Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Review

Advances in mechanical properties of flexible textile composites

Ziyu Zhao, Bing Li, Pibo Ma *
College of Textile Science and Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, flexible composites have received wide attention for their unique properties, such as large
Flexible textile composites deformation, lightness, and fatigue resistance. By blending the appropriate flexible polymer with additives, the
Interface behaviors desirable properties of flexible composites can be obtained. The interface between the flexible polymer and the
Quasi-static mechanical properties
textile reinforcement has a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the flexible composites. In order to
Constitutive model
Dynamic mechanical properties
be applied in aerospace, building materials, and other fields, exploration of the mechanical properties of flexible
composites is necessary for basic research. This paper reviews recent research advances on the mechanical
properties of various flexible composites. Firstly, the interface and in-plane damage behavior of flexible com­
posites are introduced, and then the constitutive model of flexible composites is studied. Finally, the dynamic
mechanical properties and out-of-plane damage behavior of flexible composites are discussed to providing ref­
erences for the engineering application of flexible composites. The discussion presented in this paper will not
only summarize the research trend of mechanical properties of flexible composites, but also promote the
structural optimization design of flexible composites.

1. Introduction foldable characteristics. When the pre-stressing force is applied to the

flexible composites with constrained boundary conditions, it will obtain
Incorporating fibers or fabrics as reinforcement with resins is an specific stiffness and show considerable strength under the action of
effective approach for preparing high-performance composites that can high external stress. This feature makes it easy to transport and stock­
be used as suitable replacements for traditional engineering materials pile, which promotes their range of applications preferably over rigid
such as steel and concrete. The resulting materials are called textile textile composites [12,13].
composites with excellent characteristics, such as lightweight, high The combination of textile reinforcements and flexible polymers
specific strength, and high specific modulus [1,2]. These composites dramatically improves the mechanical properties of the composites in
have different applications in the pharmaceutical, construction, elec­ terms of tensile and impact strength [14–22]. The flexible textile com­
tronics, and automotive industries [3–6]. Textile composites are classi­ posites reinforced with fibers and fabrics further lead to the enhance­
fied based on their rigidity, that is, rigid textile composite and flexible ment of modulus and strength, improvement of thermal decomposition
textile composite. Flexible textile composite is defined as interconnect­ temperature, and a decrease in mass per unit area. In order to establish
ing composite networks composed of different flexible resins and tex­ the constitutive relations, the quasi-static mechanical properties of
tiles, or a combination between the membrane and fabric. Depending on flexible textile composites are the most frequently studied [23–26].
the reinforcing textile structure, flexible textile composites can be Currently, considerable attention has been given to the flexible textile
considered, forming foam/flexible resin-filled composites and multi- composites consisting of natural rubber (NR), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
textile layered flexible composites. Compared with rigid conventional polyurethane foam (PU), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polytetra­
composites, flexible textile composites exhibit significant deformation, fluoroethylene (PTFE), shear-thickening fluid (STF) and shear-
excellent load-bearing capacity, and superior fatigue properties. It has thickening glue (STG), etc. [27–40]. In addition, flexible textile com­
wide application prospects in high-performance industrial fields such as posites are subject to external environment debris, which might cause
construction, stratospheric airships, ship, cushioning airbags, modular damage to the flexible textile composite in the external application
pontoons, and tent skeletons [7–11], as shown in Fig. 1. Flexible textile environment. However, the research on the out-of-plane performance of
composites exhibit lower stiffness under low stress, which manifests as the flexible textile composite is still insufficient. Consequently, it is

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Ma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.116350
Received 18 January 2022; Received in revised form 25 July 2022; Accepted 7 October 2022
Available online 14 October 2022
0263-8223/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

necessary to deeply explore the impact resistance response and damage

mechanisms of flexible textile composite. The primary purpose of this
review is to summarize the research progress on the mechanical prop­
erties of flexible textile composites and to describe in detail their me­
chanical properties, such as tensile, tear, shear, constitutive structure
models, and impact damage. This review also puts forward the possible
development research trend on the mechanical properties of flexible
textile composites, which provides a reference for studying the struc­
tural design optimization of flexible composites.

2. Interface behaviors

High-performance fibers with high strength, high modulus, and light

weight have been widely used as reinforcements for composites. How­
ever, the surfaces of various high-performance fibers, such as aramid
fibers, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibers, and
carbon fibers, present chemically inert and react poorly with the reac­
tive radicals in the matrix, resulting in weak interfacial bonding strength
between fibers and resins. The composites are prone to interfacial
debonding and fiber slippage when subjected to shearing stress. The
deformation of the flexible interfacial layer can effectively relieve the
stress concentration effect, so that the reinforced fabric can effectively
carry the pressure in different directions. The deflection crack effects of
Fig.1. Application scenarios of flexible textile composite. multi-layer interphases are the crucial method to prevent further crack
propagation when the flexible composites are damaged, which can

Fig.2. (a) The micro schematic of strengthening effects of STF, STF-PU and PU [43]; (b) Penetration holes of neat aramid fabric, STF/aramid fabric, S5P2/aramid
fabric and S5P4/aramid fabric [43]; (c) The micrographs of water contact angle test and SEM for UHMWPE fibers, UHMWPE–PDA fibers, UHMWPE–PDA–EGDE
fibers, and UHMWPE–(PDA + EGDE) fibers [44]; (d) Illustration of procedure for preparing UHMWPE–(PDA + EGDE) fibers in ‘‘one-step’’ method [44]; (e) Images of
the ZnO nanowire grown aramid fabrics [45]; (f) Proposed formation mechanism of hierarchical interphase, SEM images of fracture morphology and schematic
models of interphase reinforcing mechanisms [46].

