Chapter 2

Frequency Distributions
and Graphs
 Outline

2-1 Organizing Data

2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

2-3 Other Types of Graphs

 OBJECTIVES

1 Organize data using a frequency distribution.

2
Represent data in frequency distributions graphically
using histograms, frequency polygons, and ogives.

Represent data using bar graphs, Pareto charts, time

3
series graphs, and pie graphs.

4 Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.

2-1 Organizing Data

When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the
specific variable under study, Data collected in original form is called raw data.

To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the

researcher must organize the data in some meaningful way.

The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency

distribution.

After organizing the data, the researcher must present them by constructing
statistical charts and graphs.
2-1 Organizing Data

What is frequency distribution? Data collected in

their original form

It is the organization of raw data in table form, using

classes and frequencies

Each raw data value

is placed into a The number of
quantitative or data values
qualitative category contained in a
called classes. specific class called
frequency
2-1 Organizing Data

Types of
frequency
distribution

Categorical Grouped Ungrouped

frequency frequency frequency
distribution distribution distribution

Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Example 2-1 p#43: Distribution of blood types :

Categorical Frequency Distribution

Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood
type.
A B B AB O
O O B AB B
B B O A O
A O O O AB
AB A O B A

Q: Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Example 2-1: Distribution of blood types :
Distribution of blood types
Step1: make a table with Class limits Tally Frequency percent
heading.
Step2: tally the data. A //// 5 (5/25) *100=
Step3: record the 20
frequencies. B //// // 7 28
Step4: calculate and record
percentages. O //// //// 9 36
Step5: find the totals of AB //// 4 16
columns.
25 100
Grouped Frequency Distribution

• Grouped frequency distributions are used when the range of the data is large.

• The smallest and largest possible data values in a class are the lower and upper class
limits (LCL,UCL).
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
• 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
• Class boundaries separate the classes.
To find a class boundary:
( average the upper-class limit of one class and the lower-class limit of the next class)
(Lower class boundaries= LCB=LCL-0.5,
Upper class boundaries= UCL+0.5)

9
Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency Distributions

1. There should be 5-20 classes.

2. The class width should be an odd number.
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
4. The classes must be continuous.
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width (except in open-ended distributions).

10
Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency Distributions

Important definitions:

1- Frequency: The number of data values contained in a specific class called

frequency.
2- Relative frequency : is the fraction of times that a given value occurs
within a set of numbers.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Relative frequency =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
3- Cumulative relative frequency: is the accumulation of the previous
frequencies.

Bluman Chapter 2 11
Example2.2 p #47: Record high temperatures:

Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution :

The following data represent the record high temperatures for each of the 50
states. Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using 7
classes.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

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Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 1 Determine the classes.

Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes 7.
STEP 2 Tally the data.
STEP 3 Find the frequencies.
STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by keeping a running total of
the frequencies.

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Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 1 Determine the classes. Class

Find the class width by dividing the range by the Limits
number of classes 7. 100 - 104
Range = High – Low 105 - 109
= 134 – 100 = 34 110 - 114
115 - 119
Width = Range/7 = 34/7 = 4.8 ≈ 5 120 - 124
125 - 129
Rounding Rule: Always round up if a remainder. 130 - 134
Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

• The subsequent lower class limits are found by adding the width to the
previous lower class limits.

Class Limits
100 - 104 The first upper class limit is one
105 - 109 less than the next lower class limit.
110 - 114
115 - 119 The subsequent upper class limits
120 - 124 are found by adding the width to the
125 - 129 previous upper class limits.
130 - 134
Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

• The class boundary is midway between an upper-class limit and a

subsequent lower-class limit. 104,104.5,105

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5
Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 2 Tally the data.

STEP 3 Find the frequencies.

