Subject: Statistics

Professor: Dr. Ma. Teresa Y. Acantilado

Reporters: Daisy C. Corpuz and Eligio Joel Fontanos

DATA ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION

a. Methods of Presenting Data

b. Frequency Distribution
c. Graphical Presentation of Data

A. Methods of Presenting Data

Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. They must
be summarized, organized, and analyzed to usefully derive information
from them.

Data can be presented in three main form:

1. Textual Form/Text presentation

 It is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain

findings/results, outlining trends, and provide contextual information.
 Data are fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences/
narrative form.
 If quantitative information to be conveyed is consists of one or two
numbers, it is more appropriate to use written language than tables or
graphs.
 If one wishes to compare or introduce two values at a certain time
point, it is appropriate to use text or the written language.

For instance, information about the incidence rates of delirium

following anesthesia in 2016–2017 can be presented with the use of a
few numbers:

“The incidence rate of delirium following anesthesia was 11% in 2016

and 15% in 2017; no significant difference of incidence rates was
found between the two years.”

If this information were to be presented in a graph or a table, it

would occupy an unnecessarily large space on the page, without
enhancing the readers' understanding of the data. If more data are to
be presented or other information such as that regarding data trends
are to be conveyed, a table or a graph would be more appropriate.
 By nature, data take longer to read when presented as texts and when
the main text includes a long list of information, readers and reviewers
may have difficulties in understanding the information.

2. Tabular form/ Table Presentation

 It is a very effective and efficient means of organizing and

summarizing data because a lot of information can be seen from a
single table and it makes comparison of figures quick under each
category.

 Tables are the most appropriate for presenting individual information,

and can present both quantitative and qualitative information.
Examples of qualitative information are the level of sedation, statistical
methods/functions, and intubation conditions.

 It is the most appropriate when all information requires equal

attention, and it allows readers to selectively look at information of
their own interest.

Advantages:

a. They can accurately present information that cannot be presented

with a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately
expressed in a table.
b. Information with different units can be presented together. For
instance, blood pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered,
and anesthesia time can be presented together in one table.
c. Tables are useful for summarizing and comparing quantitative
information of different variables.

Disadvantages:

a. The interpretation of information takes longer in tables than in

graphs
b. Tables are not appropriate for studying data trends.
c. Since all data are of equal importance in a table, it is not easy to
identify and selectively choose the information required.

 A statistical table must consist of the following parts:

a. Table heading – includes the table number and the title.

b. Body – the main part of the table containing the figures being
presented.
 c. Stubs or classes – the categories describing the data usually found
at the left-hand side of the table.
d. Caption – designation of the information contained in columns,
usually found at the top of the column.

3. Graphical form/ Graphical Presentation

 The third way of presenting data by means of a graph or diagram. A

graph is a geometrical presentation of a set of data. It helps to
visualize certain properties and characteristics of the data at a glance.

 A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at a glance,

facilitates comparison, allows readers to understand the overall trends
and relationships within the data such as changes over time, frequency
distribution, and correlation or relative share of a whole.

 Whereas tables can be used for presenting all the information, graphs
simplify complex information by using images and emphasizing data
patterns or trends, and are useful for summarizing, explaining, or
exploring quantitative data.

 While graphs are effective for presenting large amounts of data, they
can be used in place of tables to present small sets of data.

 A graph or chart maybe a bar graph, line graph, pie chart, pictograph
or a statistical map.
B. Frequency Distribution

Frequency
 It is the number of times that value appears in a data set.

Frequency Distribution

 A summary table, in which the data are arranged into conveniently

established, numerically ordered class groupings or categories.
 It presents a picture of how the individual observations are distributed
in the measurement scale.

As the number of observations obtained gets larger, it becomes

necessary to further condense the data into appropriate summary tables in
order to properly present, analyze and interpret the findings. Thus, we can
arrange the data into class groupings (categories) according to conveniently
established divisions of the range of the observations.

When the observations are grouped or condensed into frequency

distribution tables, the process of data analysis and interpretation is made
much easier, more manageable and meaningful.

Two types of Frequency Distribution

 Ungrouped data is the data you first gathered from an experiment or

study. The data is raw – that is, it is not sorted into categories,
classified or otherwise grouped. An ungrouped set of data is basically a
list of numbers.

 Grouped data is data that has been bundled together in categories.

Frequency tables can be used to show this type of data.
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

1. Set the values of data, which are called scores, in the column starting
from the lowest value to the highest or vice versa;

2. Create the second column with the frequency of each data occurrence.
This column is known as the tally of the scores;

3. Create the third column, where the relative frequency of each score
will be inserted. The relative frequency can be obtained as follows:

f
 fr =
N

Where:
f = the frequency of each score (from the second column)
N = the total number of scores.

In order to check the correctness of calculations, the sum of fr

should be calculated and should be equal to 1.

4. The next column, where the relative frequency will be performed in

percentages, is to be created.

5. In the next column, known as the cumulative frequency column, the

cumulative frequency for each score should be estimated. Calculation
of the cumulative frequency should be started from the lowest value of
score, for which the cumulative frequency equals the value of
frequency from the second column. The further calculations are to be
performed for each score in a sequence from lowest to highest and the
cumulative frequency for each next score equals to the sum of the
cumulative frequency of the previous score and frequency of this score
(from the second column). The cumulative frequency of the highest
score should be equal to the total number of scores.

6. The next column is called “cumulative proportion” and the values of its
column are obtained as a ratio of cumulative frequency for each score
and the total number of scores.

7. The last column is the cumulative percent, where the cumulative

proportion is