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

Fig.3. (a) Morphology of flexible laminated composites after tensile test and schematic of the flexible laminated composites [51]; (b) Breaking mechanism of
modified specimens with DIC technique and experimental observations on breaking mechanism of modified specimens in three loading directions [52]; (c) The
stress–strain model of the flexible composites [53]; (d) Comparison of elastic parameters-stress response surfaces between the weft and warp directions [53]; (e)
Schematics showing the deformation mechanism of on-axial specimens[54].

obviously benefit the toughening and reinforcing function of fibers. This demonstrated in Fig. 2(a), the gaps between the fibers are filled with STF
not only enhances the energy loss, but also increases the strength of the and PU, and the STF interfacial phase can be further thickened when the
flexible composite. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately evaluate the yarn is pulled out. This multi-layer interphase is an ideal interface state,
interfacial bonding behavior between the fibers and the matrix. where different interfaces can deflect cracks and prevent crack propa­
Furthermore, the optimum design of multi-layer interphases is one of the gation, respectively. The experimental results manifest that the STF-
keys to preparing high-performance flexible composites. impregnated aramid flexible composite with PU flexible interfaced
Liu et al. [41] prepared a modified water-based polyurethane layer maintained excellent flexibility and higher interface bonding
emulsion to improve the surface morphology of the carbon fiber. In strength (Fig. 2(b)). As illustrated in Fig. 2(c), the water contact angle
addition, the reactive groups in the polyurethane can participate in the for UHMWPE fibers changed from the initial 109◦ to 97◦ , which formed
curing reaction of the resin, which enhances the chemical bonding of the a continuous and uniform hydrophilic layer of poly (dopamine) (PDA)
interface. The ILSS value of the composite has reached 75.5Mpa, which and ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE) on the surface of UHMWPE
is about 17% higher than the unmodified composites. However, this fibers by modification. As shown in Fig. 2(d), Sa et al. [44] carried out
method is difficult to reflect the dynamic changes in the interface during PDA modification and secondary functional modification on UHMWPE
the experiment. The stress transfer behavior of the fiber–matrix interface fibers and successfully imported epoxy functional groups on the surface
was evaluated by combining different methods. Lei et al. [42] studied of the fibers. The single fiber pull-out test results indicated that the pull-
the interfacial stress distribution on the surface of Kevlar fibers with PVC out force of the UHMWPE fiber and rubber increased by 67.5%. Mala­
coating by using the synergistic approach of Raman spectroscopy and kooti et al. [45] found that a uniform nano-ZnO coating was formed on
fiber droplet tensile testing. The results showed that the PVC interfacial the surface of the aramid fabric treated by the surface thermal phase
layer could effectively alleviate the residual stress and significantly growth technology. The pull-out force of the single fiber was increased
reduced the axial stress of the composites. Wang et al. [43] compared by 66%, and the impact resistance during ballistic impact was greatly
the ballistic performance and interface bonding strength of the STF- improved. In addition, uniform nano-ZnO coating does not affect the
impregnated aramid flexible composite and the STF-impregnated foldability of the flexible composites (Fig. 2(e)). Lin et al. [46] manu­
aramid flexible composite with the PU flexible interfacial layer. As factured aramid fabric composite with lamellar interfacial phase

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

through water-based polyurethane and epoxy resin. Through SEM im­

ages of fracture morphology, it is found that the crack tips of the com­
posites with only the flexible interfacial layer will propagate along the
surface of the fiber. The interaction of the rigid and flexible interfacial
layers transferred the stress concentration region to the intermediate
modulus layer and prevented further crack propagation, thus improving
the interfacial adhesion of the composites (Fig. 2(f)).
It can be seen that the flexible interfacial phase can improve the
strength and toughness of flexible textile composites by balancing stress
transfer and distribution. The interfacial compatibility between the
textile and the matrix is one of the dominant factors in the mechanical
properties of flexible textile composites. In the subsequent research, the
nanomaterials that produce dense surfaces were selected to repair de­
fects and cracks on the fiber surface, and the simplicity of the flexible
interfacial layer was improved by constructing the graded interphase. It
appears to be pivotal in promoting the development of flexible
composites.

