Module 1 UNDERSTANDING PHILOSOPHY AND ITS BRANCHES The Essence of Philosophy Philosophy The term philosophy is derived from

the Greek words, philos and sophia which means lover of wisdom. Bittle defined philosophy as science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by human reasoning. Meanwhile, Pion defines philosophy as the science of things by their ultimate principles and causes as known by natural reason alone. Philosophy is a science Science is systematized body of knowledge based on evidence. Philosophy like science and all branches of science, it is also based on evidence. Science of things Philosophy is concerned with everything in the world as far as human mind can reach, from the microscopic particles to the giant mountains. Ultimate principles and causes All branches of science have their own special focus. Philosophy explores the ultimate and final cause of a thing. Known only by natural reason Philosophy does not use a piece of equipment. The Philosopher uses his natural reason, particularly, human reasoning.

Philosophy and Theology Man as a rational being, makes decisions or draws conclusion according to his reasons. He uses knowledge, and looks for objective evidence in his dealing with reality. However, along with mans rationality are his limitations to comprehend the meaning of vast totality of the universe. Christianity recognizes miracles, occurrence that science cannot explain. Theology comes in eventually. Man asserts and strengthens his faith in his ascent to find the truth. Man uses philosophy for rational explanation and uses theology for moral surety. Essence of Philosophy Philosophy does not teach anyone how to become rich or how to reach the moon. Like art, it is not concerned with practicalities of human life. Its essence is to teach man how to have a happy life. Divisions of Philosophy

Speculative It is the division of philosophy which involves real life application. It

includes the following: Epistomology Metaphysics Anthropology Theodicy Aesthetics Rational Social

 Political Cosmology Practical It is the division of philosophy which involves real life application. It includes the following: Ethics Logic Branches of Philosophy Logic It is the formal and systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Ethics The branch of philosophy dealing with the concepts and principles of morality, including such theoretical questions as the source and foundation of morality, the status and justification of moral rules, the relationship between moral and other human objectives, and the nature of responsibility. Epistemology It is the branch of philosophy dealing with the theory of knowledge; its sources, limits, kinds and reliability. Cosmology

It is the scientific study of the universe on the largest scales of space and time, particularly the propounding of theories concerning its origin, nature, structure and evolution. Metaphysics It is the traditional branch of philosophy dealing at the most general level with the nature of existence. The term is popularly used to refer to the supersensible, beyond the realm of experience. Aesthetics/Ethics It is the philosophical investigation of art. Aesthetics now deals with such issues as what it is for an object or a performance to be a work of art. Theodicy It is he defense and vindication of God, defined as both omnipotent and good in the light of evil in the world. Understanding Some Philosophers Christian Philosophers St. Thomas Aquinas He is a scholastic philosopher and a theologian, was born in 1225 at Castle Roccasecca, Aquino, Italy. He died in 1274 and was canonized in 1323.

Happiness according to his philosophy is not in this world, but in union with God alone. Things found in this world cannot make man perfectly happy.

From his book drew the principles that of all animals in the world God has given man the unique power to change for the better. Transformation means changing for the better.

If a man leads a righteous life, he can soar to greater heights and achieve immorality. He is best known for his two Philosophical treaties that try to combine

and reconcile Aristotles scientific rationalism with the Christian Doctrine of faith and revelation. Summa Contra Gentiles Summa Theologiae St. Agustine He was born on November 13, 354 in Tagaste, Numidia. His father was a pagan but later became a Christian, and his mother was Monica. As a writer, he was prolific, brilliant, persuasive and intelligent. For St. Augustine, man is created by God hence, God is the supreme good. For this Christian philosopher, human happiness can be found in God alone. St. Augustine is best known for his writings which include: Confessiones (The Confessions) De Civitate Dei (The City of God) De libero Arbitrio (On Free Will) De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine)

Baptismo Contra Dotistas (On Baptism Against the Donatistas) De Trinitate (On the Trinity) De Nature at Gratia (On the Nature of Grace) Homilies

Greek Philosophers Socrates He was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher and credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He was born in Athens in 469 B.C.

For him, knowledge is virtue, ignorance is vice. Ignorance is the opposite of knowledge, and ignorance is evil so man commits evil because he does not know any better.

For him, to be happy is to know thyself. It means knowing your weaknesses and things that you must follow in order to live a happy life. Socrates is well known today for his Socratic method, in which one asks

for a concept and elicits contradictory responses, finally exposing the ignorance of the responder until deeper inquiry about the concept is made. Plato He was probably born in Athens to an aristocratic family in 428 B.C. He traveled widely and around 367 B.C. He founded his academy in Athens. Philosophy

According to Plato a perfect man does not exist in this world because what we see in this world is just an imperfect copy of mans original self

in the realm of ideas. The real thing exists in the world of ideas, which alone is universal and immutable. Perfect happiness is the result of virtue, which in turn, is wisdom or true knowledge. Writings of Plato The Republic His Dialogues: Symposium, Gorgias, Phaedo, and Apology

Aristotle He was the Athenian student of Plato, was born in 384 B.C. He was a naturalist and he became the adviser of Alexander the Great. As a teacher, he became influential in the fields of logic, ethics and anatomy.

