PHY3001 : Lecture 2

Simple harmonic oscillator and free particle as the

simplest QM systems Quantum tunneling and
-

scattering .

5. Dani/ ish in

11 Sep .
2022
1 .

Simple harmonic oscillator (51-10) ①

Hamiltonian
-

Schrodinger equation of SH0 and its

- Formalism of ladder operators and method of factorisation

-

Stationary states of SH0 Fook 's basis

.

Free particle
2. as
quantum system with continuous spectrum
a

Stationary states of free particle

-

Scattering the potential Bound and

on .

scattering states
-
8- potential Reflection and transmission coefficients / pnobabi ties
-
Finite
square
well
Harmonic oscillator

Very useful and ubiquitos in

Physics system is simple harmonic oscillator (51-10) a

which is of
dependent particle moving under the action of restoring force linearly
a mass m

on the deflection coordinate ✗ aka .

Hooke 's law :
✓ 1×1
,

mii = -
Kx k = MW2 A

✗ A) = Asinwt + Bcoswt ,
with w=Fʰ

Hooke 's law corresponds to quadratic potential :

✓G) =
{ 4×2 m¥2 ≤

7
We need stationary SE for this system to gain the
to solve ◦

complete QM description :

Ñu=Ev where ti II. mw ,

Ém↓¥+mw = + -

v=Eµ
Method of factorisation : Fact Hamiltonian the
◦ rise
using analogy
Ñ=Im[p2+(mw×)Y hi + v2 ) =
(in + v ) C- in + v )

Introduce : a' ± =2¥mw G- if + mw× ) ,

the "
[×, f) = it

G- a' + =
fip + mwxk-ip-mwx-2-m-wtp2-lmwxf-imwxT-FJ-f-u.tt + f-

ñ+a .
=
⇐ ti I -

[d- ,
it ] = 1

tI=hw(a+a_ E) +

Now we can show that if tiyr =

Eyr then that 4) LE-i-hwti.ir)
=
.
Indeed
tila-H-tnwla.ci _
a' + +
tat ) + = a'
+ [ h-wti.at E) +] + = a' + [ t.wla-a.tl +
E) 4) =

= a' + (E -1kW)f =
( Ethw) (a- + 4)

Similarly : tI(a-4) =
(E- t.wka.ir)
Hence , operators a' + and d- are called ladder operators ,
for if one knows one

of the solutions of stationary SE all the rest be built )

4,
going up fat
can
, ,

down (d) the ladder of of

or
eigenstates SH0

To find this state let that there the smallest that the could
energy to
one assume is SH0
,

the
in principle have ,
and that acting with d- on
corresponding lowest eigenstate To
one
simply gets 0 : d- 4=0 3
This
gives us an
equation to define
f.4) : 2⇐w(t¥+mw×)%=0
d%
f¥ˢ= in¥×d× ln%= coast
mw

⇐
= -

f- To
✗ -
-

If ✗4

0
ⁿ¥ " ""
✗ G)◦
= A e- ,
where A =
( FF) from
-
sdxif.CH/2--1
↳

Since tw(ñ+a^ + E) % EO4E and _

= a -4=0 E◦=ʰ¥
Any other energy eigenstate of the SH0 oscillator can now be explicitly calculated :

f. 4) =
An airy with E. (n E) tw
= + and An=

states you also called Fock states and denoted usually In > as ,
since

they are the eigenstates of the operator of number of quanta :

in -=ñ+a in in >
_
= HIM>

One also show that the

can
following formulae are true for ladder operators :

a' + In > = FF1 In -11 >

d-In> =
Fin -1

Some notes about

energy eigenstates
SH0 .

""
4. G) ≤ to > =
(FF) exp { If } be rewritten
-

using × can new dimensionless argument

=¥w
✗

5- I ,
where ✗◦ is the so called zero-point oscillations amplitude .
Its physical
meaning is the magnitude of the
dispersion of coordinate in the SH0 's ground state to>

ie .
6×=FÉEh =×£ It is .
also equal to the
amplitude of the classical SH0
if it has
energy
E. _hw =
mw{×ˢ =

of dimensionless coordinate
One can rewrite
everything in terms
}
as :

I
it £ ipods where p◦=±◦= ¥§ §
^
# i
5- ¥ ; p} =p
= = -
=

p=
- -
-

,
.