3. Quasi-static mechanical properties and in-of-plane damage

behaviors

The mechanical properties of flexible textile composites are

distinctly different from traditional engineering materials. It is necessary
to grasp the mechanical properties of flexible textile composites through Fig.4. Type of textile-reinforced structure from the manufacturing techniques.
rigorous experimental tests accurately. The stiffness of the flexible
textile composite will be enhanced under stress forces. It has strong composites consisting of Kevlar fabrics, nonwovens, and polyurethane,
nonlinear characteristics, viscoelastic nature, and anisotropic behavior. which have excellent flexibility without any delamination (Fig. 3(a)).
There are various mechanical parameters that contribute to under­ Hu et al. [52] studied the yield stresses stability of flexible textile
standing flexible composites and their characteristics, including elastic composites, Uretek 5893, reinforced with plain weave fabric in 0◦ , 90◦
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, tensile strength, elongation at break, tearing and 45◦ directions. The failure mechanisms and damage modes of
strength, shearing strength, and so on, which are basically obtained samples were also investigated through uniaxial monotonic tensile tests
through uniaxial and biaxial tensile tests. and uniaxial cyclic tensile tests. Fig. 3(b) demonstrates that the strain in
the warp and weft directions propagates along the middle of the spec­
3.1. Tensile behaviors imen, while the strain in the 45◦ direction propagates diagonally until
the specimen fracture. Chen et al. [53,54] conducted uniaxial mono­
The most common method used to test the tensile properties of tonic tension, monotonic cyclic tension and biaxial tension experiments
flexible textile composites is the uniaxial tensile test [47]. However, the on the flexible textile composites Uretek 3216LV to explore dynamic
investigation of the actual stress applied to flexible composites in engi­ changes of the elastic modulus under different stress ratios and deter­
neering applications shows that flexible textile composites are always in mined the tensile strength under uniaxial and biaxial tensile stresses
a state of multi-axial stress. It is necessary to conduct multi-axial tensile (Fig. 3(c)). Under different stress fields, the elastic modulus of warp yarn
tests on flexible composites to provide data closer to the actual stress- is greater than that of weft yarn. (Fig. 3(d)). As shown in Fig. 3(e), for on-
tensile conditions. Due to the high requirements on the test equip­ axial tension, the deformation of yarn and matrix is mainly affected by
ment, the damage to the specimen in the biaxial tensile test commonly tensile stress. In contrast, for off-axis tensile, the deformation of yarn
occurs near the clamping area, rather than the center of the sample. As a and matrix is mainly due to the coupling effect of shear-tensile stress.
result, this will cause the measured tensile strength of the specimen to be In general, the existing research mainly focuses on the effects of
inaccurate. Further promotion, research on multi-axial tensile testing factors such as size and shape on the uniaxial and biaxial tensile per­
apparatus plays an essential role in understanding the practical engi­ formance of flexible textile composite, while relatively few in­
neering application of flexible composites. vestigations have been conducted on structures other than plain woven
As early as 1976, research on biaxial tensile tests has begun. Rein­ fabrics. In fact, the textile-reinforced structures for flexible composites
hardt [48] investigated the influence of sample size and shape on biaxial are plentiful in design, including 3D woven, 3D braided, and knitted
tensile, and analyzed the effect of the size and chamfer of cross-shaped structures etc., as shown in Fig. 4. However, only woven and laminated
biaxial tension samples on the test results. It was found that the defor­ structures are currently used, which significantly limits the application
mation of the specimens under biaxial stress was lower than that under and development of textile-reinforced flexible composites. Therefore, as
uniaxial tension. Compared with uniaxial tension, the tensile strength the number of application scenarios increases, the development focus is
under biaxial stress is basically the same. In 2004, Kumazawa et al. [49] on achieving an effective design of mesoscopic and macroscopic struc­
carried out uniaxial and biaxial tensile tests on strip and cross specimens tures that meet the requirements of flexible composites in terms of
to obtain the basic properties of the flexible textile composites. They tensile strength.
found that although the yarn density was the same in different di­
rections, the warp direction of the sample was stronger. Bridgens [50]
proposed the uniaxial tension data could not be used to analyze the 3.2. Constitutive structure models
elastic parameters of biaxial tension. There is buckling and mutual
friction between the warp and weft yarns, which is an important reason The complex anisotropic characteristics of flexible textile composites
for the different performances in different directions. Lin et al. [51] brought uncertainty to the design of new textile composites with
analyzed the tensile strength of flexible textile composites at different excellent properties. Many scholars have designed a series of experi­
needling depths. The results showed that higher needling depths ments to summarize and fit the experimental data of flexible textile
contributed to increasing the tensile strength of flexible textile composites by considering different loading conditions to establish

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

Fig.5. (a) Stress-stress–strain response surface of PVDF-coated fabrics [55]; (b) Comparisons between model predictions and experiment data and burgers model
[58]; (c) Failure envelopes defined by different strength criteria [59]; (d) Restraint forces for the FCS under tensile load [60]; (e) Schematic diagram of the
stress–strain curve of PTFE coated fabrics [62].

