Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage.

8(4): 589-606, Autumn 2022, Serial #32

Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management

(GJESM)

Homepage: https://www.gjesm.net/

REVIEW PAPER
A bibliometric analysis of the effects of electronic waste on the environment

M. Maphosa1,*, V. Maphosa2
1 School of Information Technology, Varsity College, Independent Institute of Education, Sandton, South Africa
2
Information Communication and Technology Services Department, Lupane State University, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

ARTICLE INFO A B ST R AC T
The outcome of improper electronic waste management is an environmental and
Article History:
epidemiological catastrophe; therefore, its management has become crucial given the
Received 06 December 2021
increase in e-waste generation. Global e-waste output eclipsed 52 million metric tonnes
Revised 13 February 2022
in 2020, growing at 3% per annum. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal
Accepted 16 March 2022 number 12 highlights that only 20% of the generated e-waste was properly recycled, with the
remainder indiscriminately disposed of. There has been considerable growth in publications
Keywords: on e-waste and the environment over the past few decades. This study provides an overview
Electrical and electronic of the research landscape on the impact of e-waste on the environment using bibliometric
equipment analysis. VOSviewer software is used to visualise the current trends and the recent hotspots.
Electronic waste It is observed that the research hotspots in the field are: soil, health, environmental impact,
Environment recovery, electronic equipment, and waste electrical and electronic equipment. By tracing
Health the evolutionary research pathway, it is clear that the research hotspots have shifted focus
Recycle to e-waste generation, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, and circular economy. A total
Waste management of 141 articles on e-waste and the environment published between 2003 and 2021 were
selected for the study. The publication and citation analysis showed a steady increase in
publications and citations. China dominates with a third of articles published by authors,
followed by India and the United States. Developing countries contributed about 17% of total
publications. The articles retrieved were cited 5290 times and had an h-index of 39. Finally,
using network analysis techniques, four key themes are identified. The first theme relates to
the strategies employed in recovering minerals from e-waste. The second theme focuses on
the concentration levels of the heavy minerals found in e-waste. The third theme visualises the
impact of e-waste on health, and finally, the fourth theme highlights the effects of e-waste on
the environment. The study adds valuable insights to the body of literature in hazardous and
toxic substances management. No studies were found chronicling the environmental effects
of e-waste using bibliometric analysis. In light of the Sustainable Development Goals, further
research needs to be undertaken, and these findings serve as a baseline for policymakers and
DOI: 10.22034/gjesm.2022.04.10 scholars as more management strategies and policies are enacted.

NUMBER OF REFERENCES NUMBER OF FIGURES NUMBER OF TABLES

102 4 4
*Corresponding Author:
Email: [email protected]/[email protected]
Phone: +27117846939
ORCID: 0000-0003-3702-6821
Note: Discussion period for this manuscript open until January 1, 2023 on GJESM website at the “Show Article”.
 M. Maphosa and V. Maphosa

INTRODUCTION dumping. High unemployment rates have created

The fourth industrial revolution (4IR), employment opportunities where pervasive and
urbanisation, and advances in information technology informal processing is prominent in recovering rare
have radically transformed humanity in the past earth minerals, but this is done at the expense of the
few decades. Information and communication environment and public health (Sthiannopkao and
technologies (ICTs) have permeated every aspect Wong, 2013). Although Africa is the largest recipient
of human life, promoting and maintaining a higher of e-waste, the International Telecommunications
standard of living, and have become the foundation Union reports that only 0.1% of e-waste is formally
for health, education, transport, security, and recycled in Africa and has targeted a global
energy operations. Although this development has collection and recycling rate of 30% by 2023 (Forti et
been transformational, irresponsible management al., 2020). In most informal recycling areas, children
of technological resources has raised environmental are at risk due to exposure to Pb and PAHs, resulting
quandaries. Balancing technological advancements in inflamed vascular endothelial (Zheng et al., 2019).
and environmental sustainability remains a challenge
for current and future generations (Maphosa, 2021). Barriers to e-waste management
The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals The manufacture of EEE is complex, with over
(SDGs) foster sustainable economic, social and 1000 substances used, including precious minerals
environmental development across the globe. The such as platinum, palladium, gold, and copper,
SDGs provide a framework for solving problems together with toxic elements such as lead, mercury,
affecting humanity and the environment (Akon- cadmium, arsenic, and many others (Maphosa and
Yamga, 2021). Rapid industrialisation and product Maphosa, 2020). Deubzer et al. (2019) contended
innovations, population boom, shorter product that it was challenging to manage e-waste. Some
lifespans and consumer demand and cheaper ICT components had over 69 chemical elements
products contribute to the growth of the electrical composed of valuable and hazardous elements,
and electronic equipment (EEE) product market (Lin which require complex processes and recycling
et al., 2022). However, most of these developments technologies to recover the precious minerals.
do not promote environmental sustainability by Over 50 tons of mercury were contained in
lowering environmental degradation and reducing e-waste produced in 2019, with brominated flame
global warming (Sztumski, 2014). Computing retardants accounting for 71-kilo tons, detrimental
activities contribute to global warming through to the environment and human health if improperly
carbon emissions released during the manufacture, handled (Sabra et al., 2017). Developing countries
use and recycling of the resultant e-waste lack the finances and infrastructure to set up
through the release of harmful chemicals into the formal e-waste processing. Informal management
environment (Perkins et al., 2014). is unlicensed and unregulated, where individuals
use primitive and rudimentary techniques such as
State of the art of e-waste management burning, leaching, and heating, which negatively
The past decades have witnessed increased affect the environment and public health (Pathak et
adoption of EEE; once this equipment is obsolete or al., 2019). Aimin et al. (2011) reported that pregnant
unusable, it constitutes electronic waste (e-waste). women and children dwelling around e-waste
E-waste is the fastest-growing solid waste stream dumpsites suffered perturbations of the fetus
at about 5% per annum (Amankwah-Amoah, and neurodevelopment challenges. The precious
2016). Globally, e-waste output will rise to over materials found in e-waste are ten times purer than
52.2 million metric tonnes in 2020, causing an minerals found in mines, therefore, putting pressure
environmental crisis (Baldé et al., 2017). Only 17.4% on the environment through informal recycling (Vi
of e-waste was collected and recycled, with 82.6% and Matthew, 2014). Ardolino et al. (2021) report
of the e-waste illegally exported to developing adverse environmental and public health outcomes
countries (Forti et al., 2020). Developing countries in most developing countries, where e-waste is
have become an accessible channel for e-waste exported and improperly treated and managed.

