CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

New generations of journalism techniques have emerged as a result of the development of

information and communication technology (ICT) (Hamdiet al., 2020). The way in which
audiences consume news material has changed as a result of innovations like citizen journalism,
news websites, social media, and blogs. Because it occurs in real-time and enables dialogues,
social media is a potent instrument for communication. Social media encourages communication
and public involvement in a range of human concerns. Social media's unrestricted interactive
nature has created a wealth of chances for the public to connect with one another about a variety
of related topics, including those related to government, development, security, education, and
protests, which is the primary subject of this study. The most recent nationwide outburst of
protest in Nigeria is the #EndSARS protest.

In 2020, social media was dramatically used to disseminate information and organize Nigerian
youths for the #EndSARS protest, a large-scale demonstration against money extortion and
police brutality. Beginning in early October 2020, #EndSARS was a decentralized demonstration
against police brutality in Nigeria. The protests started after a video spread on social media
allegedly depicting an extrajudicial death by Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) officers, a
division of the Nigerian Police Force (NPF) in charge of looking into violent crimes. The Special
Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), which was described as a cruel unit of the Nigerian Police due to
its history of abuses, was called out by the social movement as needing to be abolished. The
focus of the demonstration initially was on police brutality, but it gradually expanded to include
other issues like corruption, violence, and breaches of human rights nationwide (George, 2020).
The U.S. State Department describes these organizations as "credible international
organizations," and they have previously accused SARS members of committing serious human
rights violations (George, 2020).

People were primarily informed about the reasons behind and methods used to hold the
demonstration through social media (Uwazuruike, 2020). The #EndSARS protest was especially
noteworthy because of how Twitter and other social media sites were utilized to encourage

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participants both inside and outside of Nigeria. These actions in the social media prompted
President MuhammaduBuharito declared on October 11, 2020 that SARS would be dissolved
and its officers would be retrained and redeployed as part of a new task force in response to
protesters' calls for the unit to be disbanded, which were amplified on Twitter and other social
media using the hashtag #EndSARS (Uwazuruike, 2020). Demonstrations and social media
campaigns continued, despite the President pronouncement with activists criticizing SARS’s
dissolution as insufficient and calling for additional reforms, including accountability for past
abuses compensations and higher police salaries to reduce incentives for extortion.

In addition, it is not unusual for social media to play a key part in the planning and execution of
effective social protests in Nigeria. Studies have shown that Twitter has been used to incite and
fuel social unrest in both developing and established democracies around the world (Hari, 2014).
Twitter is currently developing into a political platform where national and sub-national
governments may be held accountable, responsive, and responsible, similar to other new media
(Ibezim-Ohaeri, 2017; Suleiman, 2017; Uldam & Vestergaard, 2015). However, there is growing
skepticism regarding the veracity of news reported on and shared via social media. For instance,
during the EndSARS protests, there was a great need for factual information including where
protests would occur and the time to converge; who is doing a particular thing that is of interest;
and how to spur other young Nigerians to take part in the agitations offline and online. The
protests were a significant subject for the traditional media since they affected practically every
state in the nation. According to all definitions of what constitutes news, it was crucial to provide
enough coverage. It is crucial that media outlets be mindful of conveying accurate information
and double-check the veracity of any Web-based news before distributing it to the general
public. If a reporter writes false news story from stories from social media channels and the facts
are not properly checked by the editor, and since social media's voracious appetite fuels rapid
information dissemination, including the mainstream media using their online platforms to
disseminate information in real time, there is a risk of a perfect fake news storm. The use of
social media in Nigeria today confirms that it is not immune from being used to distribute both
true and false information during times of crisis. Media outlets must now have access to a system
to identify potentially false information. This study seek to investigate audiences’ perception of
the credibility of social media coverage of the #EndSARS protest.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Because of the potential they give for information distribution and freedom of expression, social
media are becoming more and more important to the fundamental right of communication and to
the protection of human rights in general. However, since there are no intermediaries, such as
gatekeepers, to double-check the information, it can be used to disseminate both true and
misleading information. Most of the time, social media users are unable to confirm the veracity
of such material. Regardless of whether the posts are factually accurate, many users will share
them anyhow, thus disseminating the information. The 2020 #EndSARS demonstration in
Nigeria served as a potent example of how citizens might band together to fight against dubious
activities carried out within the national administrative system. The use of social media as tools
for social mobilization has been observed all over Nigeria, notably among young people who are
organizing against financial extortion and police brutality. Social media was used to spread a lot
of the #EndSARS information. Conor, 2019; Eze, 2020) have found that social media
information can also turn individuals against the government, raising concerns about its veracity.
The events at the #EndSARS rally in Nigeria showed the same thing. This may be related to the
fact that false information was disseminated over social media. Discussions about
demonstrations against the abusive use of government authority in various circles have
demonstrated how false, unverified, and unsubstantiated information may propagate on social
media. While this assertion might be accurate under some circumstances, it is unknown if the
same circumstances existed during the #EndSARS protest in Nigeria. It is on this premise that
this study became imperative, to investigate the perception of audience on the credibility of
social media coverage of the #EndSARS protest in Nigeria.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine audience perception of the credibility of social
media coverage of the EndSARS protest: a study of ESUT and Federal College of Agriculture
Ishiagu Academic Staff.

The specific objectives include to;

1. Evaluate the level of awareness of the #EndSARS protest on social media among FCAI
and ESUT Academic Staff

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 2. Investigate the perception of audience on the role of social media in news reportage
during the #EndSARS protest in the study area.

3. Investigate the credibility of social media in news reportage as against traditional media
during the #EndSARS protest.

4. Ascertain the extent to which audience in the study area perceive social media news
content as reliable.

1.4 Research Questions

To meet the above stated objectives, the following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the level of awareness of the #EndSARS protest reported on social media among
FCAI and ESUT Academic Staff?

2. What are the roles of social media in news reportage during the #EndSARS protest in the
study area?

3. What is the credibility level of social media in news reportage as against traditional
media during the #EndSARS protest?

4. What is the extent to which audience in the study area perceive social media news as
reliable?

1.5 Hypothesis

The following hypothesis are formulated to guide your study:

Hypothesis One

1. H1: There is significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest.

H0: There is no significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of
the #EndSARS protest.

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Hypothesis Two

2. H1: There is significant relationship between social media awareness and its usage in
news reportage during the #EndSARS protest.

H0: There is no significant relationship between social media awareness and its usage in
news reportage during the #EndSARS protest.

Hypothesis Three

3. H1: There is significant relationship between media awareness and the perception of social
media as a credible news source.

H0: There is no significant relationship between media awareness and the perception of
social media as a credible news source.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study has both theoretical and practical significance.

Practically speaking, the study's findings will help us better comprehend how social media could
be a respectable substitute news source for users and the general populace. It will especially shed
light on how much young people rely on news and information from social networks, compared
to traditional mass media, and which news sources they prefer in their daily activities.

The study's findings will be helpful to the government as policy makers by providing
information on how to use social media to disseminate news about government policies and
improve governance. Additionally, without a valid and trustworthy method of measuring
credibility, it will be difficult to take effective governmental measures for managing credibility
in social media. This study will reveal the most effective approaches to raise the credibility of
alternative media material for the media business as a whole.

Theoretically, this research will add to the body of knowledge in social science about the
reliability of news sources and providing real live pictorial news on social media. Finally, the
study will be advantageous to academics because it will uncover new areas ripe for research that
may be used in furtherance of the study.

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1.7 Scope of the Study

This study seeks to investigate audience perception of the credibility of social media coverage of
EndSARS protest. The opinion of respondents will be gathered from the academic staff of
Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu and Enugu State University of Science and Technology
(ESUT), any conclusion or inference made will be based on the results obtained from the
analysis of the answers given by respondents within this two institutions.

1.8 Definition of Terms

The definition of the most commonly used terms in the study are given below;

Credibility: Credibility refers to the degree of trust and acceptance of the speaker and the
information conveyed by the audience.

Internet activism: is where digital tools (the internet, mobile phones, social media etc) are used
for bringing about social and/or political change.

Internet: The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network
of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of
local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies.

Protest: Protest most commonly means a public show of disapproval of or opposition to

something.

Social Media: Social media are interactive digitally-mediated technologies that facilitate the
creation or sharing/exchange of information, ideas, career interests, and other forms of
expression via virtual communities and networks.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Social Media and Situational Awareness: An Overview

Internet-based tools that allow people to exchange resources and information are referred to as
"social media." Blogs, message boards, chat rooms, wikis, YouTube channels, LinkedIn,
Facebook, and Twitter are a few examples of social media. Computers, smart phones, and cell
phones may all be used to access social media, and their use is a growing trend. Rapid
advancements in communication over the past ten years have allowed people to engage and share
information via media that were either nonexistent or widely unavailable just 24 years ago
(Bruce, 2011).

A variety of public safety information has been shared via social media before, during, and after
numerous situations. Many disaster management groups use social media to tell the public on
preparedness and readiness before (or in the absence of) a catastrophe. Social media platforms
are also used for customer service and outreach to the local community by asking for feedback
on issues pertaining to public safety (Bruce, 2011). During emergencies, social media also serve
as a source of information. For instance, after the Fort Hood massacres in 2009, the U.S. Army
used its Twitter account to post news and updates. In a similar vein, the American Red Cross
used Facebook to post alerts about impending calamities. However, rather than emergency
management authorities or groups, citizens typically publish the most frequently requested and
widely spread information. For instance, during the Virginia Tech shooting in April 2007,
warnings were primarily distributed online by students and unofficial sources, and during the
Southern California Wildfires in 2007, people sought information through social media because
they believed that news sources were either too vague or inaccurate (Leysia, 2008).

Social media has grown in popularity in recent years as a means of delivering fresh information
and quick communications, particularly during natural disasters. One such service is Twitter,
which enables users to use Web- or mobile-based platforms to broadcast brief textual messages,
or tweets, to an audience of followers. The fact that Twitter is real-time is a key feature. Users
constantly update the site with what they are doing and thinking, and they frequently come back
to check what others are up to. This results in a large number of user updates, many of which

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contain valuable information about current occurrences, such as cyclones, bushfires, and natural
disasters like earthquakes. The increasing usage of social media in times of crisis provides new
information sources that the appropriate authorities can use to better understand emergency
situations. During natural disasters, survivors in the affected areas can provide firsthand accounts
of what they are seeing, hearing, and feeling. Near real-time observations regarding disaster
scenes, including aerial photos and videos, can be made by locals. This is especially helpful in
dire emergency scenarios when communication would be difficult for residents of blackout
zones. During disaster scenarios, emergency officials might gain a better understanding of "the
big picture" by utilizing the collective intelligence of the people. As a result, they could decide
how best to deploy help, rescue, and recovery efforts (Bruce, 2011).

