}
Thrill ride simulator
Flight simulation – pilots are able to practice landing and taking off.
A robot arm
Fire training simulator
Space shuttle simulators.
Nuclear power stations
Zero gravity simulator
Traffic lights simulations
Military operations simulation
Study of the origins of the universe
Circuit testing – for production of computer chips
Advantages of using a simulation

6. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
Communication is the distribution of information or data from one person or location to another.
Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of high speed electronic devices such
as computers, cell phones, radios and TV.
ICT is the integration of computerized electronic devices and telecommunication infrastructure for
the purpose of communication. Some of the communication systems include:
(a) Facsimile (fax): is a telecommunication device used to send digitized images along
telephone lines. The fax machine at one end scans the document and converts it into
analog form then transmitted over the telephone line. The fax machine at the receiving
end uses these signals to reproduce a hard copy of the document.

Advantages of fax:
 There is instant transmission thus making it quite faster compared with letters.
 It is convenient and simple. Documents with signatures and handwritten are send.
 Hard copy is produced.
 A document can be faxed to any part of the world so long as the recipient has a fax
machine.
 If a computer has a fax modem, the fax will be answered and automatically stored on
the hard drive.

Disadvantages:
 Faxed printouts are sometimes of poor quality.
 Can be slow to send bog documents because every paper has to be scanned and
converted into digital form before being sent.
 The telephone line cannot be used whilst you are sending faxes. You must separate fax
number to avoid this problem.
 Faxing text that is in color is not easy.

(b) Radio communication: computers are used in broadcasting stations to:

 Record and manage radio programmes
 Automate running of selected programmes.
 Create slides, simulate objects and sound effects to prepare adverts.
 Download information from the internet to prepare programmes like international news.

(c) Television sets:

Data and information is transmitted via a TV channel the same way the channel is used to
broadcast conversional TV programs. The most common types of data transmitted via TV
include:
(i) Tele text:
  Is a system for sending out information using ordinary television signals. It is
computerized such news and other information are provided on TV screens to
subscribers. TV is configured using a special adapter. The subscriber can browse for
information using a remote controlled device.
 The user can receive data but cannot send it. Also, the user cannot interact with the
computer because it is a one- way communication (simplex)

(ii) Videotext (view data):

 This is an interactive computer information system where the telephone is used to
link users to the host computer and can transmit text and graphics. It uses a computer
to transmit data to user’s screens.
 Is a two- way communication service half duplex over a telephone line or cable TV
channel.
 A subscriber can interact with the service provider database and the information is
displayed on home TV screen.
 You have to pay a subscription fee to use this system.
 View data is generally slow and it sometimes takes a lot of time to open. The
telephone charges are quite high.
 View data is used in reservation bookings, ordering for goods and services, sending
e- mails etc.

(d) Video conferencing (popularly referred to as web cab technology.)

This is a communication method that uses cameras to transmit live pictures, tables and
graphs so as to allow several people at different locations to hold a meeting over a
network. Video conferencing communication is popular in TV broadcasting stations
where a field reporter interacts with newscasters.
The mode of processing is real time because you have to communicate in full duplex say
you are holding a meeting.

Hardware required for video conferencing

A video camera, digital camera or web cam.
A microphone
An Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) and a Digital to Analogue Converter
(DAC) with compression for video and sound
Satellite dish
ISDN/ADSL / midband / broadband
Speakers
Remote control
Video bridge

Applications of video conferencing:

 Remote learning.
 Conducting interviews and conferences to persons who are located far away without
incurring traveling expenses.
 Sharing and exchanging information on business technology, politics and leisure.

Advantages:
 People in different places can link up to see and hear each other. This saves the time
and cost of traveling to meetings.
 Meetings can take place without one leaving the office.
 Meetings can be arranged at a short notice.
 Participants can still attend meetings even if they are physically unable e.g. weather
preventing them from traveling.
 You can even send text messages to a lecturer over a long distance in real time.

Disadvantages:
 It provides low quality pictures.
 It may not be as productive as a face to face discussion round a table.
  Meetings may be disrupted due to a technical failure.
 Setting up the whole system is quite expensive.
 It may not be necessary for confidential documents e.g. a contract to be viewed and
signed in- person.

