RLE 5020

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 6
Topic: Control of pests and diseases

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Outline

● Importance of control of pest and diseases

● Management Strategies and Tactics (Concepts)
○ Avoidance
○ Exclusion
○ Eradication
○ Immunizing or improving the host resistance
○ Direct protection by biological, chemical and physical
control measures
● Chemical pesticides
○ Types
○ Mode of actions and environmental impacts

2
Main References

● Paolo G and Giovanni N, eds. 2013. Infectious Forest Diseases.

CABI, UK.
● 曾德賜。2015。農藥藥理與應用：殺菌劑。2018年11月初版。國立中
興大學出版中心藝軒圖書出版社。
● The American Phytopathological Society. (2021). Plant Disease
Management Strategies.
https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/disimpactmngmnt/topc/Epidemiolog
yTemporal/Pages/ManagementStrategies.aspx

3
Importance of control of pest and diseases

For forest management/ ecology

● It is one of the factors that impact forest structure and composition
(other factors: fire, drought, flooding, erosion, air pollution, animal
damage)
○ Tree diseases cause considerable mortality, growth loss and
disturbance in the world’s forest ecosystems

For agriculture
● Increase the quantity and improves the quality of plant product
available for use

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 How to control ?

General flow:
● Detection > survey > design and implement disease management >
monitor

Design and implementation of disease management require knowledge

of
● Infection biology (ability of spread, host ranges, spread method and
scale, production, release, dispersal, deposition, viability of inoculum,
effects of environmental factors. on the above processes)
● Epidemiology (the development of pathogen control strategies,
disease triangle)
● Use of models in managing forest diseases and developing risk maps
(to predict the rate of spread of diseases, the effects of climate
change, determine strategies to be used)

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 Management Strategies and Tactics

The concept here is

developed from the
perspective to forest diseases

For cavity-nesting birds,

mammals, reptiles

If the impact of a
disease is anticipated
to be low/ want to
create a wild-life habitat

6
Strategies v.s. Tactics

Strategies
● a specific approach to reach a particular objective

Tactics
● the specific actions for implementing a given strategy

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 (2013)

https://health.tfri.gov.tw/fhsncMedia/downloads/hkb2014.pdf 8
1. Avoidance

Strategy
● prevent disease by selecting a time of the year or a site where there is no
inoculum or where the environment is not favorable for infection

Actions
● Thinning at times of the year, when spores are not present or will not be
able to infect the host
● Avoid to use substrate that favor pathogens to grow. E.g. sandy soils for
Heterobasidion annosum
● Avoid to plant susceptible plants in high-risk area

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After removal of infected trees

Since pathogens may remain in soil/ plant debris for

a certain period, after removing the host, do not plant
susceptible host to the high risk area immediately.
Or, we could plant resistant plants

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Survival of P. noxius in naturally
infected roots in the field after the
death of the host plant

- Survived for 6 to > 10 years

(Chang, 1996)
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 2. Exclusion

Strategy
● prevent the introduction of inoculum

Actions
● Quarantine
○ restrain the transport of materials that may harbor pests(e.g. import of
live trees & forest products)
○ involve legal regulations and penalties
● Remove soil from the imported products
○ Effective to against soil born pathogens, esp. root diseases caused by
Phytophthora spp. since it spreads by swimming spores in the soil
● Best management practices (BMPs)
○ Stopped to use gravel from dead and dying forest areas for roads,
disease extension was markedly reduced.
○ Stringent hygiene measures in nurseries
○ fungicidal treatment of vehicles, tools, boots which may carry
contaminated soil from nurseries to the forest 14
Best management practices (BMPs) for BRR