constitutive structure models that can reflect the relationship between and damage modes. The accuracy of the proposed biaxial damage cri­
the various engineering constants. This type of constitutive structure terion was also verified. In the case of different stress ratios, the flexible
model is able to represent part of the characteristics of flexible com­ textile composites failed in a single and both directions (Fig. 5(c)). Bai
posites, and the combination of the finite element method can predict et al. [60] established geometric equations that can simulate the tensile
the mechanical properties of flexible composites more accurately. deformation of flexible composites and proposed a nonlinear tensile
Gao et al. [55] studied biaxial tensile testing of PVDF flexible textile analytical model for predicting large deformation ranges using an iter­
composites, and a new constitutive model was established to describe ative integration method. The load strength of samples can be calculated
the tensile fracture behavior of flexible textile composites by the com­ by varying the thicknesses of the model. (Fig. 5(d)). Guo et al. [61]
bination of shrinkage curves and stress ratio coefficients (Fig. 5(a)). Dinh studied the tensile strength of flexible composites from different di­
et al. [56,57] proposed a new elastic-plasticity model of PVC-flexible rections and proposed the failure stress criterion of multi-axial warp-
textile composites based on uniaxial and biaxial tensile test data, knitted flexible textile composites with a single-sided polyurethane (PU)
which is capable of reflecting the non-linearity and orthogonal anisot­ coated in uniaxial tensile tests, in which the coating thickness and the
ropy of the composite. The micro-geometric data of PVC-coated flexible number of fibers per unit area have a great influence on the mechanical
composites was obtained by X-ray CT scanning technology, and a properties of the composites. Xu et al. [62] raised a phenomenological
mesoscale finite element model was established. Under the action of model that can well predict the damage mode and tensile strength of
uniaxial stress, the PVC-coated flexible composites deform greatly in flexible textile composites by compiling data from monotonic tension
multiple directions. (Fig. 7(a)). As demonstrated in Fig. 7(b), the PVC- experiments and cyclic loading experiments (Fig. 5(e), Fig. 7(d)).
coated flexible composites subjected to off-axis tensile tests were However, these constitutive models cannot be applied to different
labeled. The off-axis tensile strain of PVC-flexible composites was flexible composites, but only to specific composites. It is difficult to
compared to verifying the accuracy of the model predictions using by establish a uniform and accurate expression for the deformation and
digital image correlation (DIC) technique (Fig. 7(c)). Zhang et al. [58] damage criteria of different types of flexible composites.
proposed an anisotropic constitutive structure relationship based on the Due to various factors, such as samples and test equipment, it is
study of the mechanical properties of PTFE-coated glass fiber fabrics difficult to grasp the details of flexible composites in the process of
flexible composites. The revised Burgers model was chosen to predict tensile deformation and damage. Therefore, the establishment of the
the creep behavior of this flexible textile composite in any direction finite element structural model of flexible textiles composites, combined
(Fig. 5(b)). Shi et al. [59] investigated the biaxial tensile properties of with the constitutive model, plays a vital role in promoting the study of
flexible textile composites used in inflatable airship structures and the damage mechanism of flexible composites. The finite element model
proposed a new Chen-Shi criterion by analyzing their experimental data is based on the yarn or fiber level to establish the microstructure of the

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

Fig.6. Microscopic models of coated fabric (a) Pierce model [63]; (b) Kawabata model [65]; (c) Stubbs model [72]; (d) Pargana model [75].

Fig.7. (a) The microstructure of the PVC coated fabric, stress–strain curves obtained from the uniaxial test in the fill direction of the PVC coated fabric: experiment
vs. homogenization and the displacement in the thickness direction of the coated fabric unit cell in the uniaxial tests [56]; (b) Overview of the membrane that was
used in the experiment [57]; (c) Strain in the fill direction on the membrane obtained from the experiment (left column) and the simulation (right column) [57]; (d)
Comparison the stress–strain curves and failure mode between the experimental data obtained and their counterparts obtained from the simulations [62]; (e) Strain
field in case load ratio 1:1 and Contour plot of displacement[80].

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Fig.8. (a) Tearing process of PVC coated fabric woven

structure in single directions [81]; (b) Tearing process
of PVC coated fabric woven structure in two di­
rections [81]; (c) Four characteristic regions of the
tearing stress-displacement curves obtained from the
typical tearing tests and typical tear propagation of
off-axial specimens [82]; (d) The analysis model of
envelope material specimen with SEN [83]; (e)Evo­
lution of the tearing delta zone of the flexible com­
posite during the tearing test [84]; (c) Typical tearing
propagation processes of different crack length cases
[85].