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E-waste recycling methods by scavenging the resultant e-waste (Omobowale,

Methods used to recycle and recover rare metals 2013). Thus, most e-waste flows to the global south
from e-waste should protect the environment are illegal and disguised as genuine efforts to bridge
and human health. E-waste recycling is highly the digital divide (Lambrechts, 2016). In a Kenyan
informal in developing countries (Maphosa and study earlier, Mureithi and Waema (2008) reported
Maphosa, 2020), with scholars estimating that 90% that about 75% of second-hand EEE was exported
of recycling activities use rudimentary methods illegally in the pretence that it was usable and
such as stones, hammers, and chisels to separate repairable; beneficiaries such as schools reported
components (Pathak et al., 2019). Cyanide has been that over 60% of the donated EEE was unusable and
used to extract gold from e-waste for centuries. Its beyond repair. To manage e-waste without harming
use has been prohibited in many countries due to the environment and human health is costly.
poisoning and contamination of the environment Therefore, in most developing countries, e-waste
resulting in human and animal fatalities (Ghasem is indiscriminately disposed of, thereby posing a
and Khoramnejadian, 2015). Material smelting has hazard to the environment.
been used to recycle printed circuit boards, and the
method has been condemned for being primitive E-waste management policies
and polluting the environment (Ye et al., 2021). Most of the global e-waste is produced by
Hydrometallurgical techniques are used in recycling developed countries, which often view developing
using leaching, purification, and electrowinning. countries as an outlet for cheaper disposal due to the
This process uses many leaching reagents and is unavailability of environmental policies. Globally,
only applied to a few minerals, while the leachates 71% of the countries have crafted national e-waste
contain heavy metals which are detrimental to the policies for collection and management, although
environment and human health (Wang and Xu, the majority still experience inefficient management
2014). Recycling enterprises in developed countries due to lack of investment and partnerships, lack of
have perfected e-waste recycling technologies using compliance, and no harmonisation across countries
mechanical crushing, magnetic separation, and eddy (Lundgren, 2012). In 2019, only 13 African countries
current separation and have reached high levels of had an e-waste policy, legislation, or regulation
efficiency (Abdul et al., 2014). (Avis, 2021). Thus, over 80% of the African countries
do not have formal e-waste collection and recycling
Movement of e-waste into developing countries systems, and e-waste is mixed with municipal
The United Nations (UN) SDG 12 specifically waste and dumped in landfills where informal
addresses e-waste management and highlights workers salvage valuable materials through burning
that only 22.9% of global e-waste is recycled, while (Ongondo et al., 2011). Lack of e-waste policies,
the rest is improperly disposed of, affecting the laws, and legislation in most developing countries
environment (UN, 2021). Once labelled the dark results in low awareness among those in the value
continent, Africa has witnessed unprecedented chain from manufacturers to recyclers (Nwagwu and
growth in its cyberspace, leading to increased socio- Okuneye, 2016). This remains the greatest threat to
economic development and sustained economic managing e-waste (Mutsau et al., 2015).
growth. Cheaper telecommunications equipment,
computers, and mobile phones are being assembled Aim of the study
and refurbished for low-income countries to The study is motivated by Kiddee et al. (2013),
bridge the digital divide and promote inclusive who highlighted that the scientific community was
development (Chitotombe, 2013). Over 80% of the concerned with the unsafe handling of e-waste in
e-waste produced by developed countries is illegally developing countries, threatening the environment.
exported to Africa, where primitive techniques are There is evidence of growth in studies focusing on
used to recover precious materials, thus harming the e-waste, focussing on different aspects of e-waste.
environment and public health (Grant et al., 2013). As early as 2014, Premalatha et al. (2014) opined
The demand for cheaper second-hand EEE is high in that the e-waste problem was increasing at a much
developing countries, and many communities survive faster rate than the proposed solutions to contain