(e) Tele communications or tele working:

 This is a system where you work from home rather than traveling to your work
everyday using a computer connected to the workplace network.
 It is a situation whereby an employee works usually at home using a computer
connected to the workplace network. This method takes advantage of the growing
communication networks to reduce unnecessary travel to the place of work.
Advantages:
 Reduce unnecessary travel to workplace.
 Reduce travel expenses and inconveniences.
 It gives great employment opportunities for the disabled people
 Employers save the cost of office space, heat and light
 People can recruit from a wider geographical area.
 Employees becomes very productive and this benefits the employer a great deal.
Disadvantages
- Managing the workplace can become a problem
- It is difficult for unions to monitor workers and fight for their rights
- It will be difficult for employees to separate work and home lives
- Work may be distracted at home.
- Workers may find it difficult to work in teams
- Insecurity because of hackers and viral attacks
- Isolation and lonely of employees.

(f) Internet:
Internet transmits huge amounts of information in form of words, images and sounds.
Some of the services available on the internet are:-
(i) World Wide Web (www):
WWW refers to a collection of web pages which may be made up of text, images,
animations, sounds and video held on web servers. One can access information using a
computer or other devices like mobile phones.
NB: for a mobile phone to be used to access the internet, it must have a wireless
application protocol. (WAP)

(ii) E- mail:
This is a system that allows a person to type out a text message on his/ her computer. Once
you subscribe for internet services through a service provider, you can send or receive e-
mails to or from anyone connected to internet using a computer or a WAP- enabled cellular
phone.
Advantages of E- mail
 Sending messages is much faster.
 It is cheaper.
 You can send one message to a number of people.
 You can send attachments.
 The message arrives almost immediately.
 One can send replies immediately.
 Graphics and text can be electronically transmitted and placed in a document by the
recipient.
 Some E- mail systems will notify you when an e-mail has been read by the recipient.
 If your message does not reach its destination, you are immediately notified.

Disadvantages:
 You can only send letters and attachments but not physical objects like parcels.
 You must subscribe to ISP
 Sending e-mail messages can be expensive when lines are busy.
  Not all businesses or homes have equipment for sending e-mail.
 You may end up getting a lot of mail that you do not need i.e. spam or junk mail.
 Unless you make a new email alert, you have to remember to check your mail box.

7. INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM:
(a) Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Manufacturing. (CAD or CAM):
 Is the use of a computer to help in the drawing of designs from which objects are
going to be manufactured or constructed. In CAM or CAD, the computer is involved
in all the stages from design to manufacture.
 One application of CAM is the use of robots to carry out assembly line operatives. A
robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in carrying out
operations that would otherwise be hazardous, repetitive and boring to a human being
e.g. welding, lifting heavy objects, spray painting of vehicle bodies, removing red hot
materials from furnaces etc.
(b) Industrial simulation:
This allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and dangerous in real life
situation to be put under test e.g. a plane crash test simulation with the use of a visual model on
the computer screen that represents the real situation or object.

(c) Modeling:
Computer modeling is the creation of electronic representations of objects or ideas, computer
model shows what something might look like when the real thing would be too difficult or too
expensive to create and visualize.

Advantages of using a simulation or a model:

 People are not put in any danger as the system is studied.
 Predictions can be made about the future behavior.
 Model can be run slowly to study carefully the effect which happens too quickly to
observe clearly in the real system.
 No equipment is damaged.
 Modifications can be done easily and re- tested quickly.

(d) Process control:

This is the automatic monitoring and control of an industrial activity by a computer that is
programmed to respond to feedback signals from sensors. Or ;
Refers to the use of a computer system to control an on- going physical process especially in
manufacturing e.g. regulating temperature, fluid flow, etc. it is mostly used in petroleum
refineries, chemical plants and other manufacturing companies to manage machine intensive
processes
Advantages
There is immediate response when needed
Fewer employees are needed to run the process
The system can work all day – every day.
The computerized system keeps people away from dangerous processes.