flexible textile composites, which needs to take into account the effect of method, which can well describe the viscoelastic properties of the
the crimp deformation in the reinforcement fabric and the friction be­ composite (Fig. 6(d)). Galliot et al. [78] investigated the biaxial tensile
tween the yarns and the polymer on the numerical simulation. Finite properties of PVC-coated flexible composites using finite element
element simulation can well reveal the meso-structure principles of the methods and their non-linear properties were explained by a simple
mechanical response of flexible composites. However, the number of finite element model with more satisfactory results. Mallikarachchi [79]
parameters required for the establishment of microscopic models and developed a unit cell model to analyze the mechanical properties of
the difficulty in obtaining model parameters limited its application in flexible composites and also investigated the effect of different lay-up
engineering analysis. angles on the mechanical properties of the material. Dinh et al. [80]
Peirce [63] was the first to propose a mesoscopic model for fabric proposed a finite element model considering geometric and material
structures, which assumes that the fiber cross-section is circular and the nonlinearities to predict the nonlinear tension behavior of flexible
bending stiffness of the fiber is zero. The effect of yarn crimping on textile composites, and validated the finite element numerical results
structural deformation is studied. Although the simulated results are using digital image correlation (DIC) (Fig. 7(e)).
different from actual performance for ignoring the yarn bending stiff­ In terms of theoretical models, constitutive structure models have
ness, they provide a fundamental approach to understanding the been proposed to analyze the tensile failure behavior of flexible com­
deformation mechanisms of flexible composites (Fig. 6(a)). Based on posites by scholars through the combination of mechanical parameters
Peirce’s model, Warren [64] proposed a modified fabric geometry model and mathematical analysis. However, the constitutive equations are
based on deformable yarns to predict the deformation of the sample only applicable to some simple cases. For relatively complicated load
subjected to uniaxial in-plane loading. Kawabata [65–67] presented and boundary conditions, it is theoretically impossible to solve the
analytical models for uniaxial, biaxial, and shearing deformation of critical loads. The above-mentioned finite element models are mainly
fabrics based on simple truss structure and found that compressive based on resin-matrix composites. The cross-sections of yarns are
properties are related to tensile strength (Fig. 6(b)). Testa et al. [68,69] assumed to be oval, circle, rectangle, polygon or a combination of two
developed a linear elastic and isotropic material model based on in- shapes, while the yarn paths are supposed to be straight lines or standard
plane tensile strain and bending deformation of PTFE flexible textile curves. However, the actual yarn model is the key to determining
composites, which is limited to solving flexible composites with iden­ whether the mesostructure finite element model can accurately predict
tical geometric parameters in the warp and weft directions. Chen [70] the deformation behavior of flexible composites. In fact, the meso-model
extended the work of Stubbs [71–73] (Fig. 6(c)) and Thomas [74] to of flexible textile composites is an extremely complex due to the inter­
investigate the inelastic properties of plastic deformation flexible textile action between yarns, which usually results in severe local extrusion
composites Uretek3216A. Pargana [75,76] established the woven lattice deformation. How to combine accurate meso-level finite element models
model based on experimental test results of PTFE-coated flexible com­ and new constitutive structure models of flexible composites is the focus
posite cross-shaped specimens. The model used non-linear elastic fric­ of future research.
tional units and rigid rod units [77] to simulate the mechanical behavior
of fibers and the coating model is assumed to be an isotropic plate
3.3. Tearing behaviors
element. Then, the calculations and numerical simulation results ob­
tained were relatively close to the actual values by the finite element
The tearing failure refers to the failure mode caused by the unstable