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it. A study by Hossain et al. (2015) showed that mapping tools to demonstrate developments in
global e-waste management practices could prolong e-waste research covering environmental issues.
SDG achievement. Zeng and Li (2016) proposed a No bibliometric studies published using the Web
recyclability map that can serve as a guideline for of Science database focusing on e-waste and
establishing a feasible funding system for e-waste the environment were found. This study aims to
management. E-waste is a growing global concern, analyse and assess global research on e-waste and
and a significant amount of e-waste is being added to the environment, realising that issues to do with
the global waste inventory every year (Kumar et al., environmental sustainability are very urgent and
2017). Ikhlayel (2018) suggested implementing an topical. This study, therefore, provides a baseline for
integrated e-waste management system to prevent policymakers and researchers to plan and research
improper e-waste management in developing on e-waste and climate change. This study was
countries. Li and Xu (2019) compared supercritical carried out between December 2021 and February
fluid technology with traditional methods such 2022.
as hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy. They
found that supercritical fluid technology could METHODS OF STUDY
recover valuable materials and remove hazardous The Web of Science database is one of the
components without secondary pollution. An largest databases generally used for bibliometric
aspect of e-waste management that has received analysis. One database is preferred when conducting
attention is legislation. Patil and Ramakrishna (2020) bibliometric studies, as mapping indicators across
compared different e-waste legislation enacted and several databases may be challenging (Sweileh,
proposed a generic e-waste management model for 2021). Accurate analysis of bibliometric studies
countries worldwide. The lack of proper technologies is guaranteed by developing a comprehensive
makes it difficult for many developing countries to search query. The search query was identified and
formalise e-waste recycling (Rautela et al., 2021). developed after conducting a literature review and
A few bibliometric studies on e-waste have been identifying gaps in research covering e-waste and the
conducted. A study by Andrade et al. (2019) sought environment. In December 2021 – January 2022, the
to assess recent research trends using the keyword Web of Science database was searched in the four
e-waste from studies published between 1998 and indexes - Science Citation Index Expanded, Social
2018. Another study by Zhang et al. (2019) depicted Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities Citation
the trends and features of WEEE-related studies. Index, and the Emerging Sources Citation Index.
Gao et al. (2019) explored e-waste’s status quo, hot Multiple searches with multiple keywords search
topics, and future prospects. A study by Singh et strings were used with the Boolean operators “AND”
al. (2021) provided an overview of e-waste and the and “OR” to obtain relevant documents. The first
circular economy using articles published between search string retrieved articles related to climate, the
2008 and 2020. The last study explored focus areas environment, and sustainability. The search string TI
on e-waste and ascertained Brazil’s ranking globally = (“climate” OR “climate change” OR “environment”
(de Albuquerque et al., 2021). This study aims to OR “sustainability” yielded 667 616 articles. The
use bibliometric indicators to review global research second search string TI = (“e-waste” OR “electronic
on e-waste and its effects on the environment waste” OR “electrical and electronic equipment” OR
in the past decade, compare publication trends “EEE” yielded 2336 articles. The two search queries
over the years, and highlight the contributions of Were then combined to obtain articles appearing in
developing countries on e-waste research. This both queries, and there were 166 articles. Articles
study is different from the studies discussed above published in 2022 were excluded, resulting in an
in that it provides a bibliometric and visualisation of exclusion of two publications leaving 164 articles.
research on e-waste and its environmental impact in Filtered the papers by document types led to the
the past decade. The study explores the publication exclusion of editorial materials, meeting abstracts,
distribution by geography, journals, and citation book reviews, corrections, letters, and news items,
trends. The study also assessed the frequency of leaving 141 articles. The bibliometric analysis uses
keywords and H-index analysis and used bibliometric statistics and procedures to visually express general

