56.

Slope stabilisation using lime

C. D. F. ROGERS, BSc, PhD, MICE, MIHT, MISTT, FGeotechS, Loughborough University, and C. J. BRUCE,
BEng, Geotechnics Ltd, UK

SYNOPSIS
Clay soils can be stabilised at depth using the distinctly different techniques of lime columns, lime piles and lime slurry
injection. The three processes are described and their application to new, failing and failed slopes is discussed. Both
short-term and long-term stability are assessed, with particular reference to porewater pressure and volume changes. The
results of a preliminary programme of tests to examine strength gain mechanisms in clay surrounding lime piles are
presented. The paper concludes that the techniques have considerable potential, but that a good understanding of the
processes taking place as a result of each method is necessary for design.

INTRODUCTION LIME SLURRY PRESSURE INJECTION

1. The stabilisation of slopes, whether intact or failed,
has long been a problem for geotechnical engineers and has Introduction
recently become topical. Slide stabilisation with chemical 6. Lime slurry or lime/fly ash slurry has been used in
grouts was isolated as one of the ten most desirable the USA to treat expansive clay soils, as well as silts and
developments in soil stabilisation in a world-wide study by other soft soils, for some years. The technique can reduce
the ASCE in 1976 (Ref.l). Although a significant amount shrinkage and swelling of expansive soils, reduce
of work has been done, there remains a need for a cost settlements, improve bearing capacity, increase erosion
effective process that provides a long-term strength gain for resistance and stabilise failed embankment slopes.
slope stabilisation. One such technique is deep stabilisation 7. Lime, either as quicklime (CaO) or more usually
using lime. hydrated lime (Ca(0H)2), is mixed with clean water up to a
2. The addition of lime to a clay soil results in two maximum concentration of 40% solids, which is considered
distinct sets of reactions. The first takes place within to represent the highest density which is economically
approximately 24-72 hours of mixing and concerns the pumpable. This produces a slurry of water with lime in
breakdown of the cohesive nature of the clay. This process suspension rather than in solution.
is known as modification, the modified materials being 8. Specialised equipment is used to inject the slurry
friable and essentially granular in nature. This initial under pressure into the soil being treated (Fig. 1). The
reaction causes a significant reduction in water content, slurry will follow the natural fissures, laminations, bedding
since water is used in the reaction between the lime and clay planes, fracture zones or other planes of weakness.
minerals. The water content reduction is greater if The slurry is injected through 40mm diameter pipes fitted
quicklime (CaO) is used rather than hydrated lime with perforated nozzles. The pipes are hydraulically pushed
(Ca(0H)2)« There is an immediate gain in strength due to into the ground and the lime is injected to refusal at
modification. intervals of depth of 300-450 mm. Typical injection
3. Modification is followed by a process known as pressures can vary between 350 to 1300 kN/nA Depths of
stabilisation , which concerns the long-term gain in over 40 metres can be treated in this way.
strength of lime-treated clays by the development of a
cemented structure. This gain in strength can be
considerable and depends upon a number of factors
including lime content, clay mineralogy, temperature and Injection Rig
time (Refs. 2 - 4).
4. Clay soils can be stabilised at depth using the
techniques of lime columns, lime piles and lime slurry
injection. All three methods are used to generate increases
in strength and/or stiffness of the clay by the reaction of the
clay with lime, but each works in a fundamentally different
way. The choice of method for any site will thus depend on
the structure and stress history of the clay, and on the
purpose for which strength or stiffness improvement is
required. The use of deep lime stabilisation techniques to Settlement Line.
improve the stability of embankments and cuttings is an Soft Clay
Tension Cracks
obvious application and the stabilisation of failed slopes
offers considerable potential that has yet to be realised.
5. It is the use of lime stabilisation at depth, with
particular emphasis on its potential use for stabilisation of Figure 1 Slope stabilisation using Lime Slurry
failed slopes, that forms the subject of this paper. Pressure Injection (after National Lime
Association)
Slope stability engineering. Thomas Telford, London, 1991. 395

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 REMEDIAL

9. Horizontal seams and vertical veins of lime slurry,

which often interconnect, are produced. Injection points at
1.5m spacings will give overlapping seams in most soils, ^mt- Unslaked Lime
although closer spacing or repeated injections may be
needed in less permeable strata. A chemical surfactant
Kelly
(wetting agent) is commonly added to the slurry to reduce
surface tension and promote better slurry penetration.
10. Excess slurry at the surface can be rotavated into the
soil and compacted to produce a weatherproof, stabilised ^ Rotary table

capping. Further details are given in Ref. 1.