By keeping an eye on the flow of information from various sources during an event, social media
could be utilized to notify emergency managers and officials of specific circumstances.
"Situational awareness" could be established by watching information flows. The capacity to
recognize, consider, and comprehend crucial aspects of an event or circumstance is known as
situational awareness. Real-time information can assist authorities in locating persons, assessing
victim needs, and warning the public and first responders to changing circumstances and
emerging threats (Vieweg et al., 2010). The ability of the public to interact with the government
may improve thanks to social media in real time situations. Social media could potentially
change emergency communication because information can flow in multiple directions (known
as backchannel communications), whereas current emergency communication systems have
largely been centralized via one-way communication—from the agency or organizations to
individuals and communities (Bruce, 2011). With the trend of the matter on twitter, they got to
have access to the information faster, which they cannot claim not to see. The majority of
government officials, from the then president to his special advisers and ministers, have active
twitter handles and use these handles to disseminate information to the general public.

The legitimacy of social media has recently come under scrutiny. For instance, at one point,
Liyel Imoke, Chimaroke Nnamani, Sullivan Chime, and Olusegun Obasanjo, among others, were
purportedly dead, according to social media. The social media then posted eye-catching
headlines and images of these alleged demises. These people are still very much alive today.
There are, however, some social media reports that stood up to the credibility test.

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Social connections may become even more crucial for the spread of knowledge as the world
becomes more interconnected through various communication channels, especially in times of
crisis where information may be shared in almost real-time. Misinformation is frequently spread
on social media, whether on purpose or out of ignorance, as the source of most of it cannot
always be verified (Umeh, 2007).

The mass media, their audience, and practitioners have all benefited greatly from the social
media and internet's numerous and profound interactions. The internet "therefore connects each
individual user to a sophisticated network where information can be accessed with complete
disregard for time and location," according to Amodu (2007). According to (McQuail (2008),a
renowned communication media specialist, "conventional mass communication was
fundamentally one-directional while the new forms of communication (social media) are
inherently participatory." A distinct perception of what news is in the eyes of the public and
eventually how they use the media may be created by the emergence of social media, which are
currently popular due to their distinctive qualities in the communication industry. This is
extremely consistent with Nwammuo's assertion that "the major channel of communication
modifies the way we experience the world" (2001). Without a doubt, the people are dominated
by the dominating medium of any century. By their very nature, social media can 'inflame' an
audience by teaching, enlightening, entertaining, and so on. Most importantly, they have a
"contagious and far-reaching influence" that the mainstream media lacks. This potential is
referred to as the "unstoppable force of the social media" by Osahenye (2012).Social media have
grown to be "a widespread tool for communication and exchange of ideas, helping individuals
and organizations with just causes to reach a phenomenally vast audience that could hitherto not
be reached by traditional media," according to Onomo (2012), who also acknowledges their
power. People move en masse to the use of new media forms in an effort to satiate their thirst for
information since it may be that the present conventional media lack or have lost such prowess of
immediate conscientization of the audience.

Aja (2011) asserts that "conventional media entities such as radio, television, newspapers and
magazines seem to have lost significance and their viewership" in accordance with the
justifications above. According to the European Society of Professional Journalists (2001),
people who "use alternative media sources" are progressively avoiding the news and information

9
of the traditional media. The social media mostly make up the most important alternative media
outlets used globally. In especially in Nigeria, the influence of the new media genre has yet to be
matched globally. It is true that social media has carved out a place for itself in the world of
interpersonal communication.

Even while social media portrays social interaction through messages, it is still a simple form of
communication between people. The new media outlets have created a large, interactive digital
community where people can connect and quickly share information about events as they happen
across the world. People can easily learn more from this than from any other source.

Over the years, visitation, letter-writing, and the employment of various "folk media or
Oramedia," in the words of Ugboaja mentioned in Ebeze, were the main forms of
communication in Nigeria (2002). Human communication channels are fundamentally dynamic
in nature, which means they are always changing. Since the prehistoric era, human
communication has been dynamic. Its evolution has progressed from those early, straightforward
interpersonal communication methods to the sophisticated use of print and/or broadcast media,
and finally to the modern era of the internet and cutting-edge telecommunications, where
communication engineering and technological development gave rise to social media.

The development of the technology that gave rise to social media represents the pinnacle of
modern man's inventiveness and desire to further his means of communication. This
phenomenon is mostly a result of computers, the internet, and other contemporary technologies.
"Never have there been so many possibilities for remaining in touch," note Ajakaiye et al.
(2019). "Text messages, online social networks, chat rooms- there has never been a moment
when the methods of interacting were so numerous and simple to find," continue Ajakaiye et al.
(2019).Social media's introduction and applications represent major technological advances in
the history of human communication. They are specifically redefining public communication.
Examining the social media's built-in instantaneous feedback, participation features, availability
(ubiquity), and audience brand reveals that they represent a distinctly original genre in the realm
of mass communication.

When Edogor (2008) stated that "the kind of communication that thrives on the internet is related
to free expression in all its forms...it is open source, free-posting, decentralized broadcasting,

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serendipitous interaction," he was referring to the communication pattern engineered by social
media.

2.2 Social Media as a Tool for Fast Information Dissemination

Writing in 2009, Clay Shirky describes the devastating earthquake that struck China's Sichuan
province on May 12, 2008. This was a significant international news event with 70,000 fatalities,
350,000 injuries, and 5 Million people left homeless; however, according to Shirky (2009), the
initial reports did not come from traditional news outlets but rather from Sichuan residents who
posted messages on QQ, China's largest social network, and on Twitter, the most well-known
microblogging service. Early reports of the earthquake were broadcast while it was still
trembling and before it was covered by any of the more established news outlets. In fact,
according to Shirky (2009), Rory Cellan-Jones initially learnt about the earthquake from Twitter
before reporting it to the BBC. This occurrence wasn't one-of-a-kind or isolated. Twitter has
been credited as the first outlet to tell news consumers about the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks
and as the first outlet to publish both written words and video after US Airways Flight 1549
made its emergency landing in the Hudson River on January 15, 2009. (Wright & Hinson, 2009).

The public relations sector is likewise experiencing this kind of situation. The Institute for Public
Relations issued its first official Twitter announcement of Robert W. Grupp's nomination as
President and CEO on March 5, 2009, with effect from July 2009. According to Keith O'Brien,
Editor of PR Week in 2009, Twitter has significantly changed various facets of public relations.
According to Ajakaiye (2019), a technology author and former editor of Windows magazine,
social media has supplanted television as Americans' primary news source. Social media
networking sites have grown in popularity every year since they first came into existence, which
was probably many years ago (Wright & Hinson, 2009).Although other social networking sites
like Facebook, Instagram, and Whatsapp also disseminate information, it has been observed over
the years that I have used these platforms that the majority of government officials first update
their Twitter accounts before considering posting the same information to other social media
platforms.

Nigeria's median age is 17.9, and the country's young people used their technological clout to
call attention to the abuse of demonstrators around the world. The Lekki shooting, which has
attracted significant condemnation from world leaders like Rihanna, Kanye West, Joe Biden,

11
Hillary Clinton, Lewis Hamilton, Pope Francis, and many more, prompted this to increase. The
#EndSARS movement began in 2017 when young people in Nigeria used the hashtag to discuss
the violence and assaults committed by the now-defunct Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS).
The campaign, however, didn't get up again until early October, when footage of what was
believed to be SARS unit police officers apparently shooting an unarmed young man surfaced.
With the hashtags #EndSARS, #Endpolicebrutality, and many more, young Nigerians flocked to
Twitter to demand that the Federal Government dismantle the infamous police unit and
implement police reform. The hashtag was consistently trending on Twitter as young Nigerians
shared their struggles and experiences. Uwazuruike (2020) claims that only 21% of Nigeria's 82
million internet users use Twitter. Instagram and Youtube trail behind Facebook, which has a
55.94% market share, at 5.02% and 3.72%, respectively. According to Idakwo (2011), Twitter is
by far the most effective social media medium for social movements since relationships on the
site are not tailored to fit with the real-life ties of its users. Twitter accounts for more than 90%
of page views and visits. The feed isn't as much influenced by personal preferences or contacts as
other sites. Because of the democratization of trending topics, the individual also has more power
over his twitter feed. Twitter was able to do this thanks to its trending vertical, which ranks the
local communities' most talked-about subjects. This encourages more people to participate in a
virtual marketplace discourse. This makes the platform more suitable for encouraging a herd
mentality among the population. Because of this, Twitter is a more socially and politically
significant medium than other similar ones. Andre (2012) claims that, in contrast to Facebook,
Twitter is "not for extremely personal connections, and also gives its users more powers to
decide what gets on their news feed through the democratization and localisation of current
topics, this gives users more information about their surroundings."

Wright and Hinson (2009) state that many people (85% in 2009 versus 72% in 2008) think social
media are a supplement to traditional news media and even more people (92% in 2009 versus
89% in 2008) think blogs and social media have an impact on how stories are covered in
traditional news media. The majority (88 percent in 2009 vs. 84% in 2008) think that social
media and blogs have accelerated communication because they motivate businesses to react to
criticism more promptly. Results reveal that when it comes to accuracy, reliability, speaking the
truth, and ethics, traditional news media consistently obtain higher ratings than blogs and social
media. The majority (80% in 2009 and 75% in 2008) perceive traditional news media to be

12
ethical, truthful, and honest, according to the findings. Less than half (41 percent in 2009 versus
44 percent in 2008) had the same hopes for blogs and other social media (Wright & Hinson,
2009).

According to Bruce R. Lindsay's (2011) analysis, there are a number of reasons why social
media appears to be influencing emergency management. For starters, quick, accurate, and
accurate information is essential for maintaining public safety before to, during, and after an
incident. Social media use is anticipated to rise as individuals continue to adopt new
technologies. Additionally, as social media continues to gain popularity, a sizeable portion of
people will probably use it as their primary information source. Additionally, they might
anticipate more frequently that organizations will use social media to satisfy their informational
demands. To meet this expectation, several emergency managers and agencies have already
started using social media. However, they also started using social media because they think it
offers an additional instrument for disseminating crucial information about public safety (Bruce,
2011).