Disadvantages
It can lead to unemployment as fewer employees are needed
The initial cost of the system may be expensive.

8. SCIENTIFIC AND RESEARCH SYSTEMS:

(a) Weather forecasting:
Modern weather forecasting have been automated using computerized systems, hence weather
predictions are more accurate and reliable. The data collected are analyzed with the help of the
computer to predict the weather patterns. Also computers are used in geographical information
system (GOS) and the geographical data in graphical form by positioning and superimposing it
on the world map.
 (b) Medical research:
 The health care industry uses computer based information systems for data processing
operations such as patient billing, accounting, inventory control, calculation of health
care statistics etc. computers are also used to control devices that help to care for the
handicapped such as the deaf, blind, etc.
 Expert systems are also used to assist physicians in making diagnosis because they can
remember more facts than human doctors can.
 An expert system: is an interactive system that generates conclusions from captured
data by comparing it with a set of rules held in a knowledge base database.
(c) Military and space:
The computer technology responsible in the military growth, space science and exploration by
extensive use of computers.

9. LIBRARY SERVICES:
(a) Lending services:
Computerized library system manages the issuance and return of borrowed reading materials.
Books, magazines, reports etc. are given unique identification numbers or codes. Member’s
details are recorded once a book is borrowed and updated when the book is returned to reflect
new status.

(b) Inventory control:

Computers are used to manage stock which includes checking for books currently in shelves
and those on high demand that need adding and also those that become obsolete can be retired
to archives.

(c) Cataloguing:
Computerized catalogues have replaced manual card catalogue which enhance service delivery
and efficiency. The electronic catalogue is updated constantly when new reference materials are
acquired.

10. ENTERTAINMENT SYSYEMS:

(a) Music and video:
In music industry computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing and adding special
effects to music. In video industry, computers are used to produce highly simulated and
animated movies, generate scenes and actors.

(b) Games:
Three dimensional multimedia games are now possible on personal computers. There are
computer games that simulate sports e.g. driving, war combat, etc. such games give the player
maximum pleasure in a virtual environment on the screen.

11. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS:

(a) Air traffic control:
Airports and airstrips have been computerized. Computers are used to monitor air traffic
movement, take off and landing of crafts. Computers are used for air reservations and also to
direct aircrafts to follow the shortest path between two locations.

(b) Shipping control:

Computers are used to load and offload and also in docking of ships. Records are also handled
with much ease at the ports.

(c) Automobile traffic control:

Computers are used to control both human and motor vehicle traffic using a computerized
lighting system. These lights are controlled using a computer system or a clock switch.
Computerized traffic light systems have sensor pads laid underneath the road which detect the
pattern of the traffic flow. The collected data is sent to a computer which detects and analyses
the traffic flow.
12. OFFICE EXPERT SYSTEMS:
 It is a computer program that performs some tasks as human experts.
 Is software that stores the knowledge of human expert and are used as consultant in a
particular field.
 The system is capable of simulating the decision making process and intelligent
problem solution just like a human expert. It also has a set of rules that help it make
conclusions when some parameters are entered.

13. MARKETING:
(a) Electronic commerce (E- commerce)
E- Commerce has changed the way in which goods are sold. A large number of dot com
companies have cropped up that operate solely from the internet. Even supermarkets are selling
goods and arranging home delivery via the internet. Therefore e- commerce involves the
carrying of day- to- day transactions of an enterprise electronically through the internet.

(b) Electronic Presentation:

Marketing agents can create exciting presentations concerning the products of a business and
present them to audience using presentation software.

(c) Advertising:
It is possible to create advert materials and video clips using simulation, presentations and
animation software and then have them displayed on billboards, broadcasted over television or
place them in internet.