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 3. Eradication

Strategy
● eliminate, destroy, or inactivate the inoculum

Actions
● Apply chemical treatment or physical removal of infected substrates: e.g.
removal and burning of insect brood material to prevent spread of Dutch elm
disease
● Stump removal using a backhoe with a thumb and fumigation for
structural root diseases such as Armillaria root disease, laminated root rot
○ remove most of the infected root material and no stumps remain to harbor
inoculum, generally not necessary to completely remove the stump from
the site, just push the stump out of the ground and upturn them to dry out
the wood and reduces the inoculum over time, esp. for fungi that tend to
spread mostly by vegetative means, but not effective for fungi which can
produce fruiting bodies on stumps, e.g. H. annosum, thus, removal of the
infected stumps and roots are advisable
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 3. Eradication
Actions
● Soil trenching to reduce inoculum and the spread of pathogens
● Clear cutting to reduce the incidences of obligate parasite
○ e.g. dwarf mistletoes, decay and canker fungi
○ not effective to pathogens that can spread in a long distance e.g. rusts
● Fumigation: place fumigant in holes drilled in infection area
○ effective to pathogen in bare-root forest nurseries, root diseases, parasitic
nematodes and weed.
○ Mostly use gaseous fumigants e.g. methyl bromide/ chloropicrin, metam
sodium
○ once a fumigation cycle is started, beds usually have to be re-fumigated every
few years because pathogens can readily build up their populations and
cannot easily be eradicated.
○ Many fungicides also decrease the ectomycorrhizal development
○ methyl bromide has been phased out in 2005 since it causes environmental
problems while bromine is releases from the break down of the compound
and deplete ozone
● Use of tarping material (water-proofing flim)/ soil pasteurization by solar
irradiation in warm climates and steam/ hot water treatments 17
18
細小的枝條和殘根均應仔細撿除，樹頭及殘
根送焚化爐銷燬

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 4. Immunizing or improving the host
resistance
Strategy
● utilize cultivars that are resistant to or tolerant of infection.

Actions
● Genetic resistance: breeding for resistance, or genetic engineering
○ there is great concern about the potential effects of introducing genetically
modified plants into landscapes
● Tree species selection: most pathogens have specific hosts or a range of
susceptible hosts. Particularly important to root diseases.
○ Western red cedar or Douglas-fir could be planted as an alternative species
to Port Orford cedar in areas with Port Orford cedar root disease
○ In areas with laminated root rot, redcedar, wetern white pine or western
redcedar could be planted as alternatives to Douglas-fir.
○ For pathogen with wide host range, it is not effective. E.g. Armillaria root rot

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 (Farid A. M. etal., 2009)

(Wu J. etal., 2011) 23

? 24
 5. Direct protection by biological, chemical and
physical control measures
Strategy
● Prevent diseases from occurring or to slow the rate of spread of established
diseases
Endosphere: All the endophytes of a plant.
Rhizosphere: the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly
influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms
Actions
● Biological control measures:
○ Control of disease by the application of biological agents to a host that
prevents the development of disease by a pathogen.
○ Biocontrol agents are usually bacterial or fungal strains isolated from the
endosphere or rhizosphere
○ Limited options available at the moment.
● Chemical control measures:
○ Chemical barrier to protect the host plant and/or eradicate an existing
infection.
○ Have been used widely
○ E.g. seed treatment, sprays on foliage, stump treatment, eradication of
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soil-born diseases
 5. Direct protection by biological, chemical and
physical control measures
Actions
● Physical control measures
○ Control diseases by physical methods:
■ Pruning – reduce the incidence of branches, canker, rust, vascular
diseases; improper pruning may induce more diseases like fungal
decay on wounds
■ Fertilization – urea fertilization may increase the impact of foliage
diseases but may reduce root diseases
■ Prescribed fire – less foliage and root diseases, but if burn is not hot
enough, some root rot diseases may increase sine the inoculum is
not eliminated well
■ Heat treatment – steam sterilization of soil/materials; soil
solarization, heat treatments
■ Cold treatment - refrigeration
■ Moisture management - reducing humidity; drying out of bulbs,
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tubers, etc.
 Temp, moisture, wind, light, soil
pH, soil structure, plant nutrition,
herbicides, air pollutants
Pathogens differ with respect to the
Affect the growth and resistance
kinds of plants that they can attack,
of the host plant and the rate of
with respect to the organs and tissues
growth or multiplication and
that they can infect and with respect
degree of virulence of the
to the age of the organ or tissue of
pathogen, and dispersal by wind,
the plant on which they can grow
water, vector and so on.