V41
a-
±
=
G- ip.pj-mwx.es/=El=ifi&)-3)--2-r(-i- § g) +

3%
401×1=413 ) =
%, e- ← Gaussian bell like -
curve
g)
3% %
4k})=G+4f=Éf§+ } )=É¥ % / +3 e-£+3 e-
, / =
?É¥µ ,
e-

General formula for formula : ~ 421×1

f. (3) is called Rodrigues ,,

In > =
4h13)=¥;,% -2£, Hn (3) e-3% where Huts) -
Hermite polynomials µ,
1-12=432-2
,
,
H◦=1 ; H ,
=
2g ,
. . .
>
,
 Free 4
particle

Another important example is a free particle ( free fields free electrons ,

in conductor

since V4)=o everywhere ,

SE : _

ᵗÉTÉᵗ =
Eyr II. + K24 __ 0
,
where k=

ik×
General solution is : yf(× ) = Aeik ✗
+ Be
-

wt ) i(k×+wt )
dependent solution iEHt eilkx Be
- -

Time is : I( ✗ f) =
µ( × ) e-
= A +
k k

where we introduced frequency w =

E- 1¥=

The above is but a

travelling monochromatic wave or
actually 2 waves .
The part
,
wt )
* ( f) Ae:( k× describes the of amplitude A
propagating positive
-

✗ =
wave in a direction
constant when increases time t also ]
of x-axis [ phase y( f) +
✗ = kx wt -
is ,
✗ as increases

i(↳ + wt)
The Ifat) =
Be
-

part describes the wave

, going
in the negative direction of the
✗ -
axis .

This ultimate manifestation of

wave is an quantum wave -

particle duality ! Indeed ,

a free
point particle of mass in with velocity is FÉ =
,
in classical mechanics ,
turns
into a wave of
probability with
frequency w=ʰIᵈm and
wavelength ✗ =¥=%≠E
- -
-

sdxl-4-fx.tl/2=fdxsA2+B2-2ABcos2kx } = -
de Broglie wavelength
-
- -
-

Free particle stationary states are not normal isabk ! No such

thing as free particle
with exactly defined
energy uncertainty relation energy time '
-
'
:

•E. Gt ≥ hi

Nonetheless stationary states of a free particle can be used to expand over

any
quantum
,

state of free particle a :

-

¥4,H= ¥ .§dk 01k) exp { ilkx b¥t)} -

- ( like
-
< (b) on in discrete spectrum case I5W )

Free particle has a continuous spectrum of

energies and
eigenstates
Physically realisable states of free particle are called wave packets and ¢1k) for
any wave packet can be calculated using Plancherel's Theorem of Fourier analysis :

yolk)eik×
_

)=¥÷§dk
ik×
¥4,0 ∅ (k ) ¥ gdxhfcx.de
-

,
-
-
Bound states and
scattering states 5

In classical mechanics if the lower than the

, particle energy
E is external

potential on either side then ,

its motion can occur
only between the
turning points ,

where Such state of the

V( ✗ " 2) =
E. particle is called bound state .

scattering
↓ state
If the of the
particle is
large enough to
escape
VIA
E.
energy

÷÷
either direction the state
•

the potential well in

,
then is

'
state
known
the
as
scattering state
well and
,
for the
continues
particle gets scattered
1
'
,
i >
by potential moving to infinity .

✗, ✗2
✗
In QM , the same definitions apply except that
quantum
particle tunnel finite potential barrier Thus only the relation
'

through
'
can
any
.

between the of the particle E and the values of the potential at ±-

energy , ,

are taken into consideration :

✓ (+ e) and V1 a)
scattering state ( continuous spectrum )
{
E > →
-

E < V4 -
) or V1 .
-
) → bound state
states to whereas
In most situations V(± ) 0
scattering correspond E>0
- →
,

has it bound states

if the particle negative energy ,
E< 0
, gives .