Beyond providing information, social media use also enables interaction and communication in
ways that are not possible through other media, and in some instances, it has even enabled
victims and response organizations to interact and communicate with one another when
traditional media were not available. Some contend that social media can be utilized to enhance
emergency management capacities and that the prospect of such promising outcomes justifies
continued usage of social media in times of emergencies and catastrophes.

2.3 Social Media as Channels of Public Communication

Information and communication technology (ICT) gadgets are currently more widely available in
Nigeria. The popularity of internet services and the use of advanced mobile or smart phones in
modern Nigeria make this particularly clear. The country's adoption of social media has so been
encouraged by these devices. Therefore, the use of social media in Nigeria has undoubtedly
increased as a result of the availability of the internet, which powers the majority of social media
engines. Idakwo's empirical study from 2011 confirms, among other things, that social media use
as a form of communication is widespread in Nigeria. The study looks at how "young Nigerians
use social media." It is clear from the title that some of the study's findings will apply in this
context. Idakwo's survey revealed, among other things, more people in Nigeria use Facebook

13
than any other social networking platform. Additionally, the majority of respondents agreed that
they utilize social media, particularly Facebook, as a substitute for other traditional
communication media. In the researcher's words, "regarding the usage of Facebook as an
alternative means of communication, 74% agreed to using Facebook as an alternative to other
kinds of communication. In a nutshell, the author highlights the following additional major
findings:

1. Social media have become a mainstream activity and have become a major mode of
communication especially for youths, who form about 50% of the world population on
Facebook.
2. Social media have moved from being just interactive to a form of mass media.
3. Social media have been predicted as a strong force in shaping public opinion especially in
issues of politics, social causes and sexuality.
4. Social media have also been an expression of the complexities between the media and
society (Dakwo, 2011, p.23).

In addition, a 2009 study by Haridakis and Hanson titled "Social Interaction and Co-Viewing:
Blending Mass Communication Reception and Social Connection" looked at YouTube, one of
the social media platforms. While individuals watch videos and use YouTube for some of the
same reasons noted in studies of television viewing, the researchers' main discovery was that
"...there is a distinctly social aspect to YouTube use that reflects its social networking qualities"
(Haridakis and Hanson, 2009). The survey thus demonstrates that YouTube consumers believed
the medium shared certain characteristics with television and also had some social media
attributes (Haridakis and Hanson, 2009).

But YouTube also has a very clear social component. Two distinct motives—social contact and
co-viewing—reflected this social element. The co-viewing motive's fundamental components
advise that people watch, debate, and share their favorite videos with their loved ones. (Prior to
the data collection, focus group interviews with college students revealed that they occasionally
phoned friends, roommates, and other people in their dorm to watch movies with them) (Elgan,
2009).

The finding above that highlights the varied social motives behind YouTube usage is consistent
with earlier research. Nathanso, 2001, referenced in Haridakis and Hanson, for example, has

14
researched co-viewing in the context of parents assisting their children in understanding and
becoming more literate (2009). The findings of this study "indicate that co-viewing is a way of
sharing content with others, and complement Lull's (1980) research about the social uses of
television," claim the researchers.

Despite the fact that social media platforms have only just arisen as avenues for human
connection in Nigeria, they have been widely and effectively used as genuine communication
tools, and their degree of adoption across the country is rather astounding. The three categories
of interpersonal, mass communication, and organizational uses for the media can be used to
summarize their various applications. This perfectly fits the "Social Communication Traid"
described by Bale (1985), which was noted in (Folarin, 2002).

Mass Communication Organizational or Institutional Communication

Interpersonal Communication

Area of Central Overlap

Figure 1: Bale’s “Social Communication Traid” as visualized by Folarin

2.4 Social media use in Nigeria

The audience in modern Nigeria mainly uses social media in three categories in an efficient
manner. Mass communication, institutional or organizational communication, and interpersonal
communication are among the categories. It is necessary to elaborate on each of these social
media usage categories.

Online chatting and the transmission of interpersonal messages by different users on various
social media platforms serve as the best examples of the interpersonal use category of social
media in Nigeria. Online interpersonal communication in general takes the form of chatting. It is
frequently a well-liked mode of communication or dialogue among adolescents where they
15
exchange thoughts, emotions, experiences, and knowledge with others who are linked to social
media sites like Facebook, Twitter, Blackberry Messenger, Whatsapp, etc. Therefore, the talking
feature on social media is more like to the standard internet chat rooms where users can interact
online by exchanging messages in private rooms with other users from across the world.

Sending messages, mostly from one person to others who may be friends, acquaintances, or
family members, is another way to use social media for interpersonal connection. For instance,
on Facebook, these messages could be delivered to the user's private inbox, which is inaccessible
to anybody else. From a different perspective, when such a message is posted on the wall,
everyone who is a member of the public, including all of his friends and their friends on the
platform, can see it and respond to it (reply).The use of new and social media creates a platform
for better and simpler idea development, exchange, and engagement among individuals. In this
approach, users create and exchange information of interest to the general audience. According
to McQuail (2010), social media accomplishes nearly the same goals as traditional mass media.
"Mass media often supply themes of dialogue for discussion and thus serve to lubricate social
life in families, workplaces, and even among strangers," according to the author. People present
urgent concerns for public discussion on social media platforms in the same context, and users
then give them in-depth thought.

Additionally, institutional use of social media simply refers to how different private and public
institutions use them to connect with their "public." For example, organizations like the
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), banks, and educational institutions, among
others, use social media to connect with their constituents. State governments in Nigeria, a
significant institution, have also continued to develop a multi-media digital channel that includes
upgraded social media platforms. This provided a significant boost to modern social media
usage.

The most populous black country, Nigeria, has entered what (Grossman, 1996), referenced in
(Wang, 2008, p.9), refers to as a "Electronic Republic" democratic system where media
technologies are employed to improve people's power and impact on the decisions of the state

This was vividly illustrated by the usage of social media as a result of the 2011 political
uprisings in North Africa, as noted by Norbrokk (2012), who claims that "social
networks...circulated knowledge about the regimes and how...to face governmental repression."

16
There is little doubt that by fostering new political and social traditions among the populace, the
usage of social media in the political atmosphere on the African continent as a whole contributed
to what Scott and Marshall (2005) refer to as "moral panic," or arousal of social concern. Over
the years, the traditional media have developed a reputation for doing this.

2.4.1 Social Media and #EndSARS Protest

The #EndSARS campaign was started when convener Segun Awosanya published a petition
(Oloyede & Elega, 2019). #EndSARS began as a call for the dissolution of SARS, a component
of the Nigerian Police Force that has come under fire for its brutality and violations of human
rights. Nigerian citizens' incomprehensible dissatisfaction with the police agency's service
delivery system was the target of the #EndSARS protest. Many Nigerians were affected by the
movement because SARS represented all they disliked about the country's governance (Africa
Center for Strategic Studies, 2020).Investigations revealed that Nigerians have extremely low
levels of trust in the police since so many of them have been required to bribe officers (Africa
Center for Strategic Studies, 2020).

In October 2020, a social media post regarding the SARS officers' murder of a youngster in
Delta State sparked widespread, unrestrained outrage (Africa Center for Strategic Studies, 2020).
Several young Nigerians started venting their dissatisfaction and their personal SARS
experiences on social media almost immediately. The #EndSARS hashtag quickly expanded into
a movement that enabled Nigerians who were fed up with the extortion, impunity, and violence
of the infamous police unit a voice. Because of the media attention the protests had received, the
Federal Government of Nigeria rapidly announced the elimination of SARS in the public eye
(Omonobi, Agbakwuru, Brisibe & Olawale, 2020).A similar statement was made by the
Inspector General of Police (IGP) regarding "stop and search" activities by SARS in December
2017 as numerous allegations of harassment had reached the Nigerian Police, but the scrapping
was insufficient to appease the outcry. The IGP publicly overturned the restriction in 2018,
demonstrating the inadequacy of past orders (Fasunwon, 2020). The public's trust in the Nigerian
Police was damaged as a result. The #EndSARS protests gained support from world leaders,
including US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and UN Secretary-General António Guterres, who
tweeted in support of the movement (Uwazuruike, 2020). The hashtag was also used by well-
known individuals and celebrities, including former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton,

17
current US President Joe Biden, Arsenal footballer Mesut Ozil, heavyweight boxing champion
Anthony Joshua, and American rapper Kanye West, to show support for the demonstrations or
demand an end to the government's attacks on protestors (Larnyoh, 2020; Uwazuruike, 2020). In
October, the hashtag #EndSARS became the top trending topic on Twitter after Twitter CEO
Jack Dorsey unveiled a special emoji supporting the effort (Uwazuruike, 2020).

The way that complaints are expressed has changed as a result of the expansion of globalization
and the usage of social media. Social media are now among the most well-known digital protest
venues, and they were essential to the #EndSARS campaign's success (Onaleye, 2020). Young
Nigerians organized and mobilized waves of campaigns to sites in Nigeria using alluring easy
formulas primarily using Twitter and WhatsApp. The demonstrators attempted to "reinforce"
their numbers by posting their positions on Twitter, Telegram, and WhatsApp. As a result, some
areas saw crowds increase from tens to hundreds within a matter of hours.

Celebrities and activists used social media, namely Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook, to
mobilize support for the '#EndSARS' movement. Within a few days, protesters occupied key
locations in Lagos, Abuja, Akure, and Ibadan to demand the elimination of SARS. Online, there
are images, films, and audio recordings of some of the brutality committed by SARS officers
(Fasunwon, 2020). Social media was used to publicize the #EndSARS protest by highlighting the
brutality of Nigerian police. For those who were estranged, the movement was able to create a
digitally networked solidarity that provided them with some measure of recognition (Oloyede &
Elega, 2019).The Nigerians who had, at one time or another, been harmed by SARS agents were
convinced to share their stories of brutality on social media sites, primarily Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, etc., using the hashtag "#EndSARS."

On social media, outraged Nigerians made several comments calling for an end to police
brutality and the complete eradication of SARS (Olowolagba, 2019). The majority of Nigerians
both at home and abroad were made aware of the footage of the heinous SARS brutalities
through WhatsApp, Instagram, Telegram, and Facebook. The Inspector General of Police,
Mohammed Adamu, claimed that social media was one of the main tools used to escalate the
protest in order to determine the extent of vandalism of both government and private facilities
during the #EndSARS protest, which the Nigerian police believed was used by hooligans to
plunder and bring about public disorder in the country (The Whistler, 2020).The Federal

18
Government of Nigeria asserted that the unreliable sources of some of the information on the
#EndSARS protest made it difficult to trust the information (CKN News, 2020). It was
challenging to determine the veracity and legitimacy of information concerning the #EndSARS
protest due to the widespread falsehoods associated with it. This prompted the Federal
Government of Nigeria to claim that the protests were being misrepresented by the international
media (News Agency of Nigeria, 2020).