(Agrios, 2005)
Resistance of host
Growing season of the plant
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Shortcoming of the principles
● The principles aim to reduce the incidence of disease to be zero. But,
it is not possible and we need not eliminate a disease; we merely
need to reduce its progress and keep disease development below an
acceptable level.

● The principles do not take into consideration the changes in the

incidence and severity of disease in time and space.

● The principles tend to emphasize tactics without fitting them into an

adequate overall strategy.

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 Tactics for the Reduction of Initial Inoculum
● Avoidance—reduce the level of disease by selecting a season or a site
where the amount of inoculum is low or where the environment is
unfavorable for infection

● Exclusion—reduce the amount of initial inoculum introduced from outside

sources

● Eradication—reduce the production of initial inoculum by destroying or

inactivating the sources of initial inoculum (sanitation, removal of
reservoirs of inoculum, removal of alternate hosts, etc.)

● Protection—reduce the level of initial infection by means of a toxicant or

other barrier to infection

● Resistance—use cultivars that are resistant to infection, particularly the

initial infection

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 Tactics for the Reduction of the Infection Rate

● Avoidance—reduce the rate of production of inoculum, the rate of infection,

or the rate of development of the pathogen by selecting a season or a site
where the environment is not favorable

● Exclusion—reduce the introduction of inoculum from external sources

during the course of the epidemic

● Eradication—reduce the rate of inoculum production during the course of

the epidemic by destroying or inactivating the sources of inoculum (roguing)

● Protection—reduce the rate of infection by means of a toxicant or some

other barrier to infection

● Resistance—plant cultivars that can reduce the rate of inoculum

production, the rate of infection, or the rate of pathogen development

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 Tactics for the Reduction of the Duration of
the Epidemic

● Exclusion—delay the introduction of inoculum from external sources

by means of plant quarantine

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What disease(s) did you meet?
How would you control it?

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Chemical pesticides

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Definition of chemical pesticides

Cap. 133 Pesticides Ordinance

● Pesticide (除害劑) means—
a) any insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, acaricide or any substance (whether
organic or inorganic) or mixture of substances used or intended to be used
for preventing, destroying, repelling, attracting, inhibiting or controlling any
insect, rodent, bird, nematode, bacterium, fungus, weed or other form of
plant or animal life or any virus, which is a pest; or
b) any substance or mixture of substances used or intended to be used as a
plant growth regulator, defoliant or desiccant,

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 Definition of chemical pesticides
Cap. 133 Pesticides Ordinance
● but does not include—
1) any purely mechanical device for trapping or catching insects, rodents or other animals;
2) any purely electromagnetic or ultrasonic device for the control of mosquitoes, rodents or
other pests;
3) any antiseptic, disinfecting solution or preparation in clinical or sanitary applications that is
neither specified in Schedule 1 nor in Part 1 of Schedule 2; (Amended 14 of 2013 s. 3)
4) any pharmaceutical product within the meaning of section 2 of the Pharmacy and Poisons
Ordinance (Cap. 138); and (Added 79 of 1990 s. 4. Amended 14 of 2013 s. 3)
5) any insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, acaricide or any substance (whether organic or
inorganic) or mixture of substances described in paragraph (a) or (b), if—
A. it is neither specified in Schedule 1 nor in Part 1 of Schedule 2;
B. it is contained in an individual package or container and does not exceed 10 g or 10
mL; and
C. it is used or intended to be used indoors—
1. for laboratory research;
2. for chemical analysis; or
3. as a reference standard; (Added 14 of 2013 s. 3) 35
斯德哥爾摩公約 鹿特丹公約

