Unit III

LEARNING

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as

a result of direct or indirect experience. Learning is thus a change in behaviour as a result of
experience.
Definition of Leraning
Stephen P. Robbins
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
Munn N.L.
Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less permanently, by what
he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes.
Steers and Porter
Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentially that results
from reinforced practice or experience.
Meaning of Learning
There are two primary elements in meaning of learning:
Change must be relatively permanent: This means that after “learning” our behavior must be
different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this learning experience.

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For example, you “learn” to drive a car or have learned how to use a computer.
This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not
caused by biological maturation.
For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not
learn to eat or drink.
Nature of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or
experience. There are several key points in this definition.
 Learning brings change
 Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting
 Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience

 Learning brings change- For example, when you learn a second language, your
knowledge about how to communicate evolves, and your behavior changes when
communicating with native speakers of the language.
 Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting - For
example, If you attempt to communicate with someone in another language by looking
up words in a dictionary that you quickly forget once the interaction is complete, learning
did not take place because there was no permanent change in your knowledge of the
second language.

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  Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience - For example,
Learning a second language requires much practice in pronunciation, word usage, and
grammar.
Elements of Learning
 Motivation
 Cues
 Response
 Reinforcement

Motivation
Motivation is based on need and goals. Motivation acts as a spur to learning, with needs and
goals serving as stimuli. Uncovering consumer motives is one of the prime task of marketers.
Marketers educate motivated consumer segments why their product will best fulfill their needs.
Marketers use motivation research to unearth consumer motives and use it in developing
marketing program.
Cues
Cues are the stimuli that give direction to those motives. In the market, marketing mix (place,
price, packaging, styling, advertising and displays) serve as cues to help consumers fulfill their
needs in product specific ways
Response
How an individual reacts to a drive or cue constitutes his or her response. Learning can occur
even if responses are not overt. The carpet manufacturer who provides consistent cues to a

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consumer may not always succeed in stimulating a purchase, even if that individual is motivated
to buy.
Instead, the manufacturer may succeed only in forming a favorable image of the carpet in the
consumer’s mind i.e. evoking a tendency to respond by buying.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the
result of particular cues or stimuli. Many marketers instinctively find that reinforcement serves to
teach their customers a desired behavior. For example, telephone companies that give cash
discounts to customers who pay their bill promptly are acting to ensure prompt payment in the
future.
Types of Learners
 Visual Learners
 Auditory Learners
 Kinesthetic Learners

Visual Learners
Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
Auditory Learners
Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you say.
They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve heard.
Kinesthetic Learners
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Kinesthetic learners learn better by doing. This group learns best when they can practice what
they’re learning. They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube
because they think in terms of physical action.

Characteristics of Learning
Learning is Purposeful
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique
individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the
requirements involved.
Learning is a Result of Experience
Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student
can learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart
from a person.
Learning is Multifaceted
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may be
learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-
depending on what they experience.
Learning is an Active Process
Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume
that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane
when the instructor presented the material.

Principles for Learning

Over the years, educational psychologists have identities several principles which seem generally
applicable to the learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn
most effectively.
6 Most important principles for learning are:
 Readiness
 Exercise
 Effect
 Primacy

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  Intensity
 Recency
Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. When individuals are ready to
learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor’s job.
Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is
the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain,
evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure.
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the individual. It states that learning
is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the
instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time.
Intensity
Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by
performing them rather than merely reading about them.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the
more difficult it is to remember.

Theories of Learning
Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning
process by which employees acquire a pattern of behavior. There are four theories of
learning discussed below.
1. Classical conditioning theory
2. Operant conditioning theory

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 3. Cognitive learning theory
4. Social learning theory

Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli
are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Ivan Pvlov, a
Russian psychologist (Nobel Peace Prize) developed classical conditioning theory of
learning based on his experiments to teach a dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell.
 When Pavlov presented meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great
deal of salivation (conditioned response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation
was noticed in the dog.
 Then, when next Pavlov did was to accompany the offering of meat to the dog along with
ringing up of bell.
 He did this several times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the
meat. Now, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang.
 After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no meat
were presented. In effect, the dog had learned to respond i.e. to salivate to the bell.

Pavlov concluded that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (response) to the
sound of the bell (stimulus). It will be seen that Classical Conditioning learning can take place
amongst animals based on stimulus-response (SR) connections.

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Classical Conditioning Process - Terms to Know

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Classical Conditioning Examples
This stimulus-response connection (S-R) can be applied in management to assess organizational
behavior. Historically when a CEO visits an organization, production charts are updated,
individuals put on a good dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are washed. What all one
has to do is to just say that the Top Boss is visiting.
You will find that all the above work is undertaken (response) without any instructions. Because
the people in the organization have learned the behaviour (conditioned). It has caused a
permanent change in the organization (S-R connections).

Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a consequence of
behaviour Response-Stimulus (R-S). In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a
consequence of many stimulus situations.
 Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences.
 People learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don’t want.
 Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior.
 The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.
 Reinforcement therefore strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be
repeated.

Operant Conditioning Examples

This Response-Stimulus (R-S) can be applied in management to assess organizational behavior.
From an organisational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment will elicit a
response. The consequence of such a response will determine the nature of the future response.
For example, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the person to keep
working hard in the future.

Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, several factors affect response rate, resistance to extinction and how
quickly a response is acquired.

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  Magnitude of reinforcement
In general, as magnitude of reinforcement increases, acquisition of a response is greater.
For example, workers would be motivated to work harder and faster, if they were paid a
higher salary.
 Immediacy of reinforcement
Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate. As a rule,
the longer the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a response is acquired.
 Level of motivation of the learner
If you are highly motivated to learn to play football you will learn faster and practice
more than if you have no interest in the game.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Behaviourists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning through operant and classical
conditioning would be explained without reference to internal mental processes.
Today, however, a growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental processes. They
choose to broaden the study of learning theories to include such cognitive processes as thinking,
knowing, problem-solving, remembering and forming mental representations.
Individuals tend to learn 70% of their knowledge from challenging experiences and assignments,
20% from developmental relationships, and 10% from coursework and training.
In the Social Cognitive Theory, we are considering 3 variables:
 behavioral factors
 environmental factors (extrinsic)
 personal factors (intrinsic)
These 3 variables in Social Cognitive Theory are said to be interrelated with each other, causing
learning to occur. An individual’s personal experience can converge with the behavioral
determinants and the environmental factors.

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Social Cognitive Theory Illustration (Pajares, 2002)
In the person-environment interaction, human beliefs, ideas and cognitive competencies are
modified by external factors such as a supportive parent, stressful environment or a hot climate.
In the person-behavior interaction, the cognitive processes of a person affect his behavior;
likewise, performance of such behavior can modify the way he thinks. Lastly, the environment-
behavior interaction, external factors can alter the way you display the behavior. Also, your
behavior can affect and modify your environment. This model clearly implies that for effective
and positive learning to occur an individual should have positive personal characteristics, exhibit
appropriate behavior and stay in a supportive environment.
In addition, Social Cognitive Theory states that new experiences are to be evaluated by the
learner by means of analyzing his past experiences with the same determinants. Learning,
therefore, is a result of a thorough evaluation of the present experience versus the past.
Basic Concepts
Social Cognitive Theory includes several basic concepts that can manifest not only in adults but
also in infants, children and adolescents.
 Observational Learning
learning from other people by means of observing them is an effective way of gaining
knowledge and altering behavior.
 Reproduction
the process wherein there is an aim to effectively increase the repeating of a behavior by
means of putting the individual in a comfortable environment with readily accessible
materials to motivate him to retain the new knowledge and behavior learned and practice
them.

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  Self-efficacy
the course wherein the learner improves his newly learned knowledge or behavior by
putting it into practice.
 Emotional coping
good coping mechanisms against stressful environment and negative personal
characteristics can lead to effective learning,.
 Self-regulatory capability
ability to control behavior even within an unfavorable environment.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura contends that many behaviours or responses are acquired through observational
learning. Observational learning, sometimes called modelling, results when we observe the
behaviours of others and note the consequences of that behaviour.
Social learning theory is a behavioral approach. The approach basically deals with learning
process based on direct observation and the experience.
Social learning theory integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It
recognises that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli (classical and
operant conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both
views.
Usually, the following four processes determine the influence that a model will have on an
individual:
1. Attention Process
2. Retention Process
3. Motor Reproduction Process
4. Reinforcement Process
Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided they recognise and pay
attention to the critical features. In practice, the models that are attractive, repeatedly available or
important to us tend to influence us the most.
Retention Process: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual can remember or
retain in memory the behaviour/action displayed by him when the model is no longer readily
available.

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Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the individual needs to convert the model’s action into his
action. This process evinces how well an individual can perform the modelled action.
Reinforcement Process: Individuals become motivated to display the modelled action if
incentive and rewards are provided to them.
Self-efficacy
Central to Bundura’s social learning theory is the notion of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief and expectancies about his or her ability to accomplish a
specific task effectively.

According to Bandura, self-efficacy expectations may be enhanced through four means as

follows:
 Performance accomplishments (just do it)
 Vicarious experiences (watch someone else do it)
 Verbal persuasion (be convinced by someone else to do it)
 Emotional arousal (get excited about doing it)

Social Learning Theory Examples

Management of human resource plays a dominant role in the growth of an organization. Various
material inputs in the organization can be put to its optimum utilization if the employees display
a positive attitude towards organizational systems, processes, activities and have appropriate
interpersonal behavior.

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