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and dynamic patterns found in scientific publications citations, with 2019 having 790, 2020 having 811
(Ho, 2007). The Web of Science’s database and 2021 having 1049.
functionality to analyse search results were used to Table 1 shows the top 15 cited research articles
analyse results. The bibliometric data for analysis in the field of e-waste and the environment. As
in text and excel file formats were exported. The shown, the study “E-waste: An assessment of global
text and excel data were imported to VOSViewer production and environmental impacts” published
(van Eck and Waltman, 2010) to create the keyword in 2009 is the most cited with 937 citations. This
occurrence network and density visualisation maps is followed by the article “Potential environmental
(Schulz and Schumann, 2006). and human health impacts of rechargeable lithium
batteries in electronic waste” published in 2013
Publications and Citation Trends with 214 citations and the article “Electrical and
Fig. 1 plots the publications and citation trends. electronic waste: a global environmental problem”
The first article on e-waste and environment-related published in 2007 with 174 citations. Thus, the top
research was published in 2003. Between 2003 and 15 cited articles have been cited more than 100
2013, less than ten were published per year. More times.
authors started to research this field, leading to a
steady increase in publications. The years 2016 to Distribution of articles by journal
2021 recorded more than ten publications except The 141 articles analysed were published in 76
for 2019. In terms of citations, there were low journals. Of these, 53 (69.7%) journals had a single
citations between 2003 and 2009, with less than publication each, 13 had two. The top ten journals
100 citations per year. 2011 to 2020 saw citations published just over 40 (43.9%), as shown in Table
in the hundreds between 113 in 2011 and 811 in 2. The journal with the most significant number of
2020. The year 2021 saw more than 1000 citations. publications is the “Journal of Cleaner Production”,
The last three years saw astronomical growth in with 11 publications. This is followed by “Science of

1200 30
1049

1000 25
811
790
800 20

Publications
587
Citations

541
600 15
393
400 328 10
245
204
162
200 5
68 113
26 43
1 0 3 7 10
0 0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021

Publications Citations
 
Fig.Fig. 1: Publication and citation index 
1: Publication and citation index
   

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Table 1: Top 15 cited articles 
Table 1: Top 15 cited articles
 
No.  Article  Year  Count  Reference 
1  E‐waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts  2009  937  (Robinson, 2009) 
Potential environmental and human health impacts of rechargeable 
2  2013  214  (Kang et al., 2013) 
lithium batteries in electronic waste 
3  Electrical and electronic waste: a global environmental problem  2007  174  (Babu et al., 2007) 
Does WEEE recycling make sense from an environmental perspective? 
4  The environmental impacts of the Swiss take‐back and recycling systems  2005  170  (Hischier et al., 2005) 
for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) 
Willingness to engage in a pro‐environmental behavior: an analysis of e‐
5  2012  168  (Saphores et al., 2012) 
waste recycling based on a national survey of U.S. households 
Environmental pollution of electronic waste recycling in India: a critical 
6  2016  151  (Awasthi et al., 2016) 
review 
Sustainability in electrical and electronic equipment closed‐loop supply  (Georgiadis and Besiou, 
7  2008  147 
chains: a system dynamics approach  2008) 
Environmental impact and human exposure to PCBs in Guiyu, an 
8  2009  136  (Xing et al., 2009) 
electronic waste recycling site in China 
Environmental impacts of the Swiss collection and recovery systems for 
9  2011  134  (Wäger et al., 2011) 
waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): a follow‐up 
Toward sustainability for recovery of critical metals from electronic 
10  2017  132  (Sun et al., 2017) 
waste: the hydrochemistry processes 
Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e‐waste 
11  2014  128  (Song and Li, 2014) 
recycling activities in China: a systematic review 
12  Electronic waste ‐ an emerging threat to the environment of urban India  2014  118  (Needhidasan et al., 2014) 
Flame retardant emission from e‐waste recycling operation in northern 
13  Vietnam: environmental occurrence of emerging organophosphorus  2015  115  (Matsukami et al., 2015) 
esters used as alternatives for PBDEs 
E‐waste recycling induced polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 
14  polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and  2007  108  (Liu et al., 2008) 
dibenzo‐furans pollution in the ambient environment 
An analysis of some environmental consequences of European electrical  (Barba‐Gutiérrez et al., 
15  2008  102 
and electronic waste regulation  2008) 
 
   
Table 2: Top 10 journals 
Table 2: Top 10 journals
 
No.  Journal  Count  Percentage 
1  Journal of Cleaner Production  11  7.8 
2  Science of the Total Environment  10 7.1 
3  Resources Conservation and Recycling  8  5.7 
4  Environmental Science and Pollution Research  7  5 
5  Waste Management  7  5 
6  Environmental Science Technology  6  4.3 
7  Environment International  4 2.8 
8  Chemosphere  3  2.1 
9  Environmental Pollution  3  2.1 
10  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health  3  2.1 
 
   

the Total Environment” with ten articles and then articles published by authors in the country, followed
the “Resources Conservation and Recycling” with by India with 19 articles (13.5%) and then the United
eight publications. States with 18 articles (12.8%). Developing countries
contributed about 17% of total publications. Ghana
Geographical distribution of articles and Pakistan are leading developing countries,
Researchers from 48 countries authored the contributing 3.5% of the research, while Nigeria,
141 articles analysed. Table 3 shows publications by Bangladesh, Algeria contributed 1.7% each. Morocco,
country. As shown, China dominates with a third of Benin, Iran and South Africa contributed 0.7% each.