36
Types of chemical pesticides

Classification based on targeted pest species

● Insecticides: prevent insects or other anthropoids
● Fungicides: control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust
● Herbicides: kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, aka weeds
● Miticides: control mites that feed on plants and animals. (Mites are not
insects)
● Rodenticides: kills rodents like mice, rats, and gophers.
● Plant Growth Regulators: alter the growth of plants. For example, they
may induce or delay flowering.
● Nematocides: control nematodes
● Algicides: kill and/or slow the growth of algae

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Types of chemical pesticides
Classification based on the types of formulation
● Liquid: Soluble concentrates (SL), Emulsifiable concentrates (EC),
Emulsions, oil-in-water (EW), Aqueous capsule suspensions (CS)
● Solid: Granules (GR), Dispersible Powder (DP), Tablets (DT)
● Gaseous: Gas (GA), Gas generating product (GE), Vapour releasing
product (VP)

To know more types:

● Catalogue of Pesticide Formulation Types and International Coding
System, Technical monograph No. 2, 6th Edition, May 2008; CropLife
International, Brussels.

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Types of chemical pesticides

Classification based on the toxicity

● Acute toxicity
● Chronic toxicity
● Delayed toxicity

* There is nothing non-toxic

* Toxicity related to dosage, body size, age and timing.

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 Types of chemical pesticides
Classification based on when to use and impact
For fungicide
● Protectant: mainly non-systemic pesticide, mostly for prevention
○ Apply before the occurrence of disease or early stage of infection to prevent
the sporulation and invasion of spores.
○ Many protectant can be therapeutic agent and eradicant.
○ Application area is larger
○ Apply in higher concentration.
● Therapeutic agent: apply after symptoms appearing
○ After absorbed by plant, systemic fungicides move inside the plant and
suppress the development of hyphae to archive therapeutic result;
○ mostly systemic fungicides
○ diverse types
○ mostly is protectant and eradicant
○ high host-specificity
● Eradicant: apply before the infection and occurrence of symptoms to eliminate
and eradicate the existence of pathogens in growing environment.
○ Effective to those pathogens having overwinter characteristic
○ mostly non-systemic fungicides, but some are good in filtration. 40
Types of chemical pesticides

Classification based on chemical structure

● Organochlorines
● Organophosphorous
● Carbamates
● Pyrethroids
● …….

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 Mode of action (MOA) refers to the specific
cellular process inhibited by a particular pesticide.

Types of chemical pesticides

https://www.frac.info/home
Classification based on the mode of action
●

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Types of chemical pesticides
Classification based on the mode of action https://irac-online.org/about/resistance/management/

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Which kind of pesticides did you use the most?

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Amount of different types of pesticides used in 2018

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Amount of pesticides used worldwide

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Amount of pesticides used in Asian countries

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 Pros and cons of pesticide

Benefits
● Rapid curative action in preventing economic loss, crop losses, yield
reduction
● Vector disease control e.g. mosquitoes on malaria
● Wide range of properties, uses, and methods of application
● Relatively low in cost
Limitations
● Environmental damage to non-target organisms (natural enemies, honey
bees, wildlife, man)
● Ecological problems (hermaphrodites, species extinction)
● Soil and water contamination
● Efficacy of control programs (The “Three R’s”: Resurgence, Replacement,
Resistance)
● Biomangnification/ bioaccumulation
(Hayes T. B. et al., 2002; Sharma A. et al., 2019; AKTAR M. W. et al., 2009)
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Ideal Pesticide

● Effective only against the specific target organism

● Non-persistent
● No environmental harm (non-toxic to other living organisms)
● No resistance induced
------------
The Reality of Pesticide
● Less than 1% reach the target
● Remainder distributed in the environment

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(黃榮南老師, 2018) 50
Parties/ legislations that manage pesticides in Taiwan
Registration of pesticide