2.5 Conventional media and Social Media systems: A Convergence

The potential to create media convergence is without a doubt one of the observed benefits of
employing social media and other new technology gadgets in communication. To put it simply, it
refers to the fusion of all media platforms, including print, broadcast, and electronic. With the
present wave of convergence, media organizations, practitioners, and non-practitioners are
collaborating as partners in the distribution of information.

Media convergence is defined by Johnson et al. (2008) as "coming together of multiple

businesses in terms of product development." Convergence, however, refers to "the blurring of
frontiers between telecoms, computing, and media," according to Fransman (2002). Ciboh
(2005) believes that in the present era, mass communication channels are fuzzing and combining
to form what is basically a single system or group of interrelated systems. Convergence of the
media is happening now. The internet is typically the key force behind the convergence. The
convergence tendency in the traditional mass media is currently being drastically reshaped and
expanded by the usage of social media. Dwyer (2010) observes that media convergence arises
because social networking is based on `sharing’ while media industries repurpose shared content.

Most mass media companies (both broadcast and print) are currently connected to social media
in a very similar way to how individual members of society are in an effort to more effectively
reach their target audience. The traditional media systems value new media technologies and
employ them as effective tools for connecting with audiences both locally and globally. When
examining media convergence in Nigeria, the UNDP (2010) noted that:

There is considerable convergence in some media organizations in Nigeria. For instance,

Radio Nigeria is available for listeners online; Next Newspaper has a `Next TV’ – a set of
video clips that can be watched online free. Radio Nigeria also features stories- much like

19
 print media stories- on its web media. Several Nigerian newspapers are available online.
As it is globally, the traditional boundaries are collapsing.

Nearly all of Nigeria's traditional media outlets are now linked to one or more social media
platforms. For instance, some traditional media outlets used social media during the 2011 general
elections. Next Newspaper and Channels Television were ranked among the top ten media
outlets that exploited social media during the elections by Asuni& Farris (2011). They added as
well:

Channels Television features regular live coverage through their website, Ipod, Iphone,
and other devices. During the April elections, it established a four-person social media
team, with one each handling the website, Twitter, Facebook and the fourth feeding
information from the newsroom to the other three members of the team. This enabled
simultaneous presentation on television, Facebok, and Twitter. Viewers were asked to
comment and the station aired social media feedback several times a day (Asuni & Farris
2011).

The services of social media were used by other mainstream media, including print media
organizations in Nigeria. Weekly publication Tell launched its digital presence in 2010 in time
for the general elections of 2011.

Blackberry Messenger was used by their reporters to submit reports from all over the nation.

Since June 2010, the Daily Trust newspaper has been a member of Facebook. From 32,000
supporters before the election to 65,000 supporters just thereafter, it has gained more supporters.
Now with 89,000 fans... In contrast, the publication has a total print run of 50,000 copies (Asuni
& Farris, 2011).

Most crucially, certain Nigerian media outlets connect with Facebook and other social media
platforms. The majority of news media outlets in Nigeria are aware of how social media
functions and have so incorporated Facebook into their digital media/content strategy. According
to Okezie (2011), the following Nigerian media outlets are present on Facebook:

20
Table 2.1: Nigerian Media organisations on Facebook

S/No Media Facebook Address

1. 234NEXT http://www.facebook.com/pages/234NXTcom/114689570833
2. Business Day http://www.facebook.com/pages/I-Read-usinessDay/558851305915
3. Daily Trust http://www.facebook.com/dailytrust
4. Nigerian Tribune http://www.facebook.com/nigeriantribune
5. PMNews http://www.facebook.com/pmnews
6. Sahara Reporters http://www.facebook.com/saharareorters
7. The Guardian http://www.facebook.com/pages/the guardian-newspapers/
176502461635
8. The Punch http://www.facebook.com/pages/The-punch-Newspapers
206270189411151
9. ThisDay http://www.facebook.com/thisdaynewspapers
10. Vanguard http://www.facebook.com/vanguardngr.
Source: Okezie (2011)

To make it easier for their users to access them through the social media channels' links, the
majority of media organizations in Nigeria at the moment are also linked to other social media,
such as Twitter.

The introduction of social media platforms and other contemporary communication tools has not
only improved the effectiveness of information sourcing but has also fundamentally changed
how information is systematically gathered, assembled, and disseminated around the world,
including in Nigeria.

In light of new technological capabilities, research has started to concentrate on how news
practices and professional identity are changing. The results of Robinson's empirical study, "The
Mission of the J-Blog: Re-Capturing Journalistic Authority Online," published in 2006, strongly
corroborate the assertion made above. He looked at the current use of blogging in reporting by
both journalists and non-journalists. The project's outcome shows how the use of internet blogs
has altered the way news is presented. According to the study, social media may be creating a

21
new framework of realism in the way that news is seen by media consumers today (Robinson,
2006).

According to tradition, using new media concurrently increases public communication's

"democratic" and participative aspects for everyone. The practitioners of the mainstream media
are greatly impacted by this issue. Currently, practically all of them have accounts on social
media sites like Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter. These social media platforms allowed non-
journalists to follow noteworthy events as they unfolded and report using the same platforms
before traditional journalists could even get a clue of them. People can contact a journalist on
their social media friend list to report an incident they saw, but it is in the pressmen's best interest
to go further and find more information that could support their publishing.

More than any other discovery, social media platforms give the audience the chance to sate their
thirst for knowledge. The viewers become "producers and disseminators" of knowledge thanks to
social media portals. "Anyone with a computer may now become a reporter, editor, and
publisher," claims Ciboh (2005). Therefore, more than any other innovation, the usage of social
media has democratized information assemblage and dissemination. This emphasizes the reality
of Habermas' assertion that "free expression of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious
rights of man" (Habermas, 2008). Therefore, everyone has the freedom to speak, write, and print.
Akpan and Nnaane (2011) made the following claim in support of the aforementioned views:

Some of the latest mobile phones allow users to take still pictures or video clips. For
instance, when breaking news occurs, people in the area can take video and still pictures,
before the media arrive on the scene. In no distant time everybody will become a
reporter.

In the current maelstrom of the information and communication revolution, modern mobile
phones like Ipods, Androids, Blackberries, and other 3G (Third Generation) phones are potent
media devices. The feedback from mass media communications, which was previously thought
to be delayed, has now changed as a result of this development. Nowadays, audiences react to
media messages almost instantly because almost all of the major media outlets are connected to
social networks that the audiences are also active on. This invites the viewers to contribute more
to the media's content. The UNDP (2010) survey, which found that "41.8% and 47.5% of
Nigerian audience participate actively and very actively in the development of media content,"

22
confirmed this (UNDP, 2010).The use of the social media, besides creating a platform for the
people to inform themselves, also, empowers the people (the audience) to involve themselves in
packaging the contents of even the conventional media.

2.6 Credibility and Social Media News Reportage: An Empirical Review

One of the main focuses of this study is a research on how the effects of various online or social
media affect perceived credibility. Therefore, the goal of this study was to evaluate the reliability
of social media as a news source.

According to Johnson and Kaye (2010), credibility is the ability to be believed, as well as
correctness, fairness, and depth of knowledge. A recipient must have previously relied on the
various news sources in order to assess the social media's authenticity. Johnson and Kaye (2010)
looked into how reliance on traditional media and the Internet affected how blog readers
perceived the legitimacy of weblogs. The type of various news sources served as the research's
independent variable, and the weblog users' perceptions of the sources' reliability served as the
study's dependent variable. The study by Johnson and Kaye is relevant to this research because it
explores how various media consumers perceive trustworthiness and how their past experiences
may have influenced how they perceive a news source. They conducted a Weblog readership
survey, which was published for one month in 2003. 131 different Weblogs and 14 bulletin
boards specifically focused on Weblogs were linked to the poll. Understanding how various
users of media sources (social media) see credibility and what prior experiences can impact their
perspective of the news source has a direct relevance to this research. The main outcome of the
study was that a participant's reliance on using a weblog was a significant and favorably
predictive factor for their opinion of the legitimacy of weblogs. Most Weblog readers viewed the
medium as moderately or highly credible. Evidence from that research makes one to believe that
the more a person uses a source the more likely they are to view the source as credible.

Sutton, Palen, and Shklovski carried out a second empirical study that is connected to this
investigation (2008). In order to perform this study, it was first necessary to operationalize the
many social media platforms that were being used, including mobile devices, personal blogs,
web forums, and photo-sharing websites. The use of information and communications
technology before and during catastrophe circumstances, as well as respondents' perceptions of
the reliability of social media and backchannel media channels, were then collected using an

23
online questionnaire. The respondents' use of backchannel communication and other social
media platforms served as the study's independent variables. The online questionnaire used open-
ended response questions to gauge the importance of social media and backchannel media
channels as well as the perceived legitimacy of the information obtained utilizing these
platforms. The perceived legitimacy of numerous social media channels was also the subject of
this study. The overall findings of their study demonstrated that social media channels and
backchannel media outlets, such as blogs, web forums, photo-sharing websites, etc., are
increasingly used during times of crisis. These resources are easily accessible, which encourages
people to use and rely on information from alternative media sources. In times of calamity,
backchannel media sources appear trustworthy and authoritative because they provide up-to-
date, individualized information. The "near to home" character of backchannel media satisfied
respondents who had complained about inaccurate information being transmitted through
conventional, wider media channels. Backchannel media looks to be a reliable method for
disseminating information during catastrophe circumstances and may be a crucial instrument in
swiftly reaching a broad audience with news and other information in a variety of situations.
According to this study, the general public views backchannel and social media as trustworthy
sources. Additionally, they appear to be a current and accessible source for breaking news and
updates, which may be a factor in why individuals consider social media to be a reliable source
of news that is relevant to the current study.

2.7 Theoretical Framework

Several of theoretical frameworks have been proposed to explain Social media assessment taking
various attributes of online resources into consideration, in terms of source (i.e., operator),
message (i.e., content), and structure (i.e., design), as well as the dynamic nature of the ‘process’
of assessing the information credibility. This section reviews the following six theoretical
frameworks pertinent to Social media assessment: Wathen and Burkell’s (2002) Model for How
Users Judge the Credibility of Online Information; Fogg’s (2003b) Prominence-Interpretation
Theory (P-I Theory); Metzger’s (2007) Dual Processing Model of Social media Assessment;
Hilligoss and Rieh’s (2008) Unifying Framework of Credibility Assessment; Sundar’s (2008)
MAIN Model; and Lucassen et al.’s (2013) Revised 3S-Model.