Principle of operation
11. There are several potential benefits that can be
0.5m
achieved by lime-slurry injection. The lime slurry forming
the veins and seams reacts with the adjacent soil to increase
its strength and reduce water movement by acting as
moisture barriers. This will reduce the potential for Up to 10m
shrinkage or swell. The soil will be pre-swollen due to the
injection process, the soil water content being raised by 2 to
Mixing tool
3% on injection. In addition, the porewater pressures will
("egg beater")
generally increase considerably and care should be taken
when attempting to stabilise slopes using this technique
since precipitation or reactivation of slides is possible. Finished lime column
Indeed this has occurred in experiments in Canada (Ref. 5)
The pre-swelling is maintained by the lime seams acting as Figure 3 Procedure for Construction of Lime
moisture barriers without significant loss of bearing Columns (after Broms and Boman)
capacity.
12. Further, the lime migrates from the injection seams
to modify the adjacent clay. The lime supernate has a pH in failures. Embankments may be strengthened using LSPI by
the range of 11.9 to 12.4 and is drawn into the soil between the formation of "tensile reinforcement", mending existing
the seams by soil suction or diffusion mechanisms. By this cracks and causing the peak strength of both the
process the soil between the seams will be impregnated with embankment fill and the founding subsoil to be modified
slurry water and have its predominant sodium ions simultaneously (Fig. 1).
exchanged for calcium ions. This results in significant 14. The use of LSPI to stabilise a soft glacial clayey silt
stabilising water content changes, reduction in plasticity and below a 12m high embankment in Pennsylvania has been
swelling, and ultimately stabilisation reactions within the evaluated (Ref. 6). The silt was successfully treated to a
clay. depth of 6m, with a moderately uniform application and an
increase in measured shear strength after one year.
Case studies 15. One of the main uses of the technique in the USA is
13. Examples of situations where lime slurry pressure to stabilise existing railroad embankments (Ref.l). A 300m
injection (LSPI) may be considered include those problems length of unstable embankment was stabilised in 1976 using
associated with expansive clays, such as cracking of a three stage injection technique. After three weeks the
nasonry walls, and floor slabs, slope failures and pavement embankment was strong enough to allow the trains to return
to their operating speed of 49 mph, settlement was stopped
and maintenance minimised. LSPI techniques have also
been used to strengthen an earth dam separating an
Lime and compressed air equalisation basin from a sludge pond. Three weeks after
injection the cohesive shear strengths increased six-fold,
which allowed the earth dam to resist lateral pressure from
the lagoon and support a 75 tonne excavator.

LIME COLUMNS
Injection of lime Introduction
16. The Lime Column process is attributed to Mr Kjeld
Paus of Sweden, where the process is often used in
construction. Lime-columns are constructed in situ by
mixing quicklime with the natural soils using a giant "egg-
beater" auger (Fig.2). To construct a column the auger is
drilled into the soil to the required depth, the direction of
rotation is reversed and the auger is slowly withdrawn (Fig.
3). As the auger is withdrawn, powdered quicklime is
pneumatically pumped into the soil through a hole in the end
of the auger. The auger is shaped in such a way that
intimate mixing is achieved. The auger blades are also
angled in such a way that compaction is also achieved as the
auger is withdrawn.
17. Columns up to 10m deep and 500mm in diameter
can be formed in approximately 10 minutes using this
Figure 2 Head of Mixing Tool, or Egg-Beater Auger, technique. Quantities of 8% to 10% quicklime by dry soil
used for Lime Column Installation (after mass are usually sufficient to form a stabilised soil column.
Broms and Boman) At such percentages 5m3 of lime will provide enough
396