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expansion of cracks in the flexible textile composites due to its own or the shearing response of flexible textile composites.
external conditions when subjected to stress. The tearing strength is a There are still related scholars attempt to explore suitable shearing
critical evaluation index that must be considered in the structural design modulus test methods. Blum [86] proposed to measure shearing strain
of flexible textile composites. The double tongue method, the trape­ on cruciform specimens using the biaxial tensile method, which requires
zoidal method and the central crack method are mainly used to obtain the measurement of strain in three directions of flexible composites,
the tearing strength. Using the double tongue tearing method, the including warp, weft and diagonal directions. Colman et al. [87] carried
tearing failure process of the flexible composites is influenced by these out an experimental scheme for evaluating the shearing performance of
factors, including the interface between the fibers and the coating, the flexible textile composites subjected to biaxial tensile loads and vali­
tensile strength of the warp yarns, and the binding effect of the course dated the veracity of the experimental scheme on specimens. The shear
yarns. Moreover, it is difficult to predict the direction of crack expansion strength increased with an increase in biaxial tensile tension. Minami
by using this method. The central crack method may lead to brittle [88] et al. tested the shear modulus of flexible composites by applying
fracture or stress concentration damage at the crack endpoints. Brittle torsional loads. Galliot et al. [89] verified the validity of the proposed
fracture has no obvious characteristics prior to damage when the stress shear ramp method for flexible textile composites. The results of the
is loaded to a certain level. Stress concentration failure is the main shear ramp method were consistent with those of the common test
feature of the crack propagation before the failure of the sample, and the method and the shear performance of other samples can be tested. Cao
crack size increases with the increase in stress. Cracks would cause the et al. [90] studied the shear deformation of three flexible composites by
stress at the end of the sample to be much higher than elsewhere, which the cross-frame method and the biaxial tensile method. Gao [91] pro­
will reduce the tensile strength of the composites to varying degrees. The posed a new shear measurement method in which shear strain and
test results of this method are greatly affected by the size of the sample stress–strain curves were obtained from measurements based on the
cracks. The tearing damage patterns with the trapezoidal tearing relationship between deformation and stress of the PVDF flexible com­
method are characterized by unequal tensile fracture damage to the posites. As mentioned above, the shear modulus testing methods of
yarn. This method has a stable form of tearing damage, and it is less flexible composite mainly include the biaxial-extension test and cross-
influenced by other factors. frame test.
Bao et al. [81] revealed that the orientation and length of crack has a In general, there are no standardized experimental methods to test
more significant influence on damage morphological characteristics and the shear modulus of laminated and woven flexible composites. The
crack propagation of PVC-coated polyester flexible composites. The di­ optimal performance design basis under relevant parameters is not
rection of crack propagation is perpendicular to the direction of applied given.
stress. The strain and load distribution on the surface of the flexible
composites was obtained by analyzing the strain and tensile curves on 4. Dynamic mechanical properties and out-of-plane damage
the crack cross-section (Fig. 8(a), Fig. 8(b)). Chen et al. [82] found that behavior
the tearing strength of flexible composites was affected by the initial
crack length and loading rate. The tearing damage morphology was The emergence of textile composites has gradually replaced tradi­
mainly linear, zigzag and parallelogram, in which the crack length and tional metallic materials and has become an integral part of structural
direction have minimum effect on crack propagation (Fig. 8(c)). Meng components such as vehicles, airships, airplanes. Composites are sus­
et al. [83] proposed a tearing strength analysis model based on the forces ceptible to various external factors resulting in the reduction of load-
acting on warp and weft yarns, by which the tear strength of specimens bearing capacity. In order to guarantee the reliability of its safety per­
with different initial cracks can be predicted (Fig. 8(d)). Wang et al. [84] formance, the impact dynamics of composites have also gradually
conducted trapezoidal tear tests on flexible textile composites to inves­ become the research content of many scholars. Scholars have studied the
tigate their tearing failure behavior, where the tearing strength impact damage mechanisms and failure morphology of composites in
increased with an increase of the tearing triangle and a structural model terms of test methods, finite element models, punch shapes, and com­
was developed to predict the tearing load of the specimens (Fig. 8(e)). plex structures [92–107]. Impact damage is classified as high-velocity
Sun et al. [85] carried out a tearing experiment of PTFE-coated flexible impact (or ballistic impact) and low-velocity impact according to the
composites with central cracks and found that the tearing strength of the magnitude of the impact velocity. Penetration damage and interface
material mainly depended on the number of interrupted yarns in the tear delamination caused by high-velocity impacts are visible, which will be
triangle. The failure mode of samples with larger initial cracks is pro­ repaired punctually when attention is drawn to it. The impact damage
gressive damage failure. The increase of the off-angle between the caused by the low-velocity impact is manifested as matrix cracking and
thread and the direction of the force will lead to the enhancement of the interlaminar delamination. This damage spreads over a large area in the
buckling phenomenon of the yarn during the tearing process. The interior of the composite and leads to a significant reduction in the
existing tearing residual strength model was more accurate in predicting strength and stiffness of the composite due to the destruction of struc­
the effect of small range of tearing strain (Fig. 8(f)). tural integrity. Compared with rigid traditional reinforced composite
At present, many scholars have studied the tearing damage mecha­ laminates, the research on impact damage to flexible textile composites
nism and crack propagation direction of flexible composites with initial is slightly insufficient.
defects. However, the tearing fracture of flexible composites will be
accompanied by temperature changes in practical application scenarios. 4.1. Ballistic impact
Therefore, the systematic evaluation of mechanical behavior and failure
modes of flexible composites under different temperature conditions Ballistic impact damage is an important research element in struc­
should be energized. tural protection. After conducting ballistic impact tests, the energy ab­
sorption characteristics of composites with different structures are
3.4. Shearing behaviors analyzed and the microscopic damages of the flexible composites are
simulated by analytical models.
The flexible textile composites are often under multi-directional Ahmad MR et al. [108] analyzed the ballistic impact and puncture
stresses in practical application environments, and it is primarily performance of rubber-coated flexible composite and uncoated fabrics.
anisotropic materials with complex microstructures. Accurate estima­ It was found that the damage resistance of the flexible composite was
tion of the shearing modulus of flexible composites has significant im­ improved by increasing the resistance between the bullet and the fabric.
plications for their structural stability. However, the lack of accurate and Chen et al. [109] conducted wood projectile impact tests on PVC flexible
convenient methods for shearing properties has led to less research into composites and investigated the effects of projectile velocity, impact