14. VIRTUAL REALITY OR ARTIFICIAL REALITY:

Is a kind of computer simulation that constructs models of real world environments. The computer
user can interact with the environment by wearing special components namely:
 The headgear or boom
 The glove
 The body suit.
Other names of virtual reality are: cyberspace, virtual world or virtual environments.
(a) The headgear/ boom.
A headgear is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that channel images and
sound from the source to the eyes and ears thus presenting a stereo three dimensional sound
effect in the virtual world. The wearer of the headgear is able to look around in the virtual
world.
(b) Gloves:
They are worn on the hands and allow the user to navigate through the virtual world and
interact with virtual objects. The gloves have sensors that collect data about the movement of
the hands and relay the data into the system. They give the wearer a sense of touch in the
virtual world.
(c) Body suit:
Is made of conductor wires wound in a rubber suit. The wires sense the body movement and
relay the data into the virtual reality system which in turn adjusts the position of the user in
virtual reality world.
(d) Virtual reality software:
This software gives the wearer of the sensory devices an interactive virtual sensory experience
that makes him/ her feel as if he/ she is in a real world.

Applications of virtual reality

 Is used to represent any three dimensional object or ideas that are real or abstract. Real
objects include: buildings, landscapes underwater shipwrecks, spacecrafts, human
anatomy, sculptures, crime scene reconstruction, solar system etc.
e.g., a house can be simulated before the actual building is physically set up. A client
can be allowed to virtually move through the house, pull drawers and touch objects all
in a computer generated environment.
 Other applications of virtual reality include entertainment, training in areas such as
medicine, military equipment operations, education, design evaluation, prototyping,
 simulation and assembly of sequences, assistance to the handicapped etc.
 Computer games
 Architecture
 Surgery
 Engineering design
 Education
 Medicine
 Commerce

15. LAW ENFORCEMENT SYSTEMS:

Crime has become very sophisticated hence immediate and accurate information is very crucial on
crime detection, biometrics analysis which is using a computer and a biometric device to recognize
features of human body parts like finger prints, iris color, facial features etc. some of the devices
that can be used here are video cameras and biometric scanners.

REVISION QUESTIONS:
1. (a) What is meant by computer Aided Manufacture? (2 marks)
(b) Give two examples of Computer Aided Design software. (2 marks)
2. (i) What is simulation? (1 mark)
(ii) Name two application areas of simulation. (2 marks)
(iii) State two advantages of Computer Based Simulation. (2 marks)
3. Explain two ways in which ICT can enhance commerce. (2 marks)
4. describe the following network services and identify their application:
(i) Voice mail. (2 marks)
(ii) Video conferencing. (2 marks)
5. distinguish between the following:
(a) tele text and videotext.
(b) CAI and CAL.
(c) e- learning and CBS.
6. i) What is tele working? (1 mark)
ii) State three advantages and two disadvantages of tele working. (5 marks)
iii) Give four examples of the expert system. (4 marks)
7. Explain the concept of biometric analysis. (2 marks)
8. Explain why computers have become important in library management tools.
(2 marks)

3. IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ON

SOCIETY.
The demands of modern world are such that if you are left behind in ICT, then operating becomes
almost impossible therefore ICT dominates everything in influencing our lifestyle both positively
and negatively.

ISSUES RESULTING FROM THE USE OF ICT:

A number of issues have risen as a result of use of ICT. These issues include:
1. Effects on employment:
ICT has had a great revolution in employment resulting in creation of new jobs, replacement of
computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.
(i) Job creation
ICT has introduced very many jobs dominated by the youth that never existed before. Staff have
had to be retrained or new ones employed to adapt to the changing demands on ICT skills. It has
been indeed bad news for those who are not always ready to learn new ideas. Several jobs have
come up in different areas like computer operators, programmers, network administrators,
information technology or information science managers, database administrators, software
developers, system analysts, etc.

(ii) Job replacement {one loses the job}

This is a situation whereby certain old jobs disappears in an organization but appears in another
form requiring more and high skilled manpower. Examples of job replacements include:
manufacturing and assembly work in industries is now done by robots, bank notes are counted by
bill counters faster and more accurately, shop assistants use point of sale computers to check out
shoppers, pay rolls are done automatically using accounting programs which previously involved a
number of wage clerks.