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 PAPER 56 : ROGERS AND BRUCE

material to construct approximately 400 linear metres of lime problem as a direct proportion of these areas. It is thus
column, a typical length constructed in an 8 hour day. necessary to test in the laboratory samples of lime-treated
clay that are mixed and compacted under conditions which
Principle of operation simulate the field operations. Once a design area of
18. The effect of mixing quicklime with a clayey soil is columns has been arrived at, a construction pattern can be
to increase both the strength and stiffness of the lime-soil deduced based on the diameter of columns that can be
mixture. The quicklime reacts immediately with the clay to constructed using available equipment. The plant required
reduce its water content and modify its plasticity for this work is large and would not be able to traverse
characteristics by cation exchange reactions. The process of failed or suspect slopes. Treatment would thus have to be
mixing and recompaction results in a reduction in bulk applied from the top or the bottom of the slope, possibly
density and an increase in void content, thus also increasing resulting in a disruption to traffic in the case of a road,
the coefficient of permeability (Ref. 7). The material railway or canal embankment or cutting. Treatment of the
immediately after construction has an increased strength as a slope from the bottom upwards is recommended.
consequence of these combined effects.
19. The lime addition causes the pH of the soil to rise to Laboratory investigations
approximately 12.4, at which point silica and alumina are 25. A detailed programme of research into the properties
dissolved from the clay particles. The lime reacts with these of lime-modified and lime-stabilised British Clays has been
pozzolanic components to form calcium silicate and calcium reported by Bruce et al (Ref. 11) and Rogers and Bruce
aluminate gels, which gradually crystallise into calcium (Ref. 12). The research was carried out for a purpose other
silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates. These than slope stability assessment and only undrained strength
reaction products are similar to those of cement and result in parameters are available. Nevertheless these strengths,
a progressive long-term increase in strength. which were measured from 38mm diameter samples taken
20. The columns of compacted lime-clay are surrounded from lime-modified clay that was compated in the Moisture
by untreated, generally soft clayey deposits. It is unclear Condition Value apparatus 24 hours after mixing, provide
whether the untreated material is significantly affected by the an indication of the long-term stability. The samples, which
process. It is likely that the water content of the intervening were only partially saturated once the reaction processes
clay will be reduced by the quicklime addition to the were complete, were tested in the triaxial cell under cell
columns, thus providing an increase in shear strength, at pressures of 50,100 and 200 kPa at a strain rate of lmm per
least in the short term. Long-term gain in strength caused minute after curing periods of up to one year. In each case
by migration of lime through the untreated clay is a matter of the clay was initially at a water content of 1.2 times the
debate, however, since it is believed that there is little Plastic Limit and was mixed with 2.5% available lime.
remaining available lime once the stabilisation process has Further details of the preparation and test procedure are
fully occurred in the column itself. given in Ref. 12.
26. The results indicated that the stabilisation reactions
Applications take place at a variable rate and this was attributed to
21. The result of the technique is thus a series of much different mineralogical compositions. The average
stronger, suffer columns within the soft clayey deposit and undrained shear strength of the initially very weak materials
these act to increase the bearing capacity and stability of the exhibited an eightfold to tenfold increase immediately after
treated ground. Much research has been carried out in compaction, the strength thereafter doubling or trebling after
Sweden, notably by Broms and Boman (Refs. 8 - 10), into one year (Table 1). Both Upper Lias Clay and Weald Clay
the use of lime columns as a method of general ground produced high strengths following lime addition, whereas a
improvement, this work including large-scale field trials. silty Weald Clay from an adjacent site and a Glacial Till
22. This research has shown that soft clays can be produced much lower strengths. These differences were
adequately treated to reduce the total and differential Likewise attributed to mineralogical differences, which also
settlements of new light structures with traditional account for the influences of initial water content and lime
foundations, and the process has been widely used in content on strength gain. These latter effects were thought
Scandinavia and Japan for this purpose. The technique has to be the cause of a poorer than expected performance of
also been used to reduce negative skin friction on pile very wet London Clay.
foundations. 27. Interpretation of the results of the quick undrained
23. Lime columns have been used beneath embankments
both to improve the bearing capacity and reduce settlements, Table 1 Traditional Interpretation of Undrained Shear
and to speed up consolidation. Broms and Boman (Ref. 8) Strengths (Cu) of Four Lime-Stabilised British Clays
state that a lime column provides the equivalent drainage (after Ref. 12)
capacity of two to three 100mm wide band drains or three
150 mm diameter sand drains. Debate on this matter
continues, however. While the coefficient of permeability Clay Untreated "Immediate" "Early" "Long-Term"
undoubtedly increases in the short term, the progressive type Soil Oto 7 days to 3 months to
formation of the cementing reaction products is likely to 48hrs 1 month 1 year
result in a reduction in permeability with time. A further use
of lime columns has been to replace sheet piles for both
shallow and deep excavations (Ref. 8). Upper 15 (kPa) 220 320 450
24. It is apparent from this discussion that lime columns Lias
can be used to stabilise slopes, in both the short and the Clay
long term. The design of the slopes would have to take Silty 10 110 140 180
account of the strength properties of both the lime column Weald
and the untreated clay. While the undrained shear strengths Clay
of both components are likely to increase, long-term gain in Weald 30 230 400 500
strength of the untreated clay is questionable and further Clay
research in this area is warranted. It is generally the case Glacial 10 80 110
that the relative areas of treated and untreated materials are Till
calculated and material properties are ascribed to the