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
Example of Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by keeping a

running total of the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
50
Example 2-3: Hours of sleep (ungrouped frequency distribution)

• The following data represent the number of hours 30 college students said they
sleep per night.
• Construct a frequency distribution ..
8 6 6 8 5 7 7 8 7 6 6 7 9 7 7
6 8 10 6 7 6 7 8 7 7 8 7 8 9 8

30
Exercises 2-1: Problem #14
14. Trust in Internet Information
A survey was taken on how much trust people place in the information they read on the
Internet. Construct a categorical frequency distribution for the data.
A= trust in everything they read,
M= trust in most of what they read,
H= trust in about one-half of what they read,
S= trust in a small portion of what they read.

M M M A H M S M H M
S M M M M A M M A M
M M H M M M H M H M
A M M M H M M M M M
20 Bluman, Chapter 2
Exercises 2-1: Problem # 19
19. Ages of Declaration of Independence Signers
The ages of the signers of the Declaration of Independence are shown.
(Age is approximate since only the birth year appeared in the source,
and one has been omitted since his birth year is unknown.)
Construct a grouped frequency distribution and a cumulative frequency
distribution for the data using 7 classes.
41 54 47 40 39 35 50 37 49 42 70 32
44 52 39 50 40 30 34 69 39 45 33 42
44 63 60 27 42 34 50 42 52 38 36 45
35 43 48 46 31 27 55 63 46 33 60 62
35 46 45 34 53 50 50

21 Bluman, Chapter 2
 2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

• After you have organized the data into a frequency

distribution, you can present them in graphical form.
• Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to
analyze it.
• Graphs are also useful in getting the audience’s attention in a
publication or a speaking presentation.
• They can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical
point, or summarize a data set.
• They can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a
situation over a period of time .
22
 2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

The three Most Common Graphs in Research

1.Histogram
2.Frequency Polygon
3.Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

Bluman Chapter 2 23
 2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

The histogram is a graph that displays

the data by using vertical bars of
various heights to represent the
frequencies of the classes.
The class boundaries are represented
on the horizontal x axis.
The number of frequencies are
represented on the vertical y axis.

24
 Example 2-2: A Histogram
Construct a histogram to represent the data for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states.

Class Class
Frequency
Limits Boundaries
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1

25
 2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

• The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that
connect points plotted for the frequencies at the class midpoints. The
frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.
• The class midpoints are represented on the horizontal axis.

Bluman Chapter 2 26
 Example 2-2 : Frequency Polygons
Construct a frequency polygon to represent the data for
the record high temperatures for each of the 50 states.
Frequency polygons use class midpoints and frequencies of the classes.
A frequency
Class Class polygon
Frequency
Limits Midpoints is anchored on the
x-axis before the
100 - 104 102 2 first
105 - 109 107 8 class and after the
last class.
110 - 114 112 18
115 - 119 117 13
120 - 124 122 7
125 - 129 127 1
130 - 134 132 1
Bluman Chapter 2 27
2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

• The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative

frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.

• The upper-class boundaries are represented on the

horizontal axis.

Bluman Chapter 2 28
Example: Ogives

Construct an ogive to represent the data for the record high

temperatures for each of the 50 states.

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
Bluman Chapter 2 29
 Example: Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Cumulative
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50

Bluman Chapter 2 30
Example: Ogives
Figure 2–6 Finding a Specific Cumulative Frequency

• Cumulative frequency graphs are used

to visually represent how many values
are below a certain upper-class
boundary.

• For example, to find out how many

record high temperatures are less than
114.5F, locate 114.5F on the x axis,
draw a vertical line up until it intersects
the graph, and then draw a horizontal
line at that point to the y axis. The y
axis value is 28, as shown in Figure 2–6.

31 Bluman, Chapter 2
Relative frequency graphs
If proportions are used instead of frequencies, the graphs are called relative
frequency graphs.
Relative frequency graphs are used when the proportion of data values that fall
into a given class is more important than the actual number of data values that
fall into that class.
To convert a frequency into a proportion or relative frequency, divide the
frequency for each class by the total of the frequencies.
The sum of the relative frequencies will always be 1. These graphs are similar
to the ones that use raw data as frequencies, but the values on the y axis are in
terms of proportions.

Bluman Chapter 2 32
Example : Miles run per week : ( types of frequency graphs).

Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive using relative

frequencies for the distribution (shown here) of the miles that 20 randomly
selected runners ran during a given week.

Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5 1
10.5 - 15.5 2
15.5 - 20.5 3
20.5 - 25.5 5
25.5 - 30.5 4
30.5 - 35.5 3
35.5 - 40.5 2
Bluman Chapter 2 33
Example : Miles run per week

The following is a frequency distribution of miles run per

week by 20 selected runners.
Class Relative
Frequency
Boundaries Frequency
Divide each frequency by
5.5 - 10.5 1 1/20 = 0.05 the total frequency to get
10.5 - 15.5 2 2/20 = 0.10 the relative frequency.
15.5 - 20.5 3 3/20 = 0.15
20.5 - 25.5 5 5/20 = 0.25
25.5 - 30.5 4 4/20 = 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 3 3/20 = 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 2 2/20 = 0.10
f = 20 rf = 1.00
Bluman Chapter 2 34
Histograms
Use the class boundaries and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

Bluman Chapter 2 35
Frequency Polygons
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.

Class Class Relative

Boundaries Midpoints Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 8 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 13 0.10
15.5 - 20.5 18 0.15
20.5 - 25.5 23 0.25
25.5 - 30.5 28 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 33 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 38 0.10

Bluman Chapter 2 36
Frequency Polygons
Use the class midpoints and the
relative frequencies of the classes.

Bluman Chapter 2 37
Ogives

The following is a frequency distribution of

miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Cumulative Cum. Rel.
Frequency
Boundaries Frequency Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 1 1 1/20 = 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 2 3 3/20 = 0.15
15.5 - 20.5 3 6 6/20 = 0.30
20.5 - 25.5 5 11 11/20 = 0.55
25.5 - 30.5 4 15 15/20 = 0.75
30.5 - 35.5 3 18 18/20 = 0.90
35.5 - 40.5 2 20 20/20 = 1.00
f = 20
Bluman Chapter 2 38
Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.
Class Cum. Rel.
Boundaries Frequency
Less than 10.5 0.05
Less than 15.5 0.15
Less than 20.5 0.30
Less than 25.5 0.55
Less than 30.5 0.75
Less than 35.5 0.90
Less than 40.5 1.00

Bluman Chapter 2 39
Distribution shapes

• When one is describing data, it is important to be able to recognize the shapes

of the distribution values. The shape of a distribution also determines the
appropriate statistical methods used to analyze the data.

• A distribution can have many shapes, and one method of analyzing a

distribution is to draw a histogram or frequency polygon for the distribution.

• Several of the most common shapes are shown in Figure 2–8:

the bell-shaped or mound-shaped, the uniform shaped, the J-shaped, the
reverse J-shaped, the positively or right-skewed shape, the negatively or left-
skewed shape, the bimodal-shaped, and the U-shaped.

40 Bluman, Chapter 2
Shapes of Distributions

Bluman Chapter 2 41
Shapes of Distributions

Bluman Chapter 2 42
Exercise 2-2

43 Bluman, Chapter 2
Exercise 2-2

a. Construct a frequency distribution; include class limits, class

frequencies, midpoints, and cumulative frequencies.

b. How many values are in the class 27.5–30.5? 0

c. How many values fall between 24.5 and 36.5? 14

d. How many values are below 33.5? 10

e. How many values are above 30.5? 16

44 Bluman, Chapter 2
2.3 Other Types of Graphs

In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive, several
other types of graphs are often used in statistics.

They are the :

- bar graph or compound bar graph ,

- Pareto chart,
- time series graph,
- pie graph and a
- Dotplots..

Bluman Chapter 2 45
2.3 Bar Graphs

Bar Graph
When the data are qualitative or
categorical, bar graphs can be used to
represent the data.

A bar graph represents the data by using

vertical or horizontal bars whose heights
or lengths represent the frequencies of
the data.
2.3 Pareto Charts

Pareto chart is used to represent a

frequency distribution for a
categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the
heights of vertical bars, which are
arranged in order from highest to
lowest.
2.3 Time Series Graphs

When the data are collected over a

period of time, they can be represented
by a time series graph.
A time series graph represents data that
occur over a specific period of time.