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Fig.9. (a) Front and back view of perforation progress [109]; (b) Panels in high velocity impact tests with impregnated fabric and SEM images of Kevlar fabric
impregnated with 35 wt% STF [112]; (c) Deformed Kevlar 802F and Kevlar 363 fabrics after impact test with untreated and STF impregnated [115]; (d) A screen-shot
during the pull-out simulation, Von Mises stresses on the targets and projectile impact points in the experiments and simulations [117]; (e) The initial geometrical
configuration for a spherical projectile impacting on the center of Kevlar fabric, the macroscopic features of SN and simulation results of stress distribution during
impact [118].

location and boundary conditions on the failure morphology to deter­ longitudinal stress wave is reflected to the surroundings, causing the
mine the impact strength of PVC flexible composites for resisting wood bending deformation of the model edge. By testing different impact
debris. For high-velocity impact, the load-bearing area of the PVC velocities, it was demonstrated that STF increased the mutual friction
flexible composite was localized at the vicinity of the projectile, and the between yarns in the fabric, thereby improving the ballistic impact
transmission time of the stress wave was relatively limited. The performance of flexible composites (Fig. 9(e)).
enhanced boundary pretension forces could turn the impact area from a In summary, although the damage mode and energy absorption ca­
rhombus shape to a circle shape (Fig. 9(a)). Lee et al. [110] investigated pacity of flexible composites have been evaluated under ballistic impact
the ballistic impact resistance of Kevlar fabrics impregnated with shear- by scholars. Nevertheless, the influence of the void of flexible compos­
thickening fluid (STF). The results showed that Kevlar fabrics impreg­ ites on their mechanical properties was not considered. Based on the
nated with STF revealed significant improvement in ballistic resistance limitations of the experimental conditions, numerical simulation of
while maintaining well softness. The shear-thickening effect of STF mechanical properties through idealized finite element models is an
enhanced damage friction to some extent, resulting in excellent ballistic excellent solution. Establishing refined models of flexible composites
resistance. Arora et al. [111] compared different structural tightness with pore distribution is a crucial issue in currently academic research.
fabrics impregnated with the same STF. It was found that the impact
resistance of plain woven fabrics was weakened after impregnation with
4.2. Low-velocity impact
STF. The impact strength of twill woven flexible composite is increased
by 20% compared with plain woven flexible composite. Thus, fabric
The low-velocity impact experimental research mainly analyzes the
structures with slightly less tightness should be used as reinforcement
effect of different parameters on the impact energy absorption and the
for flexible composites to achieve higher strength gains. Khodadadi et al.
failure mechanism by means of the test curves and deformation photo­
[112,113] investigated the effect of STF with different mass fractions
graph. Due to the complex failure mechanisms, stiffness and strength
and silica particle sizes on the impact resistance of flexible composites.
degradation of the flexible composites, it is a critical approach to
Monodisperse phase STF with a mass fraction of 35% was the best for
simulate the low-velocity impact progressive failure process of flexible
promoting the energy absorption of flexible composites (Fig. 9(b)). Tan
composites based on the mesostructure finite element model.
et al. [114,115] used graphene and silica-halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) to
Sun et al. [119] designed and prepared a high-distance warp-knitted
impregnate aramid fabric together with STF, and found that the addition
spacer fabric flexible composite filled with PU foam. The experimental
of graphene and silica-halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) enhanced the bal­
results showed that the PU flexible composites dissipated impact energy
listic impact resistance of the flexible composites (Fig. 9(c)). Hasanza­
by large compression deformation, in which more impact energy could
deh et al. [116–118] established a finite element model to develop the
be absorbed by filling with low-density foam. The packing density of the
impact resistance of woven fabrics impregnated with STF. As illustrated
composites is inversely proportional to the impact resistance (Fig. 10
in Fig. 9(d), it is found that the transmission velocity of longitudinal
(a)). Huang et al. [120] investigated the low-velocity impact perfor­
stress waves is faster than that of transverse stress waves when the
mance of flexible composites filled with PU foam. The experimental
impact velocity is 200 m/s. After reaching the target boundary, the
results showed that the impact resistance of the flexible composites filled

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

Fig.10. (a) Fracture morphologies of the impact regions and the surface photograph of F3/PU0 [119]; (b) The Photograph of WKSF composite and WKSF impact
model of the impact testing system [121]; (c) Deformation evolution of the WKSF and the composite at impact velocity of 1.5 m/s[121]; (d) The damage morphology
of composite 1# with conical-nosed punch [122]; (e) Enlarged View of the damages on the front face of the flexible composites at different energy levels [123]; (f)
Damage morphology of the neat GFRP and GFRP-STF at different number of layers [125].