24
2.7.1 Fogg’s P-I Theory

The P-I Theory proposed by Fogg (2003), posits that two things happen when people assess
credibility: a person notices something (i.e., prominence) and makes a judgment about it (i.e.,
interpretation). The fundamental idea of this theory is that people would evaluate the given
website as much as they have noticed based on their involvement, motivation, ability, etc.

The first concept of the theory, prominence, is defined as “the likelihood that a website element
will be noticed or perceived” (Fogg, 2003). The author mentions that before a website element
can affect a user’s credibility assessment of the site, the user must first notice the element. In
other words, if certain website elements are not noticed by users, information in the website
cannot have an impact on credibility assessment of the site. He identifies five factors that affect
the prominence phase: involvement of the user, content, task, experience, and individual
differences.

The second concept of the P-I theory is interpretation. Fogg (2003) defines the concept as “a
person’s judgment about an element under examination”. In the interpretation phase, the user
evaluates website elements as good or bad. For example, a user may interpret a broken link on a
web either as the operator does not care for the site or the site was not carefully created in the
first place. In either case, the broken link will contribute to a lower credibility perception of the
site. Fogg mentions that at least three factors affect interpretation: user’s assumptions (e.g.,
culture, past experiences, and heuristics), skill/knowledge of a user (e.g., a user’s level of
competency in the site’s subject matter), and context (e.g., the user’s environment, expectations,
and situational norms).

2.7.2 Wathen and Burkell’s Model for How Users Judge the Credibility of Online
Information

Wathen and Burkell (2002) view the credibility assessment of online resources as an iterative
process. Particularly, they conceptualize the process of Social media assessment with two
distinct phases: (a) evaluation of surface credibility and (b) evaluation of message credibility.
According to their model, people begin the process by making immediate judgments about the
surface characteristics of the site, such as appearance (e.g., color, graphics, lack of error, etc.),
usability (e.g., navigability, menus, download speed, etc.), and organization of information (e.g.,

25
layers, ease of access, and choice of detail level). The factors identified in this model are in line
with the surface credibility markers suggested by Tseng and Fogg (1999). As motioned above,
people consider the professional appearance of a website an important cue to judge its overall
credibility.

In the second phase of credibility assessment (i.e., evaluation of message credibility), people
evaluate the credibility of the message delivered by the website in terms of source and message.
The authors identify expertise, competence, trustworthiness, and credentials as factors that
influence source credibility. Also, they identify content, accuracy, currency, and relevance to the
user need as factors that influence message credibility.

2.7.3 Hilligoss and Rieh’s Unifying Framework of Credibility Assessment

Hilligoss and Rieh (2008) suggested a unifying framework of credibility assessment in an

attempt to consider diverse information seeking goals, tasks, and contexts in everyday life. They
identified three distinct levels of credibility judgments: construct, heuristic, and interaction. In
the framework, construct is the highest and the most abstract level as it is concerned with how
people define (or perceive) the concept of credibility. Hilligoss and Rieh suggest five constructs
of credibility – trustfulness, believability, trustworthiness, objectivity, and reliability – and
highlight that people may conceptualize credibility in different ways depending on the situation
they are facing and the types of information encountered.

The second level of the framework is the heuristic level. Heuristics involve general rules of
thumb that are utilized in cases where people are unwilling or unable to evaluate the content of
the message because of time, motivation, and ability. Hilligoss and Rieh categorize heuristics for
credibility assessment into four types: media-related heuristics (e.g., book, peer-reviewed journal
articles, Web, etc.), source-related heuristics (e.g., familiar vs. unfamiliar sources, primary vs.
secondary sources), endorsement-based heuristics (e.g., recommendation by knowledgeable and
trusted individuals), and aesthetics-based heuristics (e.g., design in web media).

The third level of Hilligoss and Rieh’s framework is interaction. The authors define interaction
as “specific attributes associated with particular information objects and sources for credibility
judgments” (Hilligoss and Rieh, 2008). This level differs from the previous level (i.e.,
heuristics), in that credibility judgments in this level are based on specific source or content cues

26
that are unique to a specific context. Three types of interactions are identified: interactions with
content cues, peripheral source cues, and peripheral information object cues. Content cues are
directly related to evaluating the credibility of the message itself. Peripheral source cues are
source related features that can affect the credibility assessment of information, such as
affiliation, reputation, author’s education background, type of institution, etc. Peripheral
information object cues are about the appearance or presentation of the information object, such
as advertisements or language used in the website, etc. Hilligoss and Rieh mention that the three
levels of credibility assessment are interlinked, affecting each other in both directions from the
abstract level (i.e., construct) to the specific level (i.e., interaction), rather than functioning
exclusively.

2.7.4 Sundar’s MAIN Model

Sundar (2008) pays attention to the technology effects on credibility assessments. In particular,
as multiple sources are often interlinked in online information, source credibility, which has been
conventionally regarded as the most important clue to judge the believability of information, may
not play a clear role in the Web context. Therefore, information receivers have to consider
message credibility as well as the credibility of the medium itself to assess credibility of online
information. In such information environment where people have to take more things into
consideration to find credible information, they get to face the information overload and the lack
of uniformity in content quality. In this regards, he highlights the importance of roles of
cognitive heuristics that people take advantage of to make judgments of credibility in the Web
context. His MAIN model accommodates various heuristics pertaining to credibility assessments,
categorized in four types of affordances in digital media, such as Modality (M), Agency (A),
Interactivity (I), and Navigability (N).

Affordance is a particular capability possessed by the medium to facilitate a certain action, and
the affordances exist in most digital media to some different degrees. The modality affordance is
closely related to the structural aspects of the medium, rather than the content – e.g., “realism
heuristic” that people tend to trust audiovisual modality because its content has a higher
resemblance to the real world; the agency affordance-related heuristics are utilized to identify the
source, which affect the perceived credibility of the information provided by the source – e.g.,
“machine heuristic” that people consider the objectivity of chosen news to be more credible if it

27
is recommended by a machine; the interactivity affordance involves both concepts such as
interaction and activity, which are the characteristics usually lacking in most traditional media –
e.g., “activity heuristic” that influences users’ credibility judgments by the dynamism;
navigability affordance is about interface features of digital media, such as organization of sites
and hyperlinks – e.g., “browsing heuristic” that encourage users to take a look at the site by
checking out the various links.

2.7.5 Metzger’s Dual Processing Model of Credibility Assessment

Metzger’s (2007) dual processing model takes user motivation and ability into account in
theorizing the process of Social media assessment. This model adopts the main idea of the dual
processing models, such as Petty and Cacioppo’s (1981) Elaboration Likelihood Model of
persuasion (ELM), that divide the process of information processing and assessment into two
routes, (a) central and (b) peripheral routes, depending on the depth of the user’s motivation and
ability to scrutinize it. The dual-processing-perspective is a useful approach to understand Social
media assessment as it is mainly based on user perceptions, which are formed (influenced) by
various audience factors (i.e., user characteristics) such as demographic background,
involvement (motivation and ability), topic familiarity, and information skills. In other words,
since user perceptions are not necessarily the same for all types of users, nor for various
situations, it is reasonable to specify the evaluation process by considering the dynamisms in
Social media assessment. In the exposure phase of the model, user’s motivation and ability
decide whether or not they will go to the next phase, evaluation phase. When a user has
motivation and ability to evaluate the information he or she is being exposed to, the user will
take more rigorous and systematic strategies to credibility assessment (i.e., central route);
however, if a user does not have motivation, no credibility assessment will happen; in case the
user does not have ability, yet has motivation to evaluate, he or she will rely on the surface
characteristics (i.e., peripheral cues) or heuristics to judge the credibility of the information
(Metzger, 2007, p. 2088).

28
2.7.6 Lucassenet al.’s Revised 3S-Model of Credibility Evaluation

Lucassen and Schraagen (2011) suggested the 3S-model, where 3S indicated the three
information characteristics, semantic, surface, and source features. Lucassen et al. (2013)
improved the initial version of the model by further examining the influences of the topic
familiarity and information skills (i.e., information literacy). Defining topic familiarity (or
domain expertise) as “having knowledge on the topic at hand” (Lucassen et al., 2013), people
who have the higher level of knowledge on the topic tended to focus more on the semantic
features (i.e., message of the information), while the novice users who are not familiar with the
topic relied more on surface features (i.e., structural features). Furthermore, when defining
information skills as “the skills required to identify information sources, access information,
evaluate it, and use it effectively, efficiently, and ethically” (Julien & Barker, 2009), users with
better information skills more often attempted to evaluate information quality, while those with
poorer information skills did not.

The Revised 3S-Model shares common ideas with the dual processing model by Metzger (2007),
in that credibility assessment may vary depending on the levels of motivation and abilities. In
particular, ability can be seen as the same concept as information skills mentioned in the Revised
3S-Model. Thus, involving the two models together, users go through the different routes by
focusing on different types (i.e., semantic vs. surface) and levels (i.e., number of cues) of
credibility cues embedded in the given information depending on the information skills (i.e.,
ability).

2.8 Literature Gap

On the basis of the literatures reviewed so far, the concept of authenticity has not been explored
in the specific context of #ENDSARS protest. Most studies focused on social media credibility
in general with little or no insight into social media coverage of protests such as the #ENDSARS
protest, research into audience perception of the credibility of social media coverage of the
#ENDSARS protest will be beneficial to further understand how effective and credible social
media can be in news coverage during protest. Results from these future studies would be
beneficial for informing the delivery of credible information in various digital formats.

29
2.9 Summary of Literature Review

This chapter utilises critical insights from various literatures on audience perception of the
credibility of social media coverage of the ENDSARS protest. The review suggests that social
media have been used to disseminate a wide range of public safety information before, during,
and after various incidents. Prior to an incident (or in the absence of an incident), many
emergency management organizations provide citizens with preparedness and readiness
information through social media.

Previous studies as reviewed in this chapter revealed that social media have been used to
disseminate a wide range of public safety information before, during, and after various incidents.
Social media also play an informational role during emergency situations.

