INHERITANCE
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• Inheritance is the
transmission of genetic
information from
generation to
generation.
• Genetics is the study of
inheritance and how it
works.
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CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• DNA is organized and condensed into
thread-like structures present inside
the nucleus of cells, called
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are “thread-like
structures which carry the genetic
information in the form of GENES”.
• Chromosomes are most condensed
during cell division.
• A gene is a “length of DNA that codes
for a protein”. It is made of sequences
of the bases A, T, G & C.
• Genes can have different variants,
e.g., the gene for height could have
two variants: Tall or short.
• An alternate form of a gene or a
version of a gene is called an “allele”.
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CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• A chromosome consists of
chromatids, joined at a point
called a centromere.
• Prior to cell division, each
chromosome undergoes
replication to give 2
chromatids per chromosome.
• Same genes are arranged on
both chromatids of a
particular chromosome.
• Chromosome number of a
species remains the same in
all individuals.
• Humans have 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
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CHROMOSOMES & GENES
• All body cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes and are called “somatic
cells”.
• Gametes or sex cells (ova and sperm)
contain only one set of 23 chromosomes
(after a division called meiosis).
• When gametes fuse, the chromosome
number becomes 23 pairs and is
maintained for the human species.
• A haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing
a single set of unpaired chromosomes
present, for example, in sperm and egg
cells.
• A diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing
two sets of chromosomes present, for
example, in body cells.
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DNA CONTROLS CELL ACTIVITIES
GENETIC AMINO PROTEIN
DNA
CODE ACIDS S
ENZYMES ANTIBODIES RECEPTORS FOR
NEUROTRANSMIITTERS
• Since enzymes are
involved in all chemical
reactions in cells, DNA
controls all cellular
activities.
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DNA CODES FOR AMINO ACIDS
• DNA is made of 4 types of bases
(adenine: A, thymine: T, cytosine:
C & guanine: G).
• Three bases together, known as a
“codon” code for a single amino
acid (Amino acids make proteins).
• For example, CGA codes for
alanine, CAT codes for valine, and
CCA codes for glycine. The tri-
peptide valine–glycine–alanine is
specified by the DNA code CAT–
CCA–CGA.
• Question: Insulin has 21 amino
acids. How many bases would
code for insulin?
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Process of protein synthesis
– the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
– messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
– mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
– the mRNA passes through ribosomes
– the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
– the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by
the sequence of bases in the mRNA
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Some facts related to protein synthesis
• The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific
protein)
• Different sequences of amino acids give different
shapes to protein molecules
• DNA controls cell function by controlling the
production of proteins, including enzymes, membrane
carriers and receptors for neurotransmitters
• Most body cells in an organism contain the same
genes, but many genes in a particular cell are not
expressed because the cell only makes the specific
proteins it needs
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CELL DIVISION
• Cell division is the
process by which new
cells are produced from
pre-existing cells.
• Cell division is necessary
for growth, repair,
regeneration and
reproduction.
• Cell division involves the
division of the nucleus,
followed by division of
the rest of the cell.
• Cell division in body
cells occurs by “mitosis”
and formation of
gametes occurs by
“meiosis”.
• Prior to cell division,BIOLOGICS
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Mitosis Meiosis
Number of Daughter cells produced 2 4
Chromosome number of cells produced Diploid/remains same as parent cell Haploid/Halved than parent cell
Whether cells produced are genetically Genetically identical Genetically Different
identical or different
Happens During Growth Production of Gametes during Sexual reproduction
repair of damaged tissues
replacement of cells
Asexual reproduction.
Stem cells divide by mitosis to produce
daughter cells that become specialized for
specific functions
Variations No variations are produced Variations are produced
Definition Mitosis is a nuclear division giving rise to Meiosis is a reduction division in which the chromosome
genetically identical cells number is halved from diploid to haploid resulting in
genetically different cells.
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STEM CELLS
• During cell division, most cells get
converted into the type of cells that are
being made or replaced.
• They get “specialized” and adapted to their
function and lose the ability to divide.
• Other cells retain the ability to divide and
remain unspecialized, known as “stem
cells”.
• Stem cells are unspecialized cells that
divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells
that can become specialized for specific
functions.
• After fertilization, a zygote must divide to
form a complete baby with different types
of cells. Stem cells that produce this baby
are known as “embryonic stem cells”.
• As adults, we have few stem cells present
in our bone marrow called “adult stem
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IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
• Chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the
form of genes
• A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein
• An allele is an alternative form of a gene
• Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to
generation
• Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism and in terms of the alleles
present
• Phenotype is the observable features of an organism
• Homozygous is having two identical alleles of a particular gene.Two identical
homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
• Heterozygous is having two different alleles of a particular gene,
heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding
• Dominant allele is an allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype
• Recessive allele is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant
allele of the gene present in the genotype
• Haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes
• Diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes in a diploid
cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid cell
there are 23 pairs BIOLOGICS CLASSES / PRATIKSHA TIWARI
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• “Homozygous” is having two
identical alleles of a particular gene.
• Two identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will
be pure-breeding.
• “Heterozygous” is having two
different alleles of a particular gene.
• A heterozygous individual will not be
pure-breeding.
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• Depending on the type of
alleles present, the genetic
makeup and the features of
an organism can vary.
• “Genotype” is the genetic
make-up of an organism in
terms of the alleles present.
• “Phenotype” is the
observable features of an
organism.
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• “Dominant” is an allele
that is expressed if it is
present.
• “Recessive” is an allele
that is only expressed
when there is no
dominant allele of the
gene present.
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Law of Dominance /1st law of
Mendel/Monohybrid cross
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Genetic Crosses
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Identifying an Unknown Genotype
(TEST CROSS)
• Breeders can use a test cross to find out the genotype of an organism
showing the dominant phenotype
• This involves crossing the unknown individual with an individual showing
the recessive phenotype – if the individual is showing the recessive
phenotype, then its genotype must be homozygous recessive
• By looking at the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, we can tell whether
the unknown individual is homozygous dominant or heterozygous
• ‘A plant breeder has a tall plant of unknown genotype. How can they
find out whether it is homozygous dominant or heterozygous?’
• The short plant is showing the recessive phenotype and so must be
homozygous recessive – tt
• If the tall plant is homozygous dominant, all offspring produced will be
tall
• If the tall plant is heterozygous, half the offspring will be tall and the
other half will be short
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Sex Determination
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Human Karyotype
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PEDIGREE CHARTS
• A pedigree is a chart of the
genetic history of a family
over several generations.
• Males are represented as
squares, while females are
represented as circles.
• Shaded symbols mean an
individual is affected by a
condition, while an
unshaded symbol means
they are unaffected.
• A horizontal line between
man and woman represents
mating and resulting
children are shown as
offshoots to this line.
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INTERPRETING FAMILY PEDIGREE
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SEX LINKED CHARACTERISTICS
/DISORDER
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