(iii) Job displacement { no loss of job, one is shifted to section/departments computer skills not
required}
This is the true process of placing manpower with computerized machines and an employee is
moved to another place or department where computer skills are not required e.g. a data clerk
reduced to an office messenger. However, to avoid losing competent employees in- service training
may be done.

2. AUTOMATED PRODUCTION
This involves computerization of production processing industries i.e. The use of computer aided
production which does not require high manpower.

Advantages of using automated production

 It reduces the cost of production because of the efficiency of the machines.
 It leads to improved quality of services and better range of products.
 Has helped in reduction of accidents in sectors like mining and chemical production
where much work is potentially hazardous.
 Efficient utilization of resources e.g. raw materials, personnel, equipments hence less
operating expenses are incurred.
Disadvantages
 It may lead to unemployment in some areas that are labor intensive.
 High initial cost of setting up an automated system.
 People may be cynical( feel that pos are overrated and it takes much effort and time
to learn and use them), naïve or frustrated by technology.
(i) Downsizing and outsourcing
Downsizing means reducing size of the workforce in an organization and consolidating or
eliminating some operations. Automation enables companies to downsize and remain
competitive, profitable and efficient. In the process, in the business jargon, organizations have
“flattened the hierarchy” by reducing the levels and numbers of middle managers therefore
fewer people are doing the same amount of work done before downsizing.

Outsourcing means constructing outside business or services to perform the work once done
in- house. Contractors do the work more cheaply and efficiently. Therefore, downsizing has led
to outsourcing of non- core services for example organization contracts a transport firm to ferry
 its stuff instead of using company transport i.e. budget buses (nrb) are constructed by several
companies to ferry their workers.

3. ISSUES OF WORKER’S HEALTH

Despite all the positive contribution of computers, they too affect on our health negatively. Some of
the health issues arising from prolonged use of computers are:
(i) Repetitive Strain injuries(RSI)
This is where people suffer from aches and stiffness of tendons and ligaments in the arms and
shoulders and tingling of fingers due to repeated physical movements.
Solution: use ergonomically designed keyboards with wrist supports. Take regular breaks.

(ii) Eye strain and headache

Since computer users have their eyes at cross range with the monitor, there is danger of developing
the computer vision syndrome(CVS) or cataracts. All these are caused by poor screen positioning,
glare from the screen and light reflection from interior lighting and sunlight.
Solution; use adjustable screens, antiglare filters, diffused interior lighting and window blinds.

(iii) Electromagnetic emissions

There are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are emitted by current- carrying conductors.
Solution: computer users are advised to use low emission devices in order to avoid exposing
themselves to excess emissions.

(iv) Stress and general fatigue

This is caused by prolonged sitting in front of the computer. Also people who work at computer
feel that they are expected to produce more and do faster because computers themselves are faster.
Too those been monitored by computers frequently feel additional pressure.
Solution: taking short breaks every hour of working with computers.

(v) Isolation
People can conduct business and communication without ever coming face to face. Computers
workers can work by taking the instructions from computer screen, sending and receiving memos to
each other electronically without engaging in personal conversation. These people feel isolated
from other workers.

(vi) Radiation and Visual Display Unit

There have been reports that VDU emit radiations that cause birth defects, blindness, cancer,
miscarriages, and sterility etc.

(vii) Computer chip toxin

Workers in computer chip manufacturing industries are exposed to toxic chemicals that may pose
hectors similar to those feared from VDU.

(viii) Back problems

Caused by poor posture when working with computers.
Solution: use adjustable (swivel based) screens, chairs and if need be, foot and back rest.

Ergonomics: science of designing the work place for the comfort and safety of the workers. This is
a study of how living and working conditions can be adapted to the information technology. The
need for better working environment has resulted to designing of special furniture to prevent
backaches, special monitors to prevent eye- strain etc.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL
(i) Environmental pollution
Huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts, printers ink toner cartridges, monitors and other
computer accessories are disposed in large fills hence causing environmental pollution and leaking
into underground water tables and catchment areas.
 (ii) Energy consumption and radiation
Initially, computers consumed a lot of energy hence generated a lot of hear and emitting
electromagnetic radiation. In recent years, the environmental protection agency (EPA) launched
energy star policy to encourage minimal use of power of electronic devices.