V4)
8- potential : Consider 8- function as a
potential , namely ^ʳ
FK e
-
Ki

Fae; µ
infinitely narrow potential well defined as V4) =
-

K8G) (x )

8( ) 8- function which defined

¥
× is a Dirac ,
is a
pseudofunction via :

{
-
• ✗
-Vf(×),a : fdxflx) 8( × -
a) = 5- (a) 8 =

0
'

elsewhere
-484 )
-
no ,

Let consider a
particle of mass m in such potential .

Bound states ES0 : hi D24 V. 81×14

-

-2m¥
- =
E4
!
✗ <0 :
&¥z -

1=24--0 ,
where K = >0 since E<0

Solution is :
Y(× ) = Aek ✗
+ Be
_ "×
but since 41--1=0 13=0 *× ) = AeK× ✗ <0
, ,

For × >0
,
one has the same
equation and the solution is
,
"
✗ >0 :
yr(×) = Fe "
+ G e-
"×
but f(+o)=o +(x ) =
Gé
,

The two solutions have to be stitched since 4TH must be continuous everywhere 14-05-4401
"×

{ eK×
"① 1×1 e-
Aeʳ°=G e- G- A -

y(×)= A e-
''
=
A ,
× >0

✗ <0
,

We need to define 2 constants ,

A and K .
For the latter we will have to integrate
the SE itself the
in
vicinity of the potential well :
 E E E E

Éfd×¥¥ -
V. Sd×8HY Efd× 4TH -

ʰÉd¥ ! III. e) -
=
4410 + EH4H 5

fi%TÉÉÉÉf=
{ E {
-

{
- - -

'
t
Now we take a limit of o : -

⇐
Volvo )
A
440-41-0=-21-14101
{1¥ 1¥ /
"×
Ake × >◦
AK
-

D&¥)= ¥ʰÑT
= -
=

2Ak k=É
-

,
+◦ -
=

1¥
-

"
Are
III.
✗ ≤0
=
, = Are
◦

and it ME
There is only one
energy eigenstate with EC0 corresponds to E- _
_

242
- •

5%141×112=2 A%dxé2k×
2

A:
-
_
= -

¥-2 e- *✗
↓ =
E- = I A -_rE=r¥
7¥ " ' ME
44 )=r¥ e- with E= -

24-2
V4)
Aeik× a
Feikx
↓,¥= -21¥ µ
> >

Scattering states E >0 K2T Be ik× Ge ikx

-

:
-
=-

, < <

Aeik× + BÉk× >

✗ >0 : 41×1 k=¥E
=
✗

✗ < 0: 4TH = Feikx + Ge ikx -

484 )
continuity condition : Tfo ) =
V40)
A -113 =
F + G
Smoothness ☐ 1¥ =
44+0) -
f'to)= ik( A -

B) -

ik(F- G) = -

21¥40
2ⁿᵈ @ +
ik(A- B- f- G) + =
-

t
B)

we can rewrite it as : F- G =
All -12 :p) -

B11-2IP) ,
with p=¥[ˢ
We have 2 for 5 underdefined
equations unknowns
,
A. B , F.G and k .
The problem is

We can solve it
though as a

scattering problem assuming ,

that we have particle approaching
the barrier from the left
only rendering
,
G -0 ( no
particles approaching from the
right )
interested
We are in the reflection and transmittance coefficients in
scattering problems
Reflection : 1- =
¥ ,i =
Reflection coefficient : 12=142--1%2 =

1+EµvÉ
1
Transmission : 1- = =
p Transmission coefficient : F- HP =
=

/ + (mv:/242 EJ
As expected R+T=t

T 2
A
1-
a

0.5 -

0
I

1
→
¥-42M
 I
The Finite
Square Well (FSW ) I V4 ) 6
I A I
at
all
-

>

Let finally consider a situation more close to reality :