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Table 3: Geographical distribution of articles 
Table 3: Geographical distribution of articles
 
No  Country  Count  Percentage 
1  China  47 33.3 
2  India  19  13.5 
3  USA  18  12.8 
4  Brazil  7  5.0 
5  Italy  7 5.0 
6  Japan  7  5.0 
7  Australia  6  4.3 
8  Canada  5  3.5 
9  Ghana  5 3.5 
10  Pakistan  5  3.5 
11  Belgium  4  2.8 
12  England  4  2.8 
13  South Korea  4 2.8 
14  Switzerland  4  2.8 
15  Thailand  4  2.8 
16  Germany  3  2.1 
17  Greece  3 2.1 
18  Netherlands  3  2.1 
19  Portugal  3  2.1 
20  Spain  3  2.1 
21  Turkey  3 2.1 
22  Vietnam  3  2.1 
23  Algeria  2  1.4 
24  Bangladesh  2  1.4 
25  Denmark  2  1.4 
26  France  2 1.4 
27  Israel  2  1.4 
28  Malaysia  2  1.4 
29  Mexico  2  1.4 
30  Nigeria  2 1.4 
31  Norway  2  1.4 
32  Romania  2  1.4 
33  Saudi Arabia  2  1.4 
34  Serbia  2 1.4 
35  Sweden  2  1.4 
36  Benin  1  0.7 
37  Estonia  1  0.7 
38  Iran  1 0.7 
39  Ireland  1  0.7 
40  Lithuania  1  0.7 
41  Luxembourg  1  0.7 
42  Morocco 1 0.7 
43  New Zealand  1  0.7 
44  Poland  1  0.7 
45  Singapore  1  0.7 
46  South Africa  1 0.7 
47  Taiwan  1  0.7 
48  United Arab Emirates  1  0.7 
 
   
The citation and h-index analysis articles were cited in 110 countries, with four records
The number of citations is the main factor to not containing data in the field being analysed. The
reflect the quality of a paper (Tahamtan et al., 2016). retrieved research studies have an h-index of 39.
According to the analysis of the data from Web of The h-index of 39 means that of the 141 research
Science, all articles were cited 5290 times. These articles, 39 have received 39 citations. Based on

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Table 4: Top 10 most occurring keywords 
Table 4: Top 10 most occurring keywords
 
No.  Keyword  Occurrence  Link  Total link strength 
1  Level  74  74  1085 
2  Health  62 68 745 
3  Soil  61  51  1274 
4  Concentration  59  45  1353 
5  Electronic equipment  57  57  872 
6  Site  53  59  986 
7  Sample  52 55 1120 
8  Material  50  61  716 
9  Area  48  64  742 
10  System  45  61  644 
 

the results of the citation report applied in the belong to the same cluster (Wiendartun et al.,
Web of Science database, the citation performance 2022). Cluster 1 (red) is the largest cluster related
is summarised in the following indicators: citing to e-waste recycling, policies, strategies, technology,
articles – 4048; citing articles – 3959 (without self- and environmental impact. Cluster 2 (green) shows
citations); times cited – 5513; times cited – 5290 the concentration levels of heavy metals and other
(without self-citations); and H-index – 39. chemicals in soil, water, plants and humans in the
areas or region studied. Cluster 3 (blue) depicts
The keywords analysis of research hotspots the effect of e-waste management practices on
Analysis of e-waste and the environment health. Keywords include health, product, e-waste
research based on the frequency of the keywords management, and information. The yellow cluster
used in the title and abstracts of the articles can is the smallest, showing the level of knowledge on
achieve a conceptual image of the content of these the generation of e-waste and its impact on the
studies and reflect research hotspots. A total of 4358 environment. The red cluster relates to e-waste
co-occurrence keywords were extracted from 141 recycling, policies, strategies, technology, and
articles. The minimum occurrence of each keyword environmental impact.
was set to nine times, and 126 co-occurrence Developed countries have the infrastructure
keywords were finally presented. The top three and equipment to recycle electrical and electronic
keywords ranked by the number of occurrences were waste (WEEE) to recover valuable materials in an
as follows: level (n = 74), health (n = 68), and soil environmentally friendly manner (Maphosa and
(n = 61). Table 4 shows the top ten most occurring Maphosa, 2020). Developing countries lack policies,
keywords, links, and the total link strength. The link infrastructure and systems to recover precious
strength between two nodes refers to the frequency materials, repair for reuse, and improper disposal
of co-occurrence. It can be used as a quantitative of electronic equipment has a detrimental effect
index to depict the relationship between two nodes on the environment (Lebbie et al., 2021). The green
(Pinto et al., 2014). cluster shows the concentration levels of heavy
metals and other chemicals in soil, water, plants
Network visualisation graph and humans in the areas or regions studied. Studies
For each of the 126 keywords, VOSviewer reveal that a large area of farmland in China is
calculated a relevance score and selected the 76 contaminated with heavy metals such as pahs and
(60%) most relevant keywords that were mapped phosphodiesterase (PDE) from e-waste recycling
into four clusters representing four research themes. initiatives, thus reducing arable land, which has
Fig. 2 shows the keyword co-occurrence network enormous consequences on sustainability (Wang et
map. The distance between two nodes reflects their al., 2020). Soil samples around e-waste dumpsites
associative strength. A shorter distance generally in Ghana have high levels of heavy metals,
reveals a more substantial relationship. The line sometimes 50 times higher than the World Health
between two keywords represents that they have Organisations’ (WHO) threshold levels (Asante et
appeared together. Nodes with a similar colour al., 2011). Crops and plants around dumpsites and