5. CULTURAL EFFECTS
The introduction of computers and particularly the internet has had a very negative impact on some
users. It has actually made them to engage in criminal or immoral practices. ICT has changed the
way we talk, affected our privacy, human rights and integrity. Examples include:
o Watching pornographic materials which is morally wrong and institutions should use filters to
block such sites.
o Flaming which is writing online messages that use derogatory obscene or dirty language.
o Credit card fraud when using e- commerce where customer’s credit card details have been made
public.
o Hacking- which is unauthorized access to companies/ banks/ users files and possible
manipulation of data. Hackers are also called superhighway thieves or computer junkies.
o Spreading viruses- certain users enjoy spreading viruses either for personal interest or financial
gain.
o Compromising moral integrity through use of computers to forge certificates, passports and other
documents.
o Data sabotage - hacking illegal destruction of data and information into a rival company where
you may delete or attempt eaves- dropping.
Tapping without authorization into communication lines over which computer data and messages are
sent.
o Piracy- making unauthorized copies of copyrighted computer software.
o Manipulating stored personal data e.g. removing a criminal record.

Solutions:
Several legislations have come up to protect computer based data e.g.
 The electronic communications act in 2000 (mainly for e- commerce)
 The copyright act which was amended in 1996.
 Designs and patents act of 1998.
 Data protection act of 1998.
 Computer act of 1990.

Therefore, at times it is a matter of personal conscience that can help user decide on whether our act is
right or wrong. This is what computer ethics is all about.

Evolution of computer systems

Future trends in information and communication technology will be characterized by:
(a) Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.
(b) Artificial intelligence.
(c) Expanded information superhighway.

(a) Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software

 Future trends will see reduction in size and cost of components but increase in capability.
 The capacity of a computer is becoming larger and larger with reduced physical size and
cost.
 Microprocessors of a thumb size can now execute instructions in a trillionth of a second.
 Digital voice storage devices to advance in technology rather than the MP3 variations and
the iPod.
 More and more business to switch to online interactions with customers.
 Education will have to gear itself to training students to computer-assisted services rather
than teaching them physically.

(b) Artificial intelligence (AI)

AI can be defined as
  The ability of computers to think and reason as human beings e.g. seeing and hearing,
learning, reasoning and communicating etc.
 The technology of making computers perform tasks that would require intelligence if
performed by a person.
 The study concerned with using computer hardware and software to simulate human thought
processes such as imagination and intuition.
Application areas of artificial intelligence:
(i) Expert systems:
- Is software that stores the knowledge of human experts and is then used as a consultant in a
particular field.
- It is also a computer program that performs the same task as human experts. E.g. to help
doctors diagnose patients.

Components of an expert system

a) Knowledge base:
Is the expert systems’ database of knowledge about a particular subject e.g. an expert system on
financial planning is developed with the aid of an expert financial planner. It contains relevant
facts, beliefs and procedures for solving a particular problem.
b) Inference system:
Is software that applies the rules from a knowledge base in the data provided by the user to draw
conclusions.
c) User interface:
This displays the screen that enables the user interact with the system.

Examples of expert systems:

Mycin: Used to diagnose blood and meningitis infections.
Prospector: Used in predicting mineral deposits in certain geographical sites.
Delta: used to help people repair diesel electric locomotive.
Xcon: gives advice on how to configure a VAX computer system.

Advantages of expert systems

 Can perform some tasks faster than humans.
 Can easily identify faults in equipment.
 Data can be kept up to date.
 Is always available 24 hours and will never retire.
 Easily used to keep records of certain events.
 The system can be used at a distance over a network.
 They are cheaper in cost.
 They draw conclusions strictly based on the available information very precisely.

Disadvantages:
 Make mistakes and they do not learn from them.
 Are difficult to build.
 They require a lot of space.
 Human beings can easily become slaves of it.
 Heavy usage of expert systems can make experts to lose their jobs.
 Can only be built with the help of experts alone.
 Lack of human touch.

