Transmission Fundamentals: Slides Made by Yu-Chee Tseng
Transmission Fundamentals: Slides Made by Yu-Chee Tseng
Transmission Fundamentals: Slides Made by Yu-Chee Tseng
Electromagnetic Signal
is a function of time can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < + where T is the period of the signal
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), at which the signal repeats.
Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal
Ex: Speed of light is v = 3x108 m/s. Then the wavelength is f = v (or = vT).
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = (d) Phase shift; = /4 radians (45 degrees)
Frequency-Domain Concepts
An electromagnetic signal can be made up of many frequencies.
Example: s(t) = (4/) (sin(2ft) + (1/3)sin(2(3f)t))
Fig. 2.4(a) + Fig. 2.4(b) = Fig. 2.4(c) There are two component frequencies: f and 3f.
Frequency domain: we represent a signal by recording the amplitudes, frequencies, and phases of its components.
A signal can be represented either in the time domain, or in the frequency domain.
A [V] t[s] A [V]
f [Hz]
Frequency-Domain (cont.)
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
In Fig. 2.4(c), spectrum extends from f to 3f.
Effective bandwidth
A signal may contain many frequencies. But most of the energy may concentrate in a narrow band of frequencies. These frequencies are effective bandwidth.
f [Hz]
f [Hz]
Digital
Text Integers
Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise thats present at a particular point in the transmission Typically measured at a receiver Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
( SNR) dB signal power = 10 log10 noise power
= 10 log10 SNR A high SNR means a high-quality signal. SNR sets an upper bound on the achievable data rate.
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR )
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not guide electromagnetic signals Usually referred to as wireless transmission E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Wireless Transmission
Antennas
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally). One can use multiple antennas to emulate isotropic radiator.
y z y x z x
Detection range
detection of the signal possible no communication possible
Interference range
signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line) Free-space loss: receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum. (d = distance between sender and receiver) Intuition: the signal propagates as a spherical shape. The surface area is ~ d. In real environments the power is between 2 and 5. Other effects: Fading Multi-path propagation Movement.
Signal propagation
Receiving power additionally influenced by
Shadowing (blocks the signal) reflection at large obstacles (with dimension very large compared to the waves wavelength) refraction depending on the density of a medium scattering at small obstacles (with dimensions in the order of the wavelength) diffraction at edges
shadowing
reflection
refraction
scattering
diffraction
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath LOS pulses pulses
Fast fading: waves traveling along different paths may be completely out of phase when they reach the antenna (thereby canceling each other out!)
Multipath propagation
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
multipath LOS pulses pulses
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change different delay variations of different signal parts different phases of signal parts
Additional changes in
distance to sender obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power short term fading received (long term fading)
Empirical models
Summary
signal analog vs. digital transmissions channel capacity transmission media Signal propagation Path loss Multi-path propagation