' . I ×
1
I E- < O

{
' I
-

% -
a < ✗< a
,
4) ,
I
V0
=

0 otherwise 1-

I
Bound states C- ✓ ◦
< E- 0 )

✗< -

a. V41
-

¥[¥¥=Eµ 1¥ -

k2µ=o with k=
i
General solution Y( )=Ae×+ Be
"
: × ( ✗ <- a) but since 41--1=0 A=0
,

× >a
,
Similarly ,
one
gets 44) = G e- K×
( × > a)

hi dir _

V◦f= Eyr II. -124 e=TE+v◦¥

"

with
"
The well : -
a < ✗ <a -

-2=5×2
-

or =

" il×
The solution is :
4TH = [ sin ( ex ) + D. cos (ex) = C
' ei + D
'
e-

We know that since the potential is symmetric ,

we can
expect only odd or even wavefunctions ,

hence we stick with cos ( ex ) and sin (ex ) :

To find B C ;D G and K

{
"
Be ✗< -
a , , ,

continuity and
,
one needs to use
4) = [ sin (A) + Dcosllx) ,
-
a < ✗ <a
smoothness of the wavefunction .

Get
"
,
× >a That
gives 4 equations :

Fta) =
4- C-a) 1%1 . 1¥ I. a

Let's have look at solutions C- 0)

(
ᵗʰ¥±÷÷!÷
a even

""
Dolla)
Continuity
} continuity
: B. e- =
B=G =

""
Dcosll a) =
Gé , =D éacos a)
Smoothness :
Bkéka = + Dlsinlla) ( we do not need second equation ,
as it is the same )

To find allowed energies

>
we divide
equations :
☒¥¥¥,- =

Bp%e¥ k=ltan a)

and l functions of E of the

K are
energy particle ,
which we need to find

energies En
So, the sole above is to allowed of the
purpose
of the equation give us
, ,

bound state In principle ,

one can do it numerically substituting parameters ,

of the well ( V0 and a) and of the the

particle (m ) in
equation :

FEE
tanff-rmE.FI for E
and
solving
=

a-
scale
But one can do better and derive some scaling law for this problem by introducing ,

parameters which allows to see how the for different wells and particles
,
,
solution changes .
 solution of the above equation using dimensionless scale
We will use
graphical , 7
parameter 20 .

Let z= tea and 2. =

£-4 and
,

z=£ -
our dimensionless
energy ,
and 20 is the scale parameter of the
both terms of and and solve for which
potential solve .
Now , we
express parts in 2 zo ,
2
,

then for E its definition

we
, using .

22
2£ 23
'
Note that K2-1EE 21¥ (Kafi leaf 23 (Kal
-
= =
=
I
Ka=É Ka -
- la tantea) FEE = 2 tank) Graphic solution of RÉFK tank)
^ I
t I 1

←
an
/ this ,
tank )=JÉ transcendental equation for (E) I
'
<
_

, 1
,
FEMI
•
,
,
I
1 I Z1E , ) I z( Ez
/
1
1
)
I
We that the seal of the F2K:) ↓ ↓
problem depends
I 1 I
see
ing
, on

i i i
1 •

single number in
a ,
Zo •
TY2 IT 31-1/2 2T 2

Special cases :

↳ 1 ( ↳ a2 >> Em -

very deep and wide well )

In this case red curve crosses
many periods of tank) and does it at locations not too
,

far from z= with odd n ( E. IT , E- etc ) z(En) ≈ In ñ¥≈Énᵈ(Etv)

Formula for levels of the
E- + ↳ ≈
{1%21}-2 energy
ISVV with width 2a !

( V◦a2<TÉm and shallow well ) bound state

disregard Only
2. <
-

very narrow -
one remains

shallow
in the potential well
,
how is .