However, in recent times, the social media have come to raise credibility questions. For instance,
there was a time the social media reported the supposed deaths of Chimaroke Nnamani, Sullivan
Chime, Olusegun Obasanjo, Liyel Imoke amongst other. The social media then carried catchy
headlines and photos of such rumored deaths. Today, these people are very much alive.
However, there are stories reported by the social media that actually passed the credibility test.
This lead us to review several social media credibility theories such as: Wathen and Burkell’s
(2002) Model for How Users Judge the Credibility of Online Information; Fogg’s (2003b)
Prominence-Interpretation Theory (P-I Theory); Metzger’s (2007) Dual Processing Model of
Social media Assessment; Hilligoss and Rieh’s (2008) Unifying Framework of Credibility
Assessment; Sundar’s (2008) MAIN Model; and Lucassen et al.’s (2013) Revised 3S-Model.

The literatures reviewed showed that there are enormous gains of using the social media and
other new technological devices in communication producing media convergence, however,
there is need to carry out a proper credibility test on every information received before passing it
on to the general public.

30
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study is to a large extent a descriptive research and the research methodology most suitable
is the survey design. It has been designed to enable the use of questionnaires to gather
information which will be the main instrument for data collection.

3.2 Population of Study

Since this study focuses on audience perception of the credibility of social media coverage of the
#ENDSARS protest, the universe of this study includes all the social media users within the
academia in ESUT and Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu. The total number of academic
staff in Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) is 618 (ESUT Payroll, 2022),
while that of Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu is 370 (FCAI Registrar’s office, 2022).
Therefore, the total population of the study is 988.

3.3 Sample Size

Chukwu (2007) defined a sample as a portion, or part or a subset of the population of intersects.
Therefore, sampling can simply mean taking any portion of a population as a representative of
the entire population. The sample design adopted by the researcher was a random sampling. The
sample size was determined using Yaro Yamane formula and Bowly Proportion Allocation
Formula. Yaro Yamane’s formula
N
n = 2
1+ N (e )

where n = sample size, N = population size, e = level of significance (0.05)

1 = constant
988 988
n = =
1+ 988 ( 0.05 ) 2 1+ 988 ( 0.0025 )

988 988
= =
1+ 2.47 3.47

31
 n = 284.72622478 ≈ 285.

Therefore, the sample size is approximately 285. In selecting, the 285 respondents, the researcher
adopted Bowly Proportion Allocation sampling to determine number of respondents from each
cooperative societies.

The Bowly Proportion Allocation Formula given as;

nNh
ni =
N
Where Nh = population of each school, n1 = number of workers in each school and N = total
population.
Samples from each school
285 X 618
ESUT = = 178.2692307 = 178
988
285 X 370
FECAI = = 107.1052631 = 107
988
3.4 Sampling Technique

The researcher used the multi-stage sampling technique as the sampling technique for this study.
This technique, according to Chukwuemeka (2002, p.111), requires the use of several sampling
techniques or/and stages in a particular method for ensuring true representation, especially when
the population is large and complex.

Stage 1

First, the study used the cluster technique. In the Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, there
are a cluster of 4 faculties, which are: school of agricultural technology, school of applied
agriculture and management technology, school of engineering technology, and school of
science and technology, while ESUT has 11 faculties, namely: Faculty of Agricultural & Natural
Resources Management, Faculty of Applied Natural Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences,
Faculty of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Education, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of
Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Management Sciences, Faculty of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, making it a total of 15
faculties from both institutions. From this cluster, the study adopted a simple random technique
to select 7 faculties from the 15 faculties. The procedure involved randomly selecting 7 numbers

32
from a table of random numbers with intervals from 1-15 without replacement. Each number
represented one of the faculties. Further, the study used a quota sampling technique to select the
number of respondents to be given questionnaire in each selected faculty.

Also, the quota technique was used to select the senior lecturers for qualitative interview from
the department of mass communication, Enugu State University of Science and Technology.

3.5 Instruments for Data Collection

Total copies of 285 of the questionnaire was used for data collection in this study. The survey
instrument was a twenty (20) item structured questionnaire containing demographic and
psychographic variables pertaining to the research questions. Items in the questionnaire
instrument were measured on nominal scales as well as interval scales. All the demographic
variables in the questionnaires instrument were measured on nominal scales, while the variables
addressing the research questions were ordinal scales, indicating, “ Very high extent”; “high
extent”; “little extent”, “No extent”.

Four interview questions were drafted in line with the objectives of the study to serve as a basis
for discussion for the qualitative survey.

3.6 Validity/Reliability of the Instruments

The validity of the questionnaire and the interview questions was done using face validity
technique. The instruments was submitted to the project supervisor and two communication
scholars who are senior lecturers in the Departments of Mass Communication, Enugu State
University of Science and Technology. First, it was tested if the questions in the questionnaire
are related to the topic under consideration and whether they actually addressed the research
questions raised in the study. The questions in the interview schedule equally passed through the
same process. Corrections made were applied to draft an acceptable version of the questionnaire.

In checking for the reliability of the questionnaire, a pre-test was conducted among students in
the department of mass communication, ESUT. A total of 29 respondents (representing 10% of
the survey sample size) was drawn for this purpose. The reason is to determine whether the
responses were in line with the result expected from the instrument. The instrument was
employed twice and the data collected were compared to see if they met the expected reliability

33
rate. After the instrument was administered, an interval of one week was given for the re-
administration of the instruments. The data from the two tests was then be subjected to the main
reliability test using Pearsons r Correlational coefficient statistical procedure. The calculation
N Σ XY −ΣXΣY
formula for r is: r = 2 2 2
N ΣX −(ΣX ) M ΣY 2−( ΣX )

Where x refers to the frequency of figures on variable x, and y is a frequency figures on variable
y. Σ represents the summation of variables, while N means the number of subjects measured on
both variables (Osuala, 2005, p.149).

3.7 Method of Data Presentation and Analysis

The quantitative data generated from the use of questionnaire were presented using simple
frequency distribution tables, charts, percentages and numbers to ascertain the opinion of
Journalists compliance in the use of the internet in their news gathering enterprise.

These data were presented and analysed using one research question after another. It means that
questions on the questionnaire that address every research question we represented under that
research question. The qualitative data which were generated through interview were used to
complement the quantitative data. Effort was made to identify patterns in the responses that
emerge. These emergent patterns were analysed using the constant comparative technique
(Wimmer and Dominick, 2011).
Such comparative technique includes Chi-square. The general formula for simple percentage that
will used is
100 F i
P% =
N
Where Fi = individual frequency
N = total frequency
2
(θ i−Ei )
The chi-square formula used is given by ∑
Ei
Where; θi = observed frequency, ∑ = summation and Eij = expected frequency
This was obtained by using the formulae

34
Eij =
∑ X i where k = number of categories, p = number of parameters estimated and the
K
probability level of (α) = 0.05. the decision rule: reject H 0, if computed test statistic is greater
than critical value at (k – p – 1) degree of freedom.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data presentation and Discussion

This chapter is mainly dedicated to presentation of results and discussions. In this section, the
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data which were collected by administering
questionnaires to the sample size in accordance with research methodology stated in chapter
three.
To make the analysis and interpretation meaningful, some of the questions were grouped
together in tables, descriptive statistics and chi- square methods were used where necessary
shown below.

Table 4.1: Distribution of the Respondents According to Age.

Age Frequency Percentage

18– 21 years 35 12.28%

22 – 25 years 67 23.51%

26 – 30 years 94 32.98%

31 – 35 years 89 31.23%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

35
The table above showed the distribution of the respondents according to age. The above table
showed that 94 representing 32.98 % of the total number of respondents was between age
brackets of 26 – 30 years, this was followed by 89 representing about 39.17 % of the respondents
were within the range of 31 – 35 years of age. However, 67 about 23.51% were within the range
of 22 – 25 years while the least 35 representing about 12.28% were 18 – 21 years of age. This
implied the majority of the respondents were those between the age of 26 to 35 years of age.

Table 4.2: Distribution of the Respondents According to Gender.

Sex Frequency Percentage

Male 172 60.35%

Female 113 39.65%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed the distribution of the respondents according to gender. The result of the
table revealed that 172 representing 60.35 % of the total respondents in the study areas were
male while the remaining 113 representing 39.65 % of the total respondents in the study areas
were female. This indicates that majority of the respondents in the study areas were male.

Table 4.3: Distribution of the Respondents According to Religion.

Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage

Christianity 238 83.51%

Islam 17 5.96%

Traditional 20 7.02%

Others 10 3.51%
Total 285 100.00%

36
Source: Field Survey, 2022

Table 4.3 showed the distribution of the according to religion. The result of the table above
revealed that 238 representing 83.51% of the total respondents from study area were Christians.
This was followed by 20 representing about 7.02% of the total respondents who were
traditionalists. However, about 17 representing 5.96% of the total respondents were Islams while
the remaining 10 of the respondents representing 3.51 % were from other religion. This indicated
that the majority of the respondents in the study area were Christians. This is because the people
of the region (South East) are predominantly Christians.

Table 4.4: Distribution of the Respondents According to Awareness of EndSARS Protest.

Sex Frequency Percentage

Yes 285 100.00%

No 0 0.00%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

Table 4.4 above showed the distribution of the according to awareness of end SARS protest. The
result of the table above pointed out that 100% of the total respondents from study area were
aware of the end SARS protest in Nigeria. This indicated that all the academic staff of both
institutions was aware of the protest because they are lettered and can assess and send
information through social media platforms.

37
Table 4.5: Distribution of the Respondents According to Participation in the EndSARS
Protest on Social Media.

Sex Frequency Percentage

Yes 124 78.60%

No 61 21.40%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

Table 4.5 above showed the distribution of the according to participation in the end SARS
protest on social media. The result of the table above pointed out that 224 representing about
78.60% of the total respondents from study area participated in the end SARS protest on social
media while the remaining 61 representing about 21.40% of the total respondents from study
area who were aware of the protest did not participate in the protest on social media. This
indicated that majority of the academic staff in the study area participated in the protest on social
media.

38
Table 4.6: Distribution of the Respondents According to Social media platform actively
engage in during the #EndSARS protest.

Qualification Frequency Percentage

38 13.33%
Twitter

48 16.84%
Instagram

94 32.98%
Facebook

Whatsapp 64 22.46%

Youtube 41 14.39%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

Table 4.6 above showed the distribution of the according to Social media platform actively
engage in during the EndSARS protest. The result of the table above revealed that 38
representing about 13.33% of the total respondents from study area actively engaged in the end
SARS protest on social media through twitter. However, 48 representing about 16.84% of the
total respondents from study area actively engaged in the end SARS protest on social media
through Instagram while 94 representing about 32.98% of the total respondents from study area
actively engaged in the end SARS protest on social media through Facebook.