Applicant Accreditation Governing body

Body

• Any person • Government - • Government -

農業藥物毒物 農業藥物毒物
試驗所 試驗所

Pesticides Testing and Assessment

• 農業藥物毒物試驗所
• 大學檢驗中心

農藥殘留容許量標準
• 衛福部

Announcement of testing results:

• 農糧署定期公布「田間及集貨場蔬果農藥殘留檢驗結果」
• 食藥署定期公布「市售農產品農藥殘留量監測結果」 51
52
 ://otserv2.tactri.gov.tw/PPMhttps/

• 輸入作物名字/ 病害名字
• 用藥方法
• 安全採收期

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 https://pesticide.baphiq.gov.tw/web/Insecticides_MenuItem5_3.aspx

• 輸入農藥名字 • 禁用農藥
• 用藥方法 • 許可證登記
• 核准日期 • 作用機制
• 安全採收期
• 原始登記廠商名稱
• 農藥使用範圍 (施用在非列表上之
作物即違規)
• 農藥法令 54
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 • 物理化學性質
• 各國法規
• 毒性試驗結果
• 風險評估準則

● https://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Law/PesticideList.aspx?nodeID=520&tk=1

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Parties/ legislations that manage pesticides in Hong Kong

Registration of pesticide

Applicant Accreditation Governing

Body body
• Any person • Government • Government
- AFCD - AFCD

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Parties/ legislations that manage pesticides in Hong Kong

Pesticides related regulations

● Rotterdam Convention (《鹿特丹公約》)
● Stockholm Convention (《斯德哥爾摩公約》)
● Cap. 133 Pesticides Ordinance
● Cap. 133A Pesticides Regulations about application for registration of
pesticide
● Cap. 60 Import and Export Ordinance

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Mode of actions of chemical pesticides
and environmental impacts
Take home message: the mechanism of fungicide on pathogen

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Mode of actions of chemical pesticides

● Fungicide Resistance Action Committee

https://www.frac.info/
● Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC)
https://irac-online.org/
● Herbicide Resistance Action Committee
https://www.hracglobal.com/
● Rodenticide Resistance Action Committee
https://rrac.info/

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https://www.frac.info/

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MOA Code ● Different letters (A to P, with added numbers) are used
to distinguish fungicide groups according to their
biochemical mode of action (MOA) in the biosynthetic
pathways of plant pathogens.
● The grouping was made according to processes in the
metabolism starting from nucleic acids synthesis (A) to
secondary metabolism, e.g. melanin synthesis (I),
followed by host plant defence inducers (P), recent
molecules with an unknown mode of action and
unknown resistance risk (U, transient status, until
information about mode of action and mechanism of
resistance becomes available), and chemical multi-site
inhibitors (M).
● Fungicidal compositions of biological origin are grouped
according to the main mode of action within the
respective pathway categories. 65
Target Site ● Biochemical mode of action
and Code ● In several cases the precise target site may not be
known.

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Group ● Listed based on chemical relatedness of structures
which are accepted in literature (e.g. The Pesticide
Name Manual).
● They are based on different sources (chemical
structure, site of action, first important representative in
group).

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Chemical or
Biological ● Grouping is based on chemical considerations.
Group Nomenclature is according to IUPAC and Chemical
● More specific
● Abstract name. Taxonomic information may be used for
agents of biological origin.

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Common ● British Standards Institution (BSI)/ International
name Organization for Standardization (ISO) accepted (or
proposed) common name for an individual active
ingredient expected to appear on the product label as
definition of the product.