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Global J. Environ. Sci. Manage., 8(4): 589-606, Autumn 2022

 
Fig. 2: The: Keywords co‐occurrence network map 
Fig. 2: The: Keywords co-occurrence network map
   
 M. Maphosa and V. Maphosa

 
Fig. 3: Keywords density visualisation map
Fig. 3: Keywords density visualisation map  
   

landfills are contaminated and toxic to humans and ‘recovery’, ‘electronic equipment and ‘WEEE’. In
animals (Kiddee et al., 2013). The blue cluster depicts emerging economies, e-waste is collected together
the effect of e-waste management practices on with municipal waste. Careless disposal and non-
health. Keywords include health, product, e-waste separation from solid waste lead to environmental
management, and information. The Agbogoloshie pollution through illegal dumping and the recovery
in Ghana is the largest landfill in Africa (Feldt et al., of precious minerals through rudimentary methods,
2014). Informal workers lack information on e-waste polluting the air, soil, and water bodies (Kayes, 2019).
management and use rudimentary methods to Studies show that soils around e-waste dumpsites
extract rare earth metals through leaching, which have high levels of toxic minerals such as lead,
causes health challenges (Huang et al., 2014). The chromium, and cadmium. In some instances, these
yellow cluster shows the level of knowledge on were 50 times higher than the permissible exposure
the generation of e-waste and its impact on the levels set by WHO (Asante et al., 2011). E-waste
environment. The lack of e-waste policies, laws and plants in Nigeria and China recorded high levels of
legislation in most developing countries affects the lead, copper, manganese, cadmium in plants and
awareness and knowledge levels of the community the soils (Alabi et al., 2012). Exposure to cadmium
(Mutsau et al., 2015). VOSviewer can make density pollution during pregnancy may be a risk factor
visualisation (Fig. 3). Each node in the keyword’s for shortened placental telomere length known
density visualisation map has a colour that relies on to be related to cancer development and ageing
the density of items at that node. In other words, (Lin et al., 2013). The overlay network of keyword
the colour of a node depends on the number of co-occurrence visualisation analysis is widely
items in the node’s neighbourhood. accepted to identify research hotspots (Chen, 2004).
The keywords in the red colour area appear VOSviewer software was used to generate an overlay
more frequently; on the contrary, the keywords visualisation network of keyword co-occurrence to
in the green colour area appear less frequently. explore the changes of research hotspots over the
From Fig. 3, we can see the core keywords in the last ten years. Fig. 4 shows the keywords overlay
e-waste and the environment field. These are: ‘soil’, visualisation map. The results indicated that
‘sample’, ‘health’, ‘environmental impact’, ‘material’, the keywords “LIBS” (laser-induced breakdown

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Fig. 4: Keywords overlay visualisation map (2012 – 2021)
Fig. 4: Keywords overlay visualisation map (2012 – 2021) 
 