397

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 REMEDIAL

Table 2 Strengths of Four Lime-Stabilised British Clays with lime. Each metre of lime is compacted by closing the
using a Best-Fit Interpretation of the Mohr- end of the tube and lowering or driving the tube repeatedly
Coulomb Envelopes (after Ref.12) against the lime. Lime piles having diameters of 250 to
500mm have been installed to depths of 5 to 8m in a weak
saturated loess soil by this method (Ref. 14).
Clay Untreated "Immediate" "Early" "Long-Term"
type Soil 0 to 48 hrs 7 days to 3 months to
1 month 1 year Principle of Operation
31. Improvement of the soil using the lime pile
technique occurs as a result of several factors as follows:
(a) The metal tube causes local compaction of the soils as
Upper 13, 1° 130, 15° 240, 12° 350, 15° it is being driven. The zone of compaction depends on the
T IOC
LAdh physical and rheological properties of the soil, and its
Clay degree of saturation.
Silty 8,1° 80, 8° 70, 18° 60,30° (b) The lumps of quicklime become slaked as water from
Weald the soil pores is drawn into the pile. The quicklime doubles
Clay or triples in volume, this expansion thus causing further
Weald 24,2o 170, 10o 250, 22o 400, 29° compaction of the surrounding soils as a result of lateral
Clay consolidation. The diameter of the pile consequently
Glacial 4,3° 40, 12o 90, 8° key: increases by 30-70% due to hydration.
Till C u (kPa), <)>u (c) Heat is released during the hydration process (at the
edge of the pile) and this evaporates some of the water in the
soil, thus reducing the degree of saturation (typically to
values of 0.7-0.8)
triaxial tests by the traditional manner was shown to be (d) Chemical processes allow the lime to penetrate into the
questionable, since the samples exhibited significant surrounding soil and stabilise it to a varying degree,
undrained angles of friction (Table 2). By applying a best- depending on distance from the pile.
fit interpretation of the Mohr-Coulomb envelopes the 32. It is important that high calcium quicklime be used to
granular nature of the modified and stabilised clays was realise the full benefits of the technique.
emphasised. For this reason the beneficial action of lime
cannot, in some cases, be discerned by unconfined Applications
compressive strength results. This was the case for the silty 33. Tystovich at al (Ref. 14) discuss experiments that
Weald Clay, which produced <))u values of 30° after one were carried out in the USSR to establish the effectiveness
year. of lime piles and the range of application of the method for
28. While the strength gains are undoubtedly large, there compacting soils. Plate load tests indicated that the modulus
is some difficulty in using the strengths thus measured in of deformation for a lime pile group was approximately ten
slope stability analyses where drained parameters are times that of the untreated soil. Further, the soil adjacent to
required. Cobbe and Wrench (Ref. 13) published the the lime piles had a cohesive shear strength of around 300
results of drained shear box tests to measure both drained kPa, compared with 40 kPa for the untreated soil.
peak and residual strength parameters. They showed that,
for Upper Lias Clay, the strength of untreated clay (c1 = 5
kPa, (j)1 = 23°) increased to values of c1 = 19-64 kPa and
$ = 37-39° after lime addition. The residual strengths
increased from crf = 0, <|)r' = 11.5-13.4° without lime to
cr' = 10-11 kPa,<|>r! = 14.5-21.0° with lime after 66
weeks. The most significant aspect of these results is the
increase in effective cohesion. If these values, or even a
proportion of these values, can be relied upon for design,
the factors of safety will increase considerably. The values
of effective angle of internal friction also show a significant
increase. These parameters can be used for lime column
design as indicated above.