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Comments ● Details are given for the (molecular) mechanism of
on resistance and the resistance risk.
Resistance ● There is increasing evidence that the degree of cross
resistance can differ between group members and
pathogen species or even within species.
○ Cross resistance: when a pest population develops
resistance to more than one pesticide within a
chemical family

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(Photo resource: https://slideplayer.com/slide/7083114/) 72
MoA code MoA
A Nucleic acids metabolism
B Cytoskeleton and motor proteins
C Respiration
D Amino acids and protein synthesis
E Signal transduction
F Lipid synthesis or transport / membrane
integrity or function
G Sterol biosynthesis in membranes
H cell wall biosynthesis
I Melanin synthesis in cell wall
P Host plant defence induction
U Unknown mode of action
M Chemicals with multi-site activity
BM Biologicals with multiple modes of action
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M Chemicals with multi-site activity

● Generally no drag resistance

● Large environmental impact
● Relatively large impact on non-target organism
● Relatively large amount used per unit area
● Cheap

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 M Chemicals with multi-site activity
M1 Inorganic copper
● Widely apply to fungal and bacterial diseases
● E.g. Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate + quick lime (calcium oxide 生石灰))
● Mechanism:
○ a certain concentration of copper ions causes toxic effect to plant cells.
○ to archive toxic effect and prevent phytotoxicity to plant, it requires
specific dosage and relatively insoluble form.
○ Therefore, most of the inorganic copper is in insoluble powder form and
release copper ions gradually.
● Since the solubility is low, it is not easy to wash out copper and prolong the
protective period of fungicide Phytotoxicity: a delay of seed germination, inhibition of
plant growth or any adverse effect on plants caused
● Safety: by specific substances (phytotoxins) or growing conditions
○ Relatively safe. (REAL CCS, 2014)

○ No specific personal protective equipment required.

○ Based on regulation of US Environmental Protection Agency, US-EPA,
inorganic copper (like Bordeaux mixture, Copper acetate 醋酸銅) does
not have ADI (acceptable daily intake).
○ Have to aware accumulation in soil, for example, since copper was
applied to canker of citrus tree for a long time in Florida in US, there 76
was toxic effect in soil.
 M Chemicals with multi-site activity

M2 Inorganic Sulphur
● Because of rich in minerals, cheap in price, and wide range for
application, it is the most ancient fungicide that is still in use.
● Mostly apply: powdery mildew disease ( also can kill mite and insects)
● Main three types
○ powder (Sulphur power that containing 1-5% clay or talcum powder)
○ mobile gelatinous (wet paste that can mix with water easily)
○ wettable Sulphur (mixture of sulphur powder and wetting agent, can
mix with water easily)
● E.g. Lime sulphur (mixture of lime (calcium carbonate石灰石), sulphur
and water)
● Mechanism:
○ Active agent mainly is calcium sulphur (CaSx), which interacts with
oxygen and carbon dioxide to form sulphur granule and is gasifed as
sulphur vapor, which can interfere the respiration of pathogen and
insects and eradicate them.
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 M Chemicals with multi-site activity

M3 Dithiocarbamates
● To compare with the old inorganic fungicide, this organic
synthetic fungicide has following benefits:
○ Higher efficiency, wider application, lower amount
required for application, Longer persistence
○ Safer to crops, human being, domestic animal and
environment
○ Lower phytotoxicity
○ Easier to be degraded by soil microorganisms, and thus
won’t accumulate in soil
○ More convenient for application
● Mechanism: The anion of dithiocarbamate is metabolized and
form isothiocyante, which reacts with the copper (Cu2+) ions
and -SH functional group of proteins, and suppress the activity
of proteins
● Nabam (鋅乃浦) is biotransformed easily and form Ethylene
ThioUrea (ETU), which is carcinogenic to animals. Nabam is
banned by USEPA.
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M Chemicals with multi-site activity

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 M Chemicals with multi-site activity

M4 Phthalimides
● Lower toxicity and better performance, wide application
● Non-systemic, but somewhat locally systemic (滲透移行性)
● Mostly spray on leave
● Mechanism:
○ Main toxophore (毒性基) is –SCCl3, with multi-site function; cause
death of pathogen due to the suppression on –SH functional group
of enzymes and formation of ammoniacal nitrogen氨氮
● Long term use may have carcinogenic effect. One of the phthalimids,
folpet was banned since 80’s.