48
 2.3 Pie Graphs

A pie graph is a circle that is divided into

sections or wedges according to the
percentage of frequencies in each
category of the distribution.

Bluman Chapter 2 49
 2.3 Dotplots
A dot plot is a statistical graph in which each data value is plotted
as a point (dot) above the horizontal axis.

Number of Named Tropical storms Each year for the year 1917-2010

50
Example 2-8 bar graph: College spending for first –year Student

51 Bluman, Chapter 2
Example 2-8 College spending for first –year Student

52 Bluman, Chapter 2
Example 2-8 compound bar graph:

Compound Bar Graphs are types of bar graphs where columns can
be split into sections to show two or more quantities of data.

53 Bluman, Chapter 2
Example 2-8 Pareto graph: College spending for first –year Student

The data shown consist of the average number of hours that a

commuter spends in traffic congestion per year in each city. Draw
and analyze a Pareto chart for the data.

54 Bluman, Chapter 2
55 Bluman, Chapter 2
Pareto Chart

56 Bluman, Chapter 2
Time series graph

Example 2-10 The number of homicides that occurred in the

workplace for the years 2003 to 2008 is shown. Draw and
analyze a time series graph for the data.

57 Bluman, Chapter 2
Time series graph

Bluman Chapter 2 58
 Time series graph
Two or more data sets can be compared on the same graph called a
compound time series graph if two or more lines are used, as shown
in Figure 2–13.
This graph shows the percentage of elderly males and females in the
United States labor force from 1960 to 2008.

59 Bluman, Chapter 2
Pie Graph
• Pie graphs are used extensively in statistics. The
purpose of the pie graph is to show the relationship of
the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes
of the sections.

• Percentages or proportions can be used. The variable is

nominal or categorical.

60 Bluman, Chapter 2
Construction of Pie Graph
• Step 1: Since there are 360 in a circle, the frequency for each
class must be converted into a proportional part of the circle.
This conversion is done by using the formula
𝑓
Degree = ×360°
𝑛
Where ƒ= frequency for each category and n= total frequency. The
degrees should sum to 360°.

• Step 2: Each frequency must also be converted to a percentage.

𝑓
%= ×100
𝑛
• Step 3: Using a protractor and a compass, draw the graph using
the appropriate degree measures found in step 1, and label each
section with the name and percentages.

61 Bluman, Chapter 2
Construction of Pie Graph

Example 2 -11: Super Bowl Snack Foods

• This frequency distribution shows the number of
pounds of each snack food eaten during the Super
Bowl. Construct a pie graph for the data.

62 Bluman, Chapter 2
Construction of Pie Graph

63 Bluman, Chapter 2
Construction of Pie Graph

64 Bluman, Chapter 2
Construction of Pie Graph

65 Bluman, Chapter 2
Stem and Leaf Plots

• The stem and leaf plot is a method of organizing data and is a

combination of sorting and graphing. It has the advantage over
a grouped frequency distribution of retaining the actual data
while showing them in graphical form.

• A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that uses part of the data
value as the stem and part of the data value as the leaf to form
groups or classes.

• It has the advantage over grouped frequency distribution of

retaining the actual data while showing them in graphic form.

66 Bluman, Chapter 2
Stem and Leaf plots: Example 2–13

At an outpatient testing center, the number of

cardiograms performed each day for 20 days is
shown. Construct a stem and leaf plot for the
data.

13 32 20 31 25
23 57 2 43 14
44 32 33 32 36
45 51 44 52 32

Bluman Chapter 2 67
 Stem and Leaf plots: Example 2–13

13 32 20 31 25
23 57 2 43 14
Key: 2|5≡25
44 32 33 32 36
45 51 44 52 32

Unordered Stem Plot Ordered Stem Plot

0 2 0 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
2 5 0 3 2 0 3 5
3 1 2 6 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 6
4 3 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 5
5 7 2 1 5 1 2 7

Bluman Chapter 2 68
69 Bluman, Chapter 2
END OF CHAPTER 1