LIME PILES

Introduction
29. Lime-piles were first used in construction in the
Chinese Democratic Republic and have been used in several
countries to improve soft saturated soils since the 1960s.
The piles are formed by drilling, or using driven tubes, to
form voids into which Hme (usually lump quicklime) is
placed and compacted. The soils most often treated in this
way are saturated and very soft, and thus often need casing
to support the excavation before the lime is introduced.
3 0 . The construction process is shown in Fig. 4. A
hollow tube is pushed into the soil to the required depth.
Quicklime is then forced into the pile by air pressure as the
tube is withdrawn. This has the effect of forcing open the
end of the piling tube, thus allowing the void to be filled Figure 4 Procedure for Construction of Lime Piles
(after Ingles and Metcalf)
398

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 PAPER 56 : ROGERS AND BRUCE

34. Tystovich et al also describe the use of the lime-pile $ 570mm 048mm lime rod
technique in 1966 for improvement of a site underlain by Samples at
Manometers
30m of saturated loess. The water content of the soil was 65mm centres
M1 M2 M3
sharply reduced resulting in lowering of saturation from
100% to values of between 65% and 75%. Dynamic
Manometer
consolidation was subsequently applied to the site and a
depths
heavy industrial structure was subsequently constructed
with considerably reduced settlements. T 100mm
M 200mm
35. The application of lime piles to slope stabilisation B 300mm
relies on both the short-term and long-term improvement in
shear strength. The installation of piles causes an immediate
reduction in water content and considerable negative pore
water pressures. The other immediate phenomena, those of
volume expansion of the lime pile and heat generation, will EXPLODED VIEW OF TEST TANK
also affect water content and porewater pressure changes, I Manometer tubes
Samples taken
although the result is a considerable increase in stability of from lettered
the slope. This could be used to increase the angle of new radii after
slopes or to stabilise an embankment that is failing. each curing
36. The retention of stability depends upon the long- period
term porewater and strength properties of the material. It is
thought that lime penetrates the soil surrounding the pile by
calcium cation migration, and thus results in the stabilisation
reactions, described earlier, taking place. Some reporters
consider that the groundwater must be flowing to facilitate
the cation movement (Ref. 15), whereas others consider that
the process can take place without flow. The experimental PLAN VIEW OF TEST TANK
work described hereafter addresses this question. Geotextile
37. The method of application of lime piles to slope (Terrain) ^ Masking Tape
stabilisation will thus depend on the personal views of the
engineer. If the long-term properties are not to be relied Manometer Tube
upon, then the lime piles would have a use solely as a short-
term method of increasing stability while longer-term
solutions are sought. The method would undoubtedly be
good for this application and the piles would be installed in
such a pattern as to most effectively reduce the porewater Leighton Buzzard Sand
pressure and/or water content, and increase strength.
DETAIL OF MANOMETER INSTALLATION
38. If, however, the long-term increase in strength is to
be relied upon, the combined phenomena of later
densification and clay stabilisation can be used to evolve Figure 5 Details of Lime Pile Testing Apparatus
design parameters. The tendency for water to be drawn into
the pile, for the soil to compress laterally and for cations to Laboratory Investigations
migrate through the soil will be enhanced along any failure 40. A laboratory study of the effects of lime pile
surface within the slope, since this will typically have a construction on the geotechnical properties of two soft, wet
higher water content and greater permeability. The strength remoulded British clays has been carried out at
parameters that are required for design are thus the fully- Loughborough. The aim of this work was to examine,
drained values for the clay at different distances from the using a small scale model, the change in pore water pressure
pile face up to half of the spacing between the piles. These and undrained shear strength with time. These two
can only be determined by carrying out trial sections or by a parameters can thus be used to determine the potential
detailed programme of laboratory research combined with improvements to the stability of structures founded on, or
soil and lime-soil characterisation. While only preliminary constructed from, these materials. An explanation of the
work has been done up till now, a major programme of observed improvements was also sought by examining
research into lime piles is due to start at Loughborough in other physical and chemical changes as the reaction was
1991. allowed to take place.
39. In view of the current uncertainty of the distance of 41. The two clays used in the study were Upper Lias
lime migration, it would appear sensible that lime pile Clay from Wootton, Northamptonshire and Weald Clay
treatment be based on a large number of small diameter from Burgess Hill, Sussex. The properties of the two clays
holes at relatively small lateral spacings. The particular are summarised in Table 3. Both clays were wetted up until
advantage of this arrangement is that relatively small plant they were soft and relatively weak, and were then
can be utilised, the plant thus being cheap to staff and able thoroughly kneaded and compacted into a 570 mm diameter,
to traverse failed slopes or slopes with problems of access. 400mm high cylindrical tank (Fig. 5). A 48mm diameter
The piles must be designed to be deep enough to cut any plastic tube was located vertically in the centre of the tank
potential failure planes, and in the case of failed slopes must prior to clay addition to act as a temporary void former.
cut the existing failure plane(s). The pattern of pile 42. Six manometer installations were constructed within
installation should allow for widely-spaced treatment the clay, the readings being taken at 65,130 and 205mm
initially with progressively smaller spacing thereafter and from the face of the lime pile at two different levels. The
work should proceed from the bottom upwards. This latter manometer installations were constructed from saturated
recommendation would ensure that any effects of pile sand pockets, from which constant volume tubes ran out of
volume increase would not result in any reduction in the tank to mercury manometer boards. It should be noted
stability, although the authors feel that this would be that the Weald Clay was somewhat drier and stronger than
adequately compensated for by the water content reduction. the Upper Lias Clay when placed (Table 3).
43. The clays were sealed and allowed to come to
399