Numerical example calculated

: z(Eu ) can be
numerically forgiven 20 ( see table below)

4
Using definition ,
and parameters ( m
, a. %) ,getsone :

20=1 only stationary state

'

222%-2-2 ( )
: one

En = ✓◦ +
states
stationary
-

20=10 : 4
10.01.43 4. 27 707 9.68

Finally let calculate the normalisation of the wavefunction .

Recall that B=G=De"%ska)
, a

[dx a-Sdx G2E-2KX 1¥ e- { sin ) ↑ / +

'
a

¥ e-
""
¥( ¥ f.
2""

[d× B2E ""

141×112 = +
fdxD2cos4lx) + = + + ×

all + tan' /eat) a

. -

-
a -
a
-

=
BÉ e- p.PE?f-eY(ea+Esin(2ea))--B2e-2kaff--IeaT-'e-tanlla))-- [ la=z KATE ]
""
+
,

"
"
= AB2E-2KA [¥a+ tank ⇐ tank)]=1 B/+
e§ [¥-2 I tan# tank)]+ =
+ +

e
D= costa) B =
a ,
[¥2T +
/+ tank / + taz
 Scattering states (E> 0) 1¥ -1424--0 ,
k=T¥ 8

ik×
4f×)=Aeik×
-

✗ < -
a : + Be

-
a< ✗ < a : 44 )= [ sin (ex)+Dcos(ex ) ⇐ 1¥ ,
+ l4=O ,
e=Ñ◦
✗ >a : (x ) = Feik×+GÉik×= Feik× (no scattering
) Aeikx Feik "

from the right >

""
I V6 ) , >
2k×
E> 01 Ge
Aéika + Beika
-

Be l
Continuity
n
: = -
Csin(a) + D. costa) at
'

µ
-

Feika
I

[ sincea) + Dcoslla)=
>
I 1 ✗

Smoothness : ik( Aéika _

Beika )=l( Ceos a) + Dsinlla) ) I
1
' I
ikfeiha-lkcosleal-Dsiu.lk) ) '
I
1- V0

We can now eliminate C and D from the equations ,

and express B and F in terms
of A
,
which will give us reflection and transmittance coefficients for FSW :

R= /¥12 and 1- =/ ¥12 ,

where R+T=1

CAe-ika-Beikafcoslal-ik-ffe-ika-Beikalsinlal-Ae-ikal.iosteal _i¥ sinllaf-Beihaiosleal.ES =D

sina.li/3eihaIsinleaI-IeaB--CFeikacosla)-ik-Feikasinlea)--
(Ae-ika-Beikajsinlal-ik-efAe-ika-Beikajcoskal-Ae-ikafiek-co.la) -
-

Feikakcoslal-ik-esinleatf-DFeiFeika
kasi[nleai-ie2¥k-Feiko.co
steal ]=c =
sincea) + steal

1- eikafcosceal-iek-o.in/eaD-e-ikaEosleaI+ik-esinleaB--EeikaIcoscea ) -

¥sin(eat] ( equating LH5 of D)

1- eikafsinleal-ik-oskat-e-ikatiek-coskal-sinlealf-FA-eikafsir.la) # cooled] -1 (equating LH5 0FC )

2ikaÑÉÉÑ
B
+ e- =
¥ and
e- 2ika=¥iEc◦_
t÷ʰ
☒
-

tsinleal-gf-eosltah.ve
introduced complex numbers ✗ ≤ sinha) + [ E- costa) and BE Costa )+i¥sin(fat
and we notice that xp {sin
__ a) ( I -

E) + [¥ and dp*= Isin a) ( I -1¥ ) +

ikecosfla)
'
1- I. 2ika(§* E) (1--1)
"""
_

+ e- =
¥ -

f-e-
Zika
Bn== e- +
2sin4la)
si# ( I I:P tanta) ( E- K42
12--11/2=1%+5×-19*12 ,¥÷ =
-

bÉc¥a=taa
,

(co}la+ siula) .
)) KY2

Similarly =/ ¥ / 2=1 12=1 242 KY2 tanka )

-

: 1- - _

e2k2 It # tanya)