Table1
Summary in the impact resistance properties of flexible composites.
Reinforcement Matrix Processing techniques Projectile Velocity(m/s) Energy absorbed (J) Reference

Kevlar plain-woven fabric STF Impregnated Ballistic impact (244,249,253) 32.90 [110]
Kevlar plain-woven fabric Nanosilica + STF Impregnated Ballistic impact 77.46 [112]
(40–160)
Plain-woven aramid fabric Grapheme + STF Impregnated Ballistic impact 47.42 [114]
(28.3–93.4)
High modulus polypropylene woven fabric STF Impregnated Ballistic impact / [116]
(91)
Plain-woven aramid fabric Multi-phase STF Impregnated Ballistic impact 70.83 [117]
(330)
Kevlar plain-woven fabric CNT/PSt-EA + STF Impregnated Ballistic impact 25.8 [118]
(75–200)
High-distance knitted spacer fabric PVC + PU foam Foam filling Low-velocity impact 11.1 [119]
(1.95)
Warp-knitted spacer fabric STF Impregnated Low-velocity impact / [121]
(1.5)
Biaxial warp-knitted fabric TPU Coating Low-velocity impact 5.6 [122]
(1.5,2,2.5,3)
Plain-woven jute fabric Rubber Coating Low-velocity impact 37.67 [123]
(2.42,3.70,4.64)
Plain-woven glass fabric STF Impregnated Low-velocity impact 39.9 [125]

with polyurethane foam was substantially increased by 324%. Lu et al. As the applied displacement increases, the contact and bending degree
[121] explored the low-velocity impact response of warp-knitted spacer of the warp knitted spacer filaments increases and the filament length
fabrics filled with STF. It was found that the addition of STF increased decreases, which contributes to increased impact strength. Zhao et al.
the energy absorption performance of the flexible composites. The [122] studied the main factors affecting the low-velocity impact resis­
impact deformation and energy absorption mechanisms were analyzed tance of composites are the characteristics of the textile structure, yarn
by using finite element analysis. As shown in Fig. 10(b), the warp knitted density and interface strength. The shape of the punch determines the
spacer monofilaments shear and twist to resist the applied displacement. impact damage mode and energy absorption process of the PU-coated

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

Fig.11. Potential challenges for the mechanical properties of flexible textile-based composites.

flexible composites (Fig. 10(c)). Mahesh et al. [123,124] further applications, which provide support for hyper-space technology. The
analyzed the influence of the stacking sequence on the impact damage strength and rigidity required by the structural system can be achieved
characteristics of flexible composites, and found that the stacking through optimizing the proportion of flexible polymers and strength­
sequence will affect the delamination damage mode and energy ab­ ening the structural model of the reinforced fabric. It has high porta­
sorption. In the case of the same number of layers, the impact resistance bility and can greatly reduce the volume of the product during
of flexible composites with alternating layers of different fabrics was transportations. Finally, flexible composites can absorb the load through
found to be better (Fig. 10(d)). Wei et al. [125] investigated the low- a large surface with uniform force on the whole. However, there are still
velocity impact performance of glass fiber fabrics reinforced by STF. aspects of the mechanical properties of flexible composites that need
The results showed that the STF increased the energy dissipation of the further investigation. As shown in Fig. 11, potential challenges for the
sample at different stages of failure. The four-layer flexible composite mechanical properties of flexible textile-based composites are also
with 45◦ laying angle has the most prominent energy absorption ca­ proposed.
pacity (Fig. 10(e)). Feng et al. [126] performed finite element simula­ Currently, there is a lack of biaxial tensile instruments and test
tions on the low-velocity impact model of flexible composite containing methods that can be widely applied to flexible composites. Scholars who
PVC foam. It was found that the damage to the flexible composite is studied the biaxial properties of flexible composites mostly build their
manifested as matrix cracks and interlayer deformation. Finally, a own devices to conduct the research. This makes the research results
summary of these flexible composites, including their impact resistance have certain limitations and inaccuracies, which imposes certain re­
strengths and processing techniques, is provided in Table 1. strictions on the performance improvement and structural optimization
In conclusion, the advanced characterization methods for the impact of flexible composite. The out-of-plane failure behavior of flexible
properties of flexible composites are not abundant enough. In the composites under impact load needs to be further investigated in depth.
meanwhile, the experimental research on the dynamic deformation, Constitutive relationship and pore distribution finite element model
damage and evolution of flexible composites during impact process is based on the out-of-plane failure behavior of flexible composites must be
not sufficient. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically analyze the proposed. The constitutive relationship can accurately reflect the rele­
failure mechanism and damage analysis model of flexible composites by vant characteristics of impact failure behavior and provide a reference
utilizing advanced equipment such as Micro-CT, DIC and acoustic for the shape-finding design of flexible composites. Also, Micro-CT, DIC
emission, so as to optimize the structural design of flexible composites. and acoustic emission should be used to analyze the failure mechanism
and damage analysis model of flexible composites at different
5. Conclusion temperatures.

Significant progress has been achieved in the area of flexible textile Declaration of Competing Interest
composites over the last few years. Flexible textile composites consist of
coated fabrics, sandwich foam structures, and STF-impregnated fabrics The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
that have been increasingly used in various applications, such as con­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
struction projects, inflatable and expandable facilities in space, and the work reported in this paper.
portable military tents. The dimensional limits of the monolithic struc­
tures can be broken by using flexible composites to prepare products for

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Z. Zhao et al. Composite Structures 303 (2023) 116350

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