Furthermore, the table showed that 64 representing about 22.46% of the total respondents were
actively engaged in the end SARS protest on social media through whatsApp and finally, 41
representing about 14.39% of the total respondents from study area were actively engaged in the
end SARS protest on social media through YouTube. This indicated that majority of the

39
academic staff in the study area were actively engage in during the #EndSARS protest through
Facebook and WhatsApp Social media platforms.

Table 4.7 Research Question: How often did you post on your Social media platform(s)
during the #EndSARS protest?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Everyday 115 40.35%

Multiple times a day 130 45.61%

Not at all 40 14.04%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed how often the respondents posted on their social media platforms. The
result of the table revealed that 115 representing 40.35% of the respondents did post on their
Social media platforms every day during the EndSARS protest, 130 representing 45.61% of the
respondents did post on their Social media platforms multiple times a day during the EndSARS
protest while the remaining 40 representing 14.04% of the respondents did not post at all on their
Social media platforms during the EndSARS protest. This indicated that most of the respondents
did post on their Social media platforms every day or multiple times a day during the EndSARS
protest.

40
Table 4.8 Research Question: What communication platform did you first get to know
about the #EndSARS protest?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Mainstream media (TV and Radio) 90 31.58%

Print Media 60 21.05%

Social Media 135 47.37%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed how often the respondents posted on their social media platforms. The
result of the table revealed that 90 representing 31.58% of the respondents first get to know
about the #EndSARS protest from Mainstream media (TV and Radio).
However, 60 representing 21.05% of the respondents first get to know about the #EndSARS
protest from Print Media while majority about 135 representing 47.37% of the respondents first
get to know about the #EndSARS protest from social Media. This indicated that majority of the
respondents get to know about the #EndSARS protest from social Media first.

41
Table 4.9 Research Question: What networking site would you say really helped in the
awareness of the #EndSARS protest?

Qualification Frequency Percentage

40 14.04%
Twitter

36 12.63%
Instagram

104 36.49%
Facebook

Whatsapp 84 29.47%

Youtube 21 7.37%
Total 285 100.00%

Table 4.9 above showed the distribution of the according to Social media platform actively
engage in during the EndSARS protest. The result of the table above revealed that 40
representing about 14.04% of the total respondents said that twitter really helped in the
awareness of the #EndSARS protest. However, 36 representing about 12.63% of the total
respondents were of the opinion that Instagram really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS
protest. Meanwhile, 104 representing about 36.49% of the total respondents said that Facebook
really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS protest.

Furthermore, the table showed that 84 representing about 29.47% of the total respondents were
of the opinion that whatsApp really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS protest.

Finally, 41 representing about 14.39% of the total respondents were of the opinion that
YouTube really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS protest. This indicated that Social
media platforms really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS protest.

42
 SECTION C: Social media Usage for News Reportage During the #EndSARS Protest

Please respond by ticking the appropriate response for each item

SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, SD= Strongly disagree, D= Disagree

10. Which of the following social media platforms was used the most for the mobilization of the
youths during the #EndSARS protest?

Table 4.10 Research Question: Social media Usage for News Reportage During the
#EndSARS Protest

S/n question SA A D SD TOTAL

Twitter 130(45.61%
1 ) 101(35.44%) 29(10.18%) 25(8.77%) 285
Instagram 113(39.65%
2 ) 91(31.93%) 42(14.74%) 39(13.68%) 285
3 Facebook 90(31.58%) 105(36.84%) 50(17.54%) 40(14.04%) 285
WhatsApp. 100(35.09%
4 ) 122(42.81%) 37(12.98%) 26(9.12%) 285
5 Youtube 35(12.28%) 45(15.79%) 95(33.33%) 110(38.60%) 285
Total 468 464 253 240 1425

Expected Frequencies 93.60 92.80 50.60 48.00 285

Interpretation: Analysis of the data in table above showed that 81.05% agreed that twitter was
the Social media used for News Reportage during the #EndSARS Protest while the remaining
18.95% disagreed to the assertion.
However, about 71.58% of the respondents agreed that instagram was the Social media used for
News Reportage during the #EndSARS Protest while the remaining 28.42% disagreed to this.
More so, about 68.42% of the respondents agreed that facebook was the Social media used for
News Reportage during the #EndSARS Protest while the remaining 31.58% disagreed to this.
Furthermore, about 77.90% of the respondents agreed that However, about 71.58% of the
respondents agreed that whatsApp was the Social media used for News Reportage During the

43
#EndSARS Protest while the remaining 22.10% disagreed to this. Finally, about 28.07% of the
respondents agreed that However, about 71.58% of the respondents agreed that YouTube was the
Social media used for News Reportage During the #EndSARS Protest while the remaining
71.93% disagreed to this. Based on this, it is clear that Social media platforms were used for
News Reportage during the #EndSARS Protest in the study.

Test of Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1
H0 There is no significant relationship between social media awareness and its usage in news
reportage during the #EndSARS protest

H1: There is significant relationship between social media awareness and its usage in news
reportage during the #EndSARS protest.

2
(θ i−Ei )
X 2cal =∑ = 249.13
Ei
2
(O−E)
Significance at P ≤ 0.5 level (calculated X2 = 249.13 ie ∑ E
= 249.13; df = 12; critical

value = 21.03)
Decision Rule: since the calculated statistic of 249.13 is greater than critical value of 21.03 at
(12) degree of freedom of α = 0.05, we reject H0 and conclude that There is significant
relationship between social media awareness and its usage in news reportage during the
#EndSARS protest.

44
45
 SECTION D: The Role Social Media during the #EndSARS?

Please respond by ticking the appropriate response for each item

SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, SD= Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree

Table 4.11 Research Question: The Role of Social Media Play During the #EndSARS

S/
n question SA A D SD TOTAL
1 Social media had an impact on
the #EndSARS protest 128(44.90%) 86(30.18%) 40(14.04%) 31(10.88%) 285

2 Social media made the world

know the severity of brutality 105(36.84%) 102(35.79%) 43(15.09%) 35(12.28%) 285
faced by Nigerians

3 Social media helped the victim 50(17.54%) 45(15.79%) 100(35.09%) 90(31.58%) 285
of the #EndSARS protest.

The campaign against the

4 SARS officials spread fast due 81(28.42%) 142(49.82%) 36(12.63%) 26(9.12%) 285
to social media‘s involvement.

The #EndSARS protest on

5 social media fueled the anger of 90(31.58%) 125(43.86%) 30(10.53%) 40(14.04%) 285
the youths and pushed them to
go out and protest

6 The protest on social media was

worse than it was physically 46(16.14%) 63(21.11%) 78(27.37%) 98(34.39%) 285

The social media campaign was

7 more effective than the physical 86(30.18%) 99(34.74%) 47(16.49%) 53(18.60%) 285
campaign
Total 586 662 374 373 1995
Expected Frequencies 83.71 94.57 53.43 53.29 285

46
Interpretation: Table 4.1.9 above, shows the responses on the role of Social Media Play During
the #EndSARS in the study. From the result of the table, about 75.08% of the total respondents
agreed that Social media had an impact on the #EndSARS protest whereas, 24.92% of them was
against that.

It was also discovered from the result of the analysis that about 72.63 percent of the total
respondents agreed that Social media made the world know the severity of brutality faced by
Nigerians whereas 27.37% of them opposed that assertion.

However, 33.33% of the total respondents agreed that Social media helped the victim of the
#EndSARS protest whereas 66.67% of them opposed that assertion.

Furthermore, 78.24% of the total respondents agreed that the campaign against the SARS
officials spread fast due to social media‘s involvement whereas 21.76%t of them disagreed to
that assertion. More so 75.44% of the total respondents agreed that the #EndSARS protest on
social media fueled the anger of the youths and pushed them to go out and protest whereas
24.56% of them disagreed to that assertion. Finally, 64.92% of the total respondents agreed that
percent of the total respondents agreed that the social media campaign was more effective than
the physical campaign whereas 35.08% of them disagreed to that assertion. Based on this, it is
clear that Social Media Played role during the #EndSARS.

47
Table 4.18 Research Question 18: What is your perception of online medium of
information gathering in terms of accuracy and inaccuracy?
Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage
Accurate 140 49.12%

Inaccurate 110 38.60%

can’t say 35 12.28%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed the respondents perception of online medium of information gathering
in terms of accuracy and inaccuracy. The result of the table revealed that 140 representing
49.12% of the respondents perceived that online medium of information gathering as accurate.

However, it was revealed 110 representing 38.60% of the respondents perceived of online
medium of information gathering as inaccurate while remaining 35 representing 12.28% of the
respondents can’t say whether it is accurate or inaccurate. This indicated that majority of the
respondent’s perception of online medium of information gathering in terms of accuracy.

48
Table4. Research Question 19: Do you see the medium trustworthy or Untrustworthy?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Trustworthy 131 45.96%

Untrustworthy 101 35.44%

can’t say 53 18.60%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed the respondents trustworthy or Untrustworthy of the medium. The result
of the table revealed that 131 representing 45.96% of the respondents see the medium
trustworthy.

However, it was revealed 101 representing 35.44% of the respondents see the medium as
untrustworthy while remaining 35 representing 18.60% of the respondents can’t say whether the
medium is trustworthy or untrustworthy. Hence, the result indicated that the medium is
trustworthy.

49
Table 4.8 Research Question 20: What is your perception of breaking news stories you
receive from social media platforms?

Options Frequency Percentage

Real 190 66.67%

Fake 38 13.33%

Undecided 57 20.00%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed the perception of breaking news stories received from social media
platforms. The result of the table revealed that 190 representing 66.67% of the respondents said
that the perception of breaking news stories received from social media platforms are real, 38
representing 13.33% of the respondents said that the perception of breaking news stories
received from social media platforms are fake while remaining 57 representing 20.00% of the
respondents were undecided in the said that the perception of breaking news stories received
from social media platforms.

50
Table 4.8 Research Question 21: Are the Social Media credible sources of breaking news
stories in Nigeria?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Yes 80 28.07%

No 156 57.74%

Undecided 49 17.19%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed the respondents according to if the Social Media credible sources of
breaking news stories in Nigeria. The result of the table revealed that 80 representing 28.07% of
the respondents were of the opinion that the Social Media platforms are credible sources of
breaking news stories in Nigeria.