spectroscopy) and “circular economy” emerged in in e-waste; low recycling rates have seen up to
2021. LIBS is a tool for industrial process control USD 22 billion worth of gold and platinum being
that can be used to control the copper leaching dumped yearly (Globenewswire, 2018). Europe
process (Garcia et al., 2021). Besides e-waste, LIBS leads with about 40 collection and recycling rates,
also analyses soil, rocks, sediments, waters, landfill while less than 1% of e-waste generated in Africa
leachates, lubricating oils, and aerosols (Gonçalves is recycled (Forti et al., 2020). China is currently
et al., 2021). A circular economy is an approach recycling 30% of its generated e-waste (Chen et al.,
that avoids waste through the design of optimised 2019). Another study revealed that less than 1% of
cycles of products, components, and materials e-waste produced in Brazil was recycled in line with
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013). More recently, environmental and public health considerations
the circular economy concept has been applied to (Caiado et al., 2017). Proper recycling can reduce
e-waste. As a solution to the e-waste problem, a the release of greenhouse gas emissions, and the
circular economy is an urban mining procedure of recovery of precious and rare earth metals from
recovering and classifying mineral material (Xavier e-waste minimises the demand for pure minerals
et al., 2021). Gautam et al. (2021) explored how (Foelster et al., 2016). Although informal e-waste
the disposal of solar photovoltaic e-waste could recycling has created many jobs for the informal
contribute to the circular economy in India. Islam sector, rudimentary methods used to recover
et al. (2021) suggest a consumer-centric circular precious minerals are a threat to the environment
economy framework to advance knowledge and and the health of the surrounding communities. The
implementation strategies around e-waste. number of people dependent on e-waste activities
The UN reported that e-waste recycling activities continues to grow, and in 2010 over 200,000
generated over USD 62.5 billion annually and people’s livelihoods were supported by e-waste
reiterated the need to establish a circular economy activities in Ghana (Prakash et al., 2010). Annual
based on e-waste management (IISD, 2019). Industry income from e-waste activities in Ghana is estimated
experts predict that e-waste revenue will surpass to be USD268 million (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2014).
USD143 billion by 2028 (Allied Research Market, The government of Ghana has organised seminars
2021). About 7% of the world’s gold is contained and workshops for the public to raise awareness of

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the environmental and health impact of e-waste e-waste recycling sites in Nigeria had high levels
(Daum et al., 2017). Based on the economic of zinc, nickel, chromium and cadmium compared
potential, e-waste management must be prioritised to other sites (Isimekhai et al., 2017). A study
against other financial needs. The keywords such conducted in Ghana revealed that water bodies
as “water”, “soil”, “health”, “sediment”, and “level” near dumpsites were contaminated as informal
frequently appeared in the last six years, indicating workers used leaching of acid to extract rare earth
that the impact of e-waste on the soil, water, and metals such as gold and copper from e-waste (Tue et
environment will continue to be researched hotspots al., 2019). Thus toxic fumes, ashes, slag and harmful
in the near future. This is in line with findings of chemicals are released into the environment.
a study by Ackah (2017) that the major transport E-waste recycling has contaminated large portions of
pathways in the e-waste recycling environment underground water around landfills and dumpsites
were: dust, air, water, soil, and biota. E-waste is in Nigeria, making it unsuitable for human and
dumped in landfills in most developing countries animal consumption (Ewuim et al., 2014;) explained
where informal workers attempt to recover precious that plants and crops are close to dumpsites are
materials using subsistence tools (Yohannessen et contaminated and are toxic to humans and animals.
al., 2019). Thus, hazardous chemicals contaminate The UN’s SDG 12 notes the rising e-waste problem
water bodies, soils, and ozone-depleting gases and specifically addresses e-waste management. It
are released into the atmosphere, contributing highlights a recycling rate of 22.9%, while close to
to climate change. Rare earth metals such as gold 80% of e-waste is unaccounted for and improperly
and copper, and other valuable materials are disposed of, thereby polluting the environment
salvaged through burning and acid leaching, causing (Ohajinwa et al., 2017). Over 1000 substances are
environmental damage and affecting the health used in the manufacture of electronic equipment.
of those living in the vicinity (Sun et al., 2017; These include precious minerals such as platinum,
Tsydenova and Bengtsson, 2011). Informal workers palladium, gold and copper, and toxic elements such
in the e-waste value chain are often illiterate and as lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, etc. E-waste
cannot comprehend the environmental and health recycling is a lucrative industry; over USD 62.5 billion
risks associated with their practices in recovering is realised annually, and over USD 22 billion worth of
valuable materials (Singh et al., 2020). An earlier gold and platinum is dumped yearly. About 40% of
study by Harayama and Rekacewicz (2004) revealed e-waste generated in Europe is recycled, while less
that only 50% of the computer components were than 1% generated in Africa is recycled.
recyclable. The remaining 505 contained about
2kg of lead and other harmful materials, often Looking forward
dumped in landfills. About 20% of the farmland E-waste recycling is a lucrative industry; over
in China is contaminated with polycyclic aromatic USD 62.5 billion is realised annually, and over USD
hydrocarbons (pahs) from e-waste recycling 22 billion worth of gold and platinum is dumped
initiatives, thus reducing arable land, which has yearly. There is a need to establish a circular
enormous consequences on sustainability (Sun economy for the management of e-waste from the
et al., 2018). Lakes, rivers and other water bodies collection, separation, and recycling of e-waste.
in Guiyu, China, are contaminated with high lead E-waste management will be improved by raising
levels due to indiscriminate burning and leaching of awareness of socio-economic and environmental
e-waste during the recovery of precious minerals (Li benefits such as repairing, reusing, remanufacturing,
et al., 2011). During recycling, released chemicals and reducing. Funding is required to set up
contaminate the dust, soils and water sources near infrastructure that improves e-waste recycling and
dumpsites affecting the plants and fruits (Daum et harnessing technology for e-waste management
al., 2017). In a study in Japan, it was observed that (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2021).
rice and wheat irrigated with water from the Jinstu
river were contaminated with cadmium and caused CONCLUSION
about 150 human deaths (Generowicz and Iwanejko, E-waste has become an environmental and
2017). Research revealed that soils around informal epidemiological crisis requiring consented effort to