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 REMEDIAL

Table 3 Properties of Clay Samples Used for Lime Piles

Research

UPPER WEALD
LIAS CLAY CLAY

Location Near Ml Jn. 15, Burgess Hill,

Northants Sussex

Description Dark blue/grey Dark blue/grey

slightly silty clay silty clay

Water As Dug 31% As Dug 23%

Content .Wetted up to 38% Wetted up to 27%

Atterberg LL = 58% LL = 48% 10 20 30

Limits PL = 25% PL = 27% Curing Time (days)
PI = 33% PI = 18%

Classification Figure 7 Change in Undrained Shear Strength with

CH CI Time for Weald and Upper Lias Clays
(BS 5930:1981)

55 and 60mm, and this was associated with radial cracking

equilibrium for one week prior to control tests being carried at the surface. A similar observation has been reported in
out and the lime pile being constructed. The pile was Ref. 14 for lime piles in Loess and is explained by the
formed by removing the plastic pipe and filling the resulting expansive reaction that occurs as the quicklime takes in
void with compacted quicklime (97% CaO). Once the pile water. This phenomenon is also reflected in the typical
was complete, 38mm diameter, cylindrical samples were porewater pressure measurements shown in Fig. 6. The
taken at distances of 65,135 and 205mm from the pile after greatest reductions in each case were closest to the pile
0, 1, 7, 14, 28 and (for Lias clay) 56 days. In the case of (Location 3), with a progressive reduction in the effect with
the Upper Lias Clay the samples were taken at three distance. The reduction in porewater pressure is
different heights, resulting in nine samples at each time, and approximately 2.5 times as great for the Weald Clay than for
the clay barrel was resealed. In the case of Weald Clay Upper Lias Clay, probably due to its initially drier state. In
three samples were taken from mid-height of the sample and addition the values for Weald Clay remained constant after
the holes thus formed were filled with wax prior to 15 days, whereas the values for Lias Clay reduced with
resealing. time, perhaps reflecting the need for waxing the sampling
44. The undrained shear strength of the clay was voids. It should also be noted that no rise in pore pressure
measured in situ using a hand shear vane at each point prior is associated with lateral expansion of the pile, thus
to the removal of the samples. The samples were tested for confirming the authors' belief that lateral consolidation
Atterberg Limits (Ref. 16) and calcium ion content (Ref. effects are solely due to water removal. The water content
17). Water content measurements were also taken, although of the Weald Clay was found to fall by 2.2%, 1.8% and
these were inexplicably incomplete for the Upper Lias Clay. 0.4% at locations 3, 2 and 1 respectively, the majority of the
Manometer readings were taken at the same time as these fall occurring within the first seven days.
tests and at intermediate stages also. 46. The reduction in porewater pressures is reflected in
45. One day after installation of the piles, they were the measurements of strength, which increased as shown in
found to have increased in diameter from 48mm to between Fig. 7. Note that only the measurements for the middle

Manometer Location
OM1 #M2 D M3
Weald Clay
Upper Lias Clay

55
10 20 20 30
Curing Time (days) Curing Time (days)

Figure 6 Change in Porewater Pressure with Time Figure 8 Change in Liquid Limit with Time for
for Weald and Upper Lias Clay Upper Lias Clay
400