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 A Nucleic acid synthesis

A1 RNA Polymerase I: Combine with RNA Polymerase I complex to interfere

with ribosomal RNA and inhibit the synthesis of protein; suppress the growth of
hyphae once hyphae start to develop
● Less efficiency during germination of spores since ribosomal buffer is higher
in cell
● Specific to oomycetes

A2 Adenosine deaminase: Suppress the activity of enzyme, so purine

degraded from nucleic acid cannot be reused

A3 DNA/ RNA synthesis: Suppress the synthesis of DNA/ RNA; physically

protect the crops from infection and promote the formation of callus

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 B Cytoskeleton and motor proteins
Microtubule is a tubular protein in eukaryote that formed by
heterodimers composited of α-tubulin and β-tubulin; it provides
the rigid, organized components of the cytoskeleton that give
shape to many cells

B1 β-tubulin assembly in mitosis: highly selectively combine with β-tubulin of

microtubule and suppress the synthesis of microtubule and destroy the
metaphase of mitosis; and thus, suppress the germination of spores and
malformation of hyphae
● Extensive fungicidal effect on Ascomycetes, Deuteromycota,
Basidiomycetes
● high pesticide resistance, cross resistance among the pesticide in the same
type

B3 β-tubulin assembly in mitosis : Suppress the production of zoospores

and mitosis during spore germination/ suppress the germination and production
of zoospores and development of hyphae/ suppress the polymerization and
respiration of microtubule

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 C Respiration
● Require relatively low amount for application, wide application
● Unique mode of action, low toxicity, environmental friendly
● Mechanism:
○ The main site of action is mitochondria
○ Sporulation requests the most numbers of mitochondria for respiration
among the life cycle of fungi. It is the best timing to suppress the
sporulation by inhibiting the respiration.
○ Inhibit the electron transmission on inner membrane of mitochondria,
which causes overflow of electrons and activate oxygen free radicals.
Abundant oxygen free radicals separate cytochrome c oxidase from the
inner membrane. The release of cytochrome c oxidase causes
programmed cell death
● C6, inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation, ATP synthase
○ Fentin acetate (三苯醋鍚)
● Teratogenic (致畸胎)
● Toxic to aquatic life
● Taiwan banned in 1999 83
 D Amino acids and protein synthesis

● D1 methionine biosynthesis (cgs gene): Suppress methionine

biosynthesis, thus inhibit the metabolism of amino acid, synthesis of
protein, synthesis of metabolite, and cell division

● D2 Protein synthesis (ribosome, termination step): Combine with

large subunit of ribosome to suppress the elongation of peptide

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E Signal transduction

● Signal transduction is a process by which a chemical or physical signal is

transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events. During the
process, protein phosphorylation is catalysed by protein kinases, which
ultimately results in a cellular response.
● E1 : signal transduction (mechanism unknown)
● E2: MAP/Histidine-Kinase in osmotic signal transduction (os-2, HOG1)
● E3: MAP/Histidine-Kinase in osmotic signal transduction (os-1, Daf1)

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• The fungicide signal is perceived by the HHK
of class III, which transmits the signal to the
osmotic MAPK cascade via the histidine-
phosphate transfer protein (HPT) and the
response regulator (RR).

• Fungicide, phenylpyrrole, treatment ultimately

leads to MAPK-phosphorylation and activation
of an adaptive response either through
transcriptional activation in the nucleus or
through the regulation of cytoplasmic proteins.

• Mainly affect the germination of spores

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 F Lipid synthesis or transport / membrane integrity
or function
Phospholipids are major structural components of all
cell membranes and participate in energy storage,
signal transduction and environmental adaptability in
eukaryotes

F2 Phospholipid biosynthesis-methyltransferase: inhibit the activation of

phosphatidylethanolamine (a class of phospholipids) by methyltransferase, and
inhibit the formation of phosphatidylcholine (PC), which is critical for fungal
vegetative growth.