However, 156 representing 57.74% of the respondents were of the opinion that the Social Media
platforms are not credible sources of breaking news stories in Nigeria while 49 representing
17.19% of the respondents were of the opinion that the Social Media platforms are credible
sources of breaking news stories in Nigeria. This indicated that the Social Media platforms are
not credible sources of breaking news stories in Nigeria.

51
Table 4.8 Research Question 22: Are there available social media platforms that are more
credible than others?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Yes 166 58.25%

No 60 21.05%

Undecided 59 20.70%
Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed response of the respondents according to availability of Social Media
platforms that is more credible than others. The result of the table revealed that 166 representing
58.25% of the respondents were of the opinion that there are available social media platforms
that are more credible than others.

However, 60 representing 21.05% of the respondents were of the opinion that there are no
available social media platforms that are more credible than others while 59 representing 20.70%
of the respondents were undecided on the availability of social media platforms that are more
credible than others. This indicated that there are no available social media platforms that are
more credible than others.

52
Test of Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis

H0: There is no significant relationship between media awareness and the perception of social
media as a credible news source.

H1: There is significant relationship between media awareness and the perception of social media
as a credible news source.

(θ i−Ei )2
X 2
cal =∑ = 98.97
Ei

2
(O−E)
Significance at P ≤ 0.5 level (calculated X = 98.11 ie ∑
2
= 98.97; df = 1; critical value
E
= 3.84)

Decision Rule: since the calculated statistic of 98.97 is greater than critical value of 3.84 at (3 – 1
– 1) degree of freedom, we reject H 0 and conclude that There is significant relationship between
media awareness and the perception of social media as a credible news source.

53
Table 4.8 Research Question 23: In terms of objectivity, is the online medium biased or
unbiased?

Type of Cooperative Frequency Percentage

Biased 191 69.02%

Unbiased 77. 27.02%

Can’t say 17 5.96%

Total 285 100.00%
Source: Field Survey, 2022

The table above showed distribution of respondents In terms of objectivity. The result of the
table revealed that 191 representing 69.02% of the respondents were of the opinion that the
online medium is biased.

However, 60 representing 21.05% of the respondents were of the opinion that the online medium
is unbiased while least 17 representing 5.96% of the respondents cannot say whether the online
medium is biased or unbiased. This indicated that the online medium is biased.

54
Test of Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3
H0: There is no significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest

H1: There is significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest.

Response Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agreed 120 42.10%

Agreed 94 32.98%

Disagreed 40 14.04%

Strongly Disagreed 31 10.88%

Total 285 100.00%

Chisquare test.
Ѳi Еi (Ѳi - Еi) (Ѳi - Еi)2 (Ѳi - Еi)2/Еi
120 71.25 48.75 2376.563 33.35526
94 71.25 22.75 517.5625 7.264035
40 71.25 -31.25 976.5625 13.70614
31 71.25 -40.25 1620.063 22.73772
Total 77.06316

Interpretation: analysis of the data in table above showed that 120 of the respondents
representing 42.10% strongly agreed that there is significant relationship between social media
usage and the escalation of the #EndSARS protest, 94 of the respondents representing, 32.98%
agreed that There is significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest, about 40 of the respondents representing, 14.04% disagreed that There is

55
significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the #EndSARS protest
while 31 respondents representing 10.88% strongly disagreed that There is significant
relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the #EndSARS protest.

Based on this it is clear that there is significant relationship between social media usage and the
escalation of the #EndSARS protest.

H0: There is no significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest

H1: There is significant relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the
#EndSARS protest

2
(θ i−Ei )
=∑
2
X cal = 77.06
Ei

2
(O−E)
Significance at P ≤ 0.5 level (calculated X2 = 77.06 ie ∑ E = 77.06; df = 2; critical value
= 5.99)

Decision Rule: since the calculated statistic of 77.06 is greater than critical value of 5.99 at (4 – 1
– 1) degree of freedom, we reject H0 and conclude that there is significant relationship between
social media usage and the escalation of the #EndSARS protest.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

This study recorded certain findings that are quite worthwhile to note about the subject matter of
the enquiry. By the assessment of the users, it has been established that there is significant
relationship between social media usage and the escalation of the #EndSARS owing to the fact
that there was an intense reportage of the events that occurred during the protest through many
social media platforms. The study also established that social media are not considered credible
sources of news reportage in Nigeria, especially among academia. This finding opposes a
submission in an empirical study conducted by Kang where it was reported that “credibility of
social media is one of the key factors initiating and further increasing public engagement and
communication effectiveness in the…social media,” Kang (2010). However, majority of the
respondents indicated that there are social media platforms that are more credible than others
which apparently confirms the reason for the rate of the popularity and rapid increase in the
usage of some of these social media sites that are considered to be credible among Nigerians
presently. Also, the research found out that among the social media platforms used for news
reportage during the #EndSARS protest, Twitter is the most adopted according to the ratings of
the respondents. However, majority of the respondents were of the opinion that Facebook helped
the most in the awareness of the protest, which is in consonance with the results of a study by
Idakwo (2011), which among other things discovered that most people use Facebook more than
other social media channels in Nigeria.

5.2 Conclusion

In the present time, social media sites are being used exceedingly by good number of Nigerians
of distinct status and categories; the youths, the adults as well as the male and the female
constituents of the country have been documented to be involved. Due to the tremendous
increase in the uses of the sites, the researchers deemed it worthwhile to examine audience
perception of the credibility of social media coverage of the EndSARS protest. That becomes
imperative to fathom the rate of credibility of each of the selected social media among their

57
Nigerian users. From the findings of the study, it has been established that Nigerian users
evaluated the social media as not credible channels of public communication. This is due to the
spread of contents found to be subjected to abuses by unscrupulous users. Thus, members of the
public were encouraged to be cautious of that reality in other not to fall victims.

5.3 Recommendations

From the findings of this study, we recommend that:

1. Nigerian users of the social media should be wary of some of the contents they consume
as unscrupulous users have been found to display misleading information that could be
harmful to the public.

2. Social media users in the country have to be aware that some political contents were mere
propaganda tools apply to debase other politicians or political party’s ideologies as well
as exaggerate and or falsify some information on political–related issues.

3. Members of the public are encouraged to desist from the various abuses in the usage of
the social media for the interest of greater number of Nigerians found to be users of the
sites in search of various relevant pieces of information.

4. Media practitioners and academics should devote time to educate the people to avoid
negative uses of the social media as they form major credible channels of public
communication in Nigeria now.

5. Social media users should go extra miles to verify from other credible sources on some of
the information they get from the sites since anybody can post anything on the social
media.

58
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 APPENDIX I: CONSENT LETTER

Department of Mass Communication,

Enugu State University of Science and Technology,

P.M.B. 01660

Agbani,

Enugu State

Sir/Madam,

REQUEST FOR YOUR CANDID OPINION IN MY ACADEMIC RESEARCH

I am Eluagu, Lambert Ikechukwu, an MSc. student of the above institution and department
currently working on a research project ― Audience Perception of the Credibility of Social
Media Coverage of the EndSARS Protest: A Study of ESUT and Federal College of Agriculture
Ishiagu Academic Staff. This research is a scholarly study with the objective to examine the
credibility of social media in news reportage and its impact on social movements. Therefore, this
questionnaire is meant to collect data for the research. The information provided would be
treated with utmost confidentiality and solely for academic research purposes.

Thank you for your co-operation.

66
 APPENDIX II: STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A: Demographic Characteristics

Please tick [ √ ] as appropriate

1. Age: a. 18- 21yrs [ ] b. 22-25yrs[ ] (c) 26-30yrs [ ] d. 31-35yrs[ ]

2. Gender: a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ]

3. Religion: a. Christianity [ ] b. Islam [ ] c. Traditional [ ] d. Others [ ]

SECTION B: Level of Awareness

Please respond by ticking the appropriate response(s) for each question

4. Are you aware of the #EndSARS protest?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ]

5. Did you participate in the #EndSARS protest on social media?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ]

6. What Social media platform did you actively engage in during the #EndSARS protest
among the following?

(a) Twitter [ ] (b)Instagram [ ] (c)Facebook [ ]

(d) Whatsapp[ ] (e) Youtube[ ]

7. How often did you post on your Social media platform(s) during the #EndSARS protest?

(a) Everyday [ ] (b) Multiple times a day[ ] (c) At all[ ]

8. What communication platform did you first get to know about the #EndSARS protest?

(a) Mainstream media (TV and Radio) [ ] (b) Print Media[ ]

(c) Social Media [ ]

9. What networking site would you say really helped in the awareness of the #EndSARS protest?

67
(a) Twitter (b) Instagram [ ] (c) Facebook[ ]

(d) WhatsApp [ ] (e) Youtube [ ]

SECTION C: Social media Usage for News Reportage During the #EndSARS Protest

Please respond by ticking the appropriate response for each item

SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, SD= Strongly disagree, D= Disagree

10. Which of the following social media platforms was used the most for the mobilization of the
youths during the #EndSARS protest?

STATEMENTS SA A SD D
a. Twitter
b. Instagram
c. Facebook
d. WhatsApp
e. Youtube

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SECTION D: The Role of Social Media Play During the #EndSARS?

Please respond by ticking the appropriate response for each item

SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, SD= Strongly Disagree, D= Disagree

STATEMENTS SA A SD D
11.Social media had an impact on the #EndSARS protest
12. Social media made the world know the severity of
brutality faced by Nigerians
13. Social media helped the victim of the #EndSARS
protest.
14. The campaign against the SARS officials spread fast
due to social media‘s involvement.
15. The #EndSARS protest on social media fueled the
anger of the youths and pushed them to go out and protest
16. The protest on social media was worse than it was
physically
17. The social media campaign was more effective than the
physical campaign

69
SECTION D: Credibilityof Social Media in News Reportage?

18. What is your perception of online medium of information gathering in terms of accuracy and
inaccuracy?

(a) Accurate[ ] (b) Inaccurate [ ] (c) can’t say[ ]

19. Do you see the medium trustworthy or Untrustworthy?

(a) Trustworthy[ ] (b) Untrustworthy[ ] (c) can’t say[ ]

20. What is your perception of breaking news stories you receive from social media platforms?

(a) Real[ ] (b) Fake[ ] (c) Undecided[ ]

21. Are the Social Media credible sources of breaking news stories in Nigeria?

(a) Yes[ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Undecided[ ]

22. Are there available social media platforms that are more credible than others?

(a) Yes[ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Undecided[ ]

23. In terms of objectivity, is the online medium biased or unbiased?

(a) Biased[ ] (b) Unbiased[ ] (c) can’t say[ ]

70