(ii) Natural language use:

This is the ability of a computer to understand human language and translate it to instructions,
which the computer can understand. The problem of natural language is that sometimes they may
be ambiguous and be interpreted differently by different people. Before using them, the computer
program must be trained to recognize the voice and pronunciation of words by the user.

(iii) Voice recognition:

Is a system that will allow voice input. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. A few
systems can’t satisfactorily perform this task because of:
  Words with similar sound i.e. pronunciation e.g. hear, here.
 One word with multiple meanings e.g. sack (type of a bag/ dismiss a worker.)
This is useful to people who can’t enter data in the normal way like blind, handicapped people etc.

(ii) Voice synthesis:

Are machines that are able to create human voice to talk e.g. a computerized bank teller giving you
your account balance in human like voice. E.g. samahani mteja hapatikani, u don’t have enough
credit to complete the call, etc in mobile phones.

(iii) Artificial neural networks:

Is the use of electronic devices and software to emulate the neurogical structure of the human
being. Also are computer system that draw from and emulate the structure of the brain in terms of
neurons and synapses.
The idea is to try to emulate the cognitive learning process of the brain and how it recognizes
patterns. The human brain works by receiving signals from special sensory cells called neurons.
Artificial neurodes in neural networks work in similar manner by perceiving stimuli and hence
decide whether to pass it on to the system or not.

Applications of neural networks.

- Fraud detection in credit card transactions.
- Machine diagnosis.
- Process modeling and control.
- Voice recognition.
- Medical diagnosis i.e. assisting doctors with their diagnosis by analyzing the reported
symptoms or image data such as X- rays.

6. ROBOTICS
Robotics is the study, design and use of robots.
A robot is an automated device used to perform tasks that are difficult and dangerous for a human
being. Also a machine that is designed and programmed to perform a specific set of tasks without
human interactions.
Perception systems are sensing devices that emulate the five common senses of a human being i.e.
sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste.

Types of robots:
Types of robots include mobile robots, industrial robots, perception robots.
They can be found in these areas:
 Manufacturing industry.
 The military.
 Space exploration.
 Transportation.
 Medical applications.

Uses of robots
o Perform dull and difficult jobs like lifting heavy objects, painting, handling chemicals and
welding, automobiles and manufacturing industry i.e. car manufacturing.
o High risk jobs, in design field, space-based robots.

Advantages of robots
 They can work 24 hours, all year round without getting bored or taking a break.
 Can work faster with high productivity than human beings.
 The output is of consistently high quality.
 Performs repetitive tasks that are monotonous to human beings.
 Are more accurate than humans.
 Can work in conditions that would appear hostile or dangerous to humans such as under water
and in radioactive environments.

Disadvantages
  They are expensive to build, install and maintain (too expensive to buy and operate).
 They are not flexible as they are designed to do one job.
 The robot may malfunction and cause a lot of chaos or a batch of faulty goods e.g. water
heaters all with electrical faults.
 They cause job replacement.
 Evil people may use robots in war to manipulate biological material.

Components of a robot
A robot is made up of:
 A microprocessor to process the data from the sensors.
 Actuators and mechanical parts e.g. motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, gears. These help
robots to move or operate external devices.
 Sensors – for visional sight.

Expanded information superhighway:

- This includes the integration of cables and wireless technologies for the purpose of data
and information transmission.
- Fiber- optic cables are used to carry millions and millions of data items per second.
- Information superhighway mainly deals with communication on a large scale base on cable
networks and more sophisticated wireless communication. It is aimed at making
communication more efficient and reliable.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss these applications of computers in our lives (4 marks)
Medicine
Commerce
Education
Military
2. (a) Explain with examples the following effects of computers on employment:
(i) Job creation (2 marks)
(ii) Job replacement (2 marks)
(iii) Job displacement (2 marks)

(b) What is artificial Intelligence? (2 marks)

(c) Explain the following areas of artificial intelligence:
(i) Expert system (2 marks)
(ii) Natural language processing (2 marks)
(iii) Robotics (2 marks)
(d) Name one type of robot. (1 mark)