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protect the environment from improper disposal. impact of e-waste on health, and finally, the yellow
Many emerging economies do not have e-waste cluster highlights the effects of e-waste on the
policies to protect the environment and public environment. The study adds valuable insights to the
health. Less than 20% of African countries have an body of literature in hazardous and toxic substances
e-waste policy, legislation or regulation. In most management. Scholars from developing countries
developing countries, e-waste is collected together are being encouraged to contribute more research
with municipal waste. Its management is informal, as their countries are affected by the environmental
and workers with no environmental awareness use impact of improper e-waste management. The
rudimentary tools to recover precious materials knowledge gained from this research serves as a
and release toxic elements that contaminate water baseline for policymakers and scholars as more
bodies, the soils, and the release of ozone-depleting policies need to be enacted, and further research
gases. Countries such as China, Nigeria and Ghana needs to be undertaken in light of the sustainable
revealed that up to 20% of farmland and grazing development goals (SDGs).
land is polluted due to e-waste recycling. Lakes,
rivers and other water bodies near landfills and AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
dumpsites are contaminated, affecting marine life M. Maphosa was responsible for defining the
and plants. Human fatalities are reported from bibliographic search, searching the bibliography,
consuming plants and aquatic animals near landfills selecting the relevant references, synthesising the
and dumpsites. Bibliometric analysis and review manuscript, revising the final version. V. Maphosa
of the environmental impact of e-waste were was responsible for conceptualising the draft,
conducted. No studies were found chronicling the analysing the references’ coding, and reviewing the
environmental effects of e-waste using bibliometric whole manuscript.
analysis. This study aims to provide a comprehensive
insight into e-waste and the environment through ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
bibliometric and network analysis. From the initial The authors would like to thank the anonymous
667 661 articles, 141 articles on e-waste and the reviewers for their insightful suggestions, comments
environment published between 2003 and 2021 and careful reading of the manuscript.
were selected for the study. The results show
considerable growth in publications on e-waste and CONFLICT OF INTEREST
the environment. The number of articles published The authors declare no potential conflict of
increased from one in 2003 to 25 in 2021, and interest regarding the publication of this work.
citations rose from zero to 1049. This study highlights In addition, ethical issues including plagiarism,
publication trends, citation trends, and articles’ informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication
distribution by journals and geography. A third of and, or falsification, double publication and, or
the articles were published by Chinese authors, submission, and redundancy have been completely
followed by India 13.5% and the United States with witnessed by the authors.
12.8%. Developing countries contributed about 17%
of the publications. It is observed that the research OPEN ACCESS
hotspots in the field are: soil, health, environmental ©2022 The author(s). This article is licensed
impact, recovery, electronic equipment and waste under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
electrical and electronic equipment. By tracing the International License, which permits use, sharing,
evolutionary research pathway, it is clear that the adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any
research hotspots have shifted focus to e-waste medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
generation, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, credit to the original author(s) and the source,
and circular economy. The red cluster from the provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and
density maps shows the strategies employed in indicate if changes were made. The images or other
recovering minerals from e-waste. The green cluster third-party material in this article are included in the
shows the concentration levels of the heavy minerals article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated
found in e-waste. The blue cluster visualises the otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material

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AUTHOR (S) BIOSKETCHES

Maphosa, M., Ph.D. Candidate, Researcher, School of Information Technology, Varsity College, Independent Institute of Education,
Sandton, South Africa.
 Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
 ORCID: 0000-0003-3702-6821
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: NA
 Homepage: https://www.varsitycollege.co.za/
Maphosa, V.., Ph.D., Director, Information Communication and Technology Services Department, Lupane State University, Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe.
 Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
 ORCID: 0000-0002-2595-3890
 Web of Science ResearcherID: NA
 Scopus Author ID: NA
 Homepage: http://www.lsu.ac.zw/

HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE

Maphosa, M.; Maphosa, V. (2022). A bibliometric analysis of the effects of electronic waste on the
environment. Global J. Environ. Sci.Manage., 8(4): 589-606.
DOI: 10.22034/gjesm.2022.04.10
url: https://www.gjesm.net/article_251174.html

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