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 PAPER 56 : ROGERS AND BRUCE

c ) (BBOfe Sample ,ocation

O T1 M1 B1
32
• T2 M2 B2
D M3 B3
D T3

30

1 7. O t
[ I
% D
"tJ5
S. 26
Sample Location D

OM1 #M2 D M3

20 30 40 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Curing Time (days) Calcium Ion Concentration (%)

Figure 9 Change in Plastic Limit and Plasticity Figure 11 Relationship between Plasticity Index
Index with Time for Upper Lias Clay and Calcium Ion Concentration
for Upper Lias Clay
layer are shown for Lias Clay. Those for the top and
bottom layers conformed to the same pattern, though with 49. The changes in plasticity are attributed to migration
slightly higher strength gains at each position. The increase of calcium ions, the progress of which was assessed by
in undrained shear strength is greatest close to the pile, as taking measurements of calcium ion content. The changes
expected, but was not found to fully reflect the changes in in concentration of calcium ions are shown in Fig. 10,
water content and porewater pressure, although these are which shows remarkably similar rates of migration in both
clearly major influences. Note that the strength is still clays. It should be noted that the quantities are very small.
increasing at 28 days, this observation being confirmed by 50. The changes in ion concentration appear to reflect
the strengths of Lias Clay at 58 days of 12.4, 10.0 and 9.0 those in plasticity index and this is demonstrated in Fig. 11
kPa at locations 3, 2 and 1 respectively. for Lias Clay and, more precisely, in Fig. 12 for Weald
47. The changes in Atterberg Limits conformed to those Clay. It has already been stated that undrained shear
of lime-soil mixtures (Ref. 18) and confirmed the strength measurements are influenced by water content and
observations of Ruenkrairergsa and Rimsarn (Ref. 15). The porewater pressure changes, but a change in strength is also
changes in liquid limit for Lias Clay are shown in Fig. 8, expected because of calcium ion modification and
and the changes in Plastic Limit and Plasticity stabilisation and this is examined in Fig. 13. While further
Index in Fig. 9. The liquid limit falls relatively rapidly research is planned to examine these effects fully, a clear
within the first seven days and thereafter reduces steadily, relationship is shown.
with the greatest changes close to the pile. The Plastic Limit 51. It is thus apparent from these experiments that lime
rises somewhat more steadily and is continuing to rise pile installation causes immediate benefits in terms of
markedly between 28 and 56 days. The Plasticity Index porewater pressure reduction and shear strength increase.
clearly reflects these two trends with decreases ranging from In addition the strength continues to increase with time
4.0% (location 1, top layer) to 7.6% (location 3, bottom while the porewater pressure reduction and water content
layer). changes were found to largely stabilise after 7 to 14 days.
48. The pattern of changes in plasticity data was very The migration of calcium ions significantly affects the
similar for Weald Clay, with reductions in Plasticity Index plasticity indices of the clays and the steady increase with
of 2.5, 2.9 and 4.2% after 28 days at locations 1, 2 and 3 time is thought to explain the continued strength gain.
respectively.
0.03 22
Sample Location
Sample Location
O M1 # M2 Q M3

O M1 • M2 • M3

20
0.02

iS 18
0.01

C.OOc 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03

10 20 30
Calcium Ion Concentration (%)
Curing Time (days)

Figure 10 Change in Calcium Ion Concentration Figure 12 Relationship between Plasticity Index
with Time for Weald and Upper Lias and Calcium Ion Concentration for Weald
Clays Clay
401