According to Aristotle, if you do something bad you feel unhappy. Such unhappiness is a product of an act that is not guided by reason but by emotion. In order to be happy, the philosopher said, one must act according to reason. For Aristotle, in order to live a perfect and happy life, one should practice and live what is good.

To be happy, Aristotle said, man must live in virtue. Aristotle founded a famous school named The Lyceum. It contributed

much to the development of Western science and philosophy.

Other Philosophers Confucius He was a Chinese philosopher born in the state of Lu, and married at early age of 19. Before becoming a teacher in 531 B.C., He worked as a local administrator. Peace, harmony and happiness are achieved because everything in the universe follows nature. Man being part of the universe, must follow nature to attain happiness. Conflicts in life of man take place because of his other components which oftentimes contradict each other. But conflicts triggered by these human element can be resolved if a person strictly follows reason. Reason regulates the life of man. Emotion most of the time, contradicts reason. The duty of man is to control emotion in favor of reason and to achieve peace. His ideas on social reform made him popular and he became a model of the people. Karl Marx He was a German political philosopher, born in Trier, Germany on May 5, 1818 and educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin and Jena. He was a co-founder with Friedrich Engels of scientific socialism For Marx, the poor have to struggle against the rich who own the means of production and the wealth of society. As society turns classless, everyone then works for everybody. Man has to work for the state.

Module 2 EXPLAINING THE NATURE OF LOGIC Logic Defined It is the formal and systematic study of correct thinking and reasoning. Formal refers to how an argument is being formed or organized. Systematic refers to the standardization of knowledge of the principles governing correct thinking. Limits of Logic Practical things, such as how to become rich or how to reach the moon, are beyond the range of Logic. Logic provides man with the skill and power of good reasoning. Importance of Studying Logic The person who has studied logic has a convincing argument or reasoning. He can spot the Fallacy in another peoples argument and can immediately form an artistic reasoning. Some benefits of studying logic include the following: Ability to think clearly, systematically and critically Self-confidence when arguing with somebody Capacity to correct wrong arguments and to avoid them

Being broad-minded, sensible, reasonable, and practical in dealing and

establishing relationships with people.

Symbolic Logic Conclusion, cause, and how the cause brings out conclusion are the concerns of logic. All that involve arrangement cause and effect are part of logic. George Boole He was a son of self employed carpenter, trained to be a teacher, and learned mathematics to his father. In 1849, he was awarded the Royal Societys Medal for his work. His theory known today as Boolean algebra, formulate the principle of connection between electrical circuitry and algebra. It is very significant in the field of probability statistics. He developed the mathematical treatment of logic. One of his early works was the formulation of algebraic theory, but he was known for his theory Boolean algebra. Gottlob Frege He was born in Wismar, Germany and studied at Jena and Gottingen. His works that put him among the prominent proponents of symbolic logic include: Begriffsschift

Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik Grundgesetze der Arithmetik

Kurt Godel He studied mathematics at University of Vienna where he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1930. In his thesis, he proved that the first order-functional calculus is complete, that in first-order, every statement is provable or disprovable within the system.

Module 3 Differentiating Idea and Term

Forming Ideas

Common denominator is the single characteristics found in a certain

thing. Individuating notes are the other things found in a certain thing. The individuating notes never affect the common denominator

Forming an Idea Attention This is the activity of the mind in which it focuses on something that is being perceived or noticed.

Comparison This happens when the mind notices the similarities and differences of

the characteristics of the things being focused.

Abstraction This is the activity of the mind by which it singles out a characteristic or

several characteristics of the subject or thing being focused on.

Characteristics of an idea It is a representation Concept of the mind It is a representation of the wholeness of a thing

Properties of an Idea Comprehension It is the sum total of the attributes or notes by which the idea or concept is known. It is also a connotation. Extension This refers to the radius or bounds of the thing or object that an idea may cover. It is considered denotation. Classifying Terms Terms It is a sign It is like a mirror giving a mirror, giving a reflection of an image. The difference between idea and term is that, idea is in the mind while

term is outside of the mind

Divisions of Signs NaturaL signs These are natural entities that signify something. Conventional signs These are man-made, physical entities. Accidental signs These are entities that symbolize particular things or events that happened in the past. Kinds of Terms According to quantity I. Singular Proper nouns Nouns modified by adjectives in the superlative degree Demonstrative Collective Nouns The articles the, a, and an

II. Particular Indefinite pronouns and adjectives Number

III. Universal

The signs of universality are all, every, each, whosoever, whoever, whatever

According to incompatibility Contrary Terms in extreme opposites Contradictory There are no intermediaries or no possible settlement of the opposites. Privative Are opposite terms, one of which signifies perfection but the other denies such perfection. Correlative These are terms that have material relation to each other yet incompatible to each other to the point of excluding each other in the same relation.

According to definiteness of the meaning Univocal Applied in different contexts but expresses the same meaning Equivocal This is a term with two or more meaning.

Analogous This is term whose meaning can be partly the same and partly different

in at least two occurrences.