F3 cell peroxidation: causes lipid peroxidation and inhibit the respiration and
disrupt the function of mitochondria

F6 microbial disrupters of pathogen cell membranes: Bacillus subtilis

generates toxic antibiotic substance to bacteria, fungi, and insects, e.g.
substance that disrupt the cell membrane of fungi like fungicidal lipopeptides,
iturins, surfactins

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 G Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibitors, SBIs
Sterols are key components of cell membrane. It is
important to maintain the stability of membrane structure
and permeability, and function of sex pheromone

● Polyketide pathway is the main sterol synthesis pathway for all kinds of fungi
(includes Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes, Basidiomycetes) to produce the
sterols that they need. Acetyl CoA mainly is the precursor of the synthesis of
sterols in fungi (mainly ergosterol in true fungi).
○ G1, DeMethylation Inhibitors (target site: C14-demethylase in sterol
biosynthesis (erg11/cyp51)
○ G2, Inhibit enzymes in sterol synthesis (target site: Δ14-reductase and
Δ8 to Δ7-isomerase in sterol biosynthesis (erg24, erg2)
○ G3, Inhibit enzymes in sterol synthesis (target site: KRI fungicides
(KetoReductase Inhibitors))
○ G4, Inhibit enzymes in sterol synthesis (target site: squalene-
epoxidase in sterol biosynthesis (erg1))
● No inhibitory effect on spore germination (the process does not require
ergosterol) or oomycetes(they do not produce sterols by themselves, but
uptake from others)
● Demand of SBI-fungicides is large since it can control many fungal diseases 88
(most of the fungal diseases are caused by true fungi)
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 H Cell wall biosynthesis

H3 trehalase and/or inositol biosynthesis: Inhibit the synthesis of trehalase

and inositol through suppressing the decomposition of trehalose and
transportation of glucose to the tip of hyphae, which causes the abnormal
branches of hyphae and restrict the development of fungi.

H4 Chitin synthase: act as competitive inhibitor of chitin synthase

● Great concern on the application of antibiotics on agricultural industry
because of the resistance of human-use antibiotics

H5 Cellulose synthase: target at Oomycetes

● Frequently occur resistance

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 I Melanin biosynthesis

● Fungi synthesize melanin. The existence of melanin in cell assists

fungi in overcoming unfavorable environment
● In fungal cell, melanin mainly exists in cell wall and surrounded by
stroma
● Benefit of melanin in cell wall
○ may not be degraded easily by the enzymes (glucanase or
chitinase) released by microorganisms in soil so that fungi can
exist in soil
○ Develop penetration peg to penetrate host cell for invasion

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Mechanism: suppression on melanin biosynthesis in formation of
appressorium inhibits the invasion of pathogen
● I1, #16.1 reductase in melanin biosynthesis
● I2, #16.2 dehydratase in melanin biosynthesis

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 P: Host plant defence induction

● Fungicide would not kill fungi by itself, but inducing plant defense
system to gain systemic acquired resistance, SAR
● Less probability to have fungicide resistance
● Protectant

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● Plant defence system includes Systemic Acquired Resistance
(SAR, salicyclic acid mediates), Induced systemic resistance (ISR,
Jasmonic acid and ethylene mediate). SAR is mostly induced by
avirulent necrotic pathogen and host incompatible recognition or
specific elicitors. ISR is mostly induced by damage from herbivores,
any mechanical injuries, or non-pathogenic rhizobacteria.

● P1 salicylate-related benzo-thiadiazole (BTH)

● P2 salicylate-related benzisothiazole
● P3 salicylate-related thiadiazole-carboxamide
● P4 polysaccharide elicitors natural compound
● P5 anthraquinone elicitors plant extract
● P6 microbial elicitors microbial
● P7 phosphonates
● P8 salicylate-related isothiazole
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