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 6. LUNDY, H.L. and GREENFIELD, B J .
Evaluation of deep in-situ soil stabilisation by high pressure
lime slurry injection. Highway Research Record No.235,
Transportation Research Board, USA, 1968, pp.27-35.
7. BELL, F.G. Stabilisation and treatment of clay
soils with lime, Part 2 - some applications. Ground
Engineering, Vol.21, No.2, 1988, p.22-30.
8. BROMS, B.B. and BOMAN, P. Stabilisation of
deep cuts with lime columns. Proc. 6th European Conf. on
SM&FE, Vienna, 1976, pp.207-210.
9. BROMS, B.B. and BOMAN, P. Lime columns - a
Sample Location
new foundation method. Proc. of ASCE, Vol. 105, No.
OM1 #M2 • M3
GT4, April, 1979, pp.539-556.
Weald Clay 10. BROMS, B.B. and BOMAN, P. Stabilisation of
Upper Lias Clay soil with lime columns. Ground Engineering, Vol.12,
May, 1979, p.23-32.
(T01 0.02 0.03
11. BRUCE, C.J., COBBE, M.I. and ROGERS,
Calcium Ion Concentration (%) C.D.F. Compaction characteristics of lime-stabilised
capping layers, Lime Stabilisation '88 Symposium,
Figure 13 Relationship between Undrained Shear BACMI, London, 9th March, 1988, p.60-105.
Strength and Calcium Ion Concentration 12. ROGERS, C.D.F. and BRUCE, CJ. The strength
for Weald and Upper Lias Clays of lime-stabilised British clays. Lime Stabilisation '90
Symposium, BACMI, London, 1st March, 1990, p.57'-72.
13. COBBE, M.I. and WRENCH, P.N. Saddington
These observations confirm both the short- and long-term cutting slip repair - research into the use of lime stabilised
benefits expected of lime pile construction. clay as embankment fill. Lime Stabilisation '90
Symposium, Sutton Coldfield, BACMI, 1st March, 1990,
CONCLUSIONS pp.73-83.
52. Both newly constructed cutting and embankment 14. TSYTOVICH, N.A., ABELEV, M. Yu, and
slopes and failed existing slopes can be successfully TAKHIROV, I.G. Compacting saturated loess soils by
stabilised using deep lime stabilisation techniques. When means of lime piles. Proc. 4th Conf. on Soil Mechanics,
applied to new slope construction, the slope angle can be Budapest, 1971, pp.837-842.
increased and this has considerable economic implications 15. RUENKRAIRERGSA, T. and RIMSARN, T.
for the new road construction programme. The stabilisation Deep hole lime stabilisation for unstable clay shale
of existing slopes where movement has taken, or is taking, embankment. Proc. of 7th SE Asia Geotechnics Conf.,
place is likewise of considerable economic benefit. Hong Kong, 22-26th November, 1982, pp.631-645.
53. Of the three techniques described, the lime pile 16. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS
method has the greatest potential since small equipment, 1377: 1975 Methods of test for soils for Civil Engineering
capable of gaining access to difficult or unstable slopes, can purposes. BSI, April 1975.
be used. This method also has the greatest potential for 17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS
flexibility of operation. Whichever method is used, the clay 1924: 1975 Methods of test for stabilised soils. BSI, April
to be treated must be carefully tested to ensure that the 1975.
expected benefits, particularly long-term strength gain, will 18. THOMPSON, M.R. Factors influencing the
be achieved. In the same way the method by which each plasticity and strength of lime-soil mixtures. Bulletin 492,
method achieves its benefits should be understood since Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois,
each method works in a fundamentally different way. The USA, 1967.
engineering of slopes requires very careful consideration of
design parameters and potential failure mechanisms, and
this must be also applied to any remedial or improvement ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
techniques.
54. The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
REFERENCES Messrs Len Threadgold and Mike Cobbe of Geotechnics
1. NATIONAL LIME ASSOCIATION. Lime slurry Ltd for their contributions to the research into deep lime
pressure injection, Bulletin 331, NLA, Arlington, Virginia, stabilisation techniques, and of Vincent Loh who carried out
USA, 1985. part of the experimental work at Loughborough University.
2. INGLES, O.G. and METCALF, J.B. Soil
stabilisation, principles and practice. Butterworths, 1972.
3. DUMBLETON, MJ. Investigations to assess the DrC. D.F.Rogers
potentialities of lime for soil stabilisation in the UK. Road Please note that the levels of calcium ion concentra-
Research Lab. Technical Paper No.64, TRRL, Crowthorne, tion recorded in the printed Paper were calculated erro-
Berkshire, 1962. neously and are in every case five times too small For
4. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD. Lime example the graphs shown in Figs 11,12 and 13 should
stabilisation state-of-the-art report: reactions, properties, have scales on the abscissae that read 0 to 0.30%, 0.15%
design and construction. National Research Council, and 0.15% respectively. This error does not influence
Washington DC, USA, 1987. the discussion or conclusions in any way since it was
5. CRUDEN, D.M. Personal communication, only the pattern of cation concentration that was studied,
University of Alberta, Canada, 1989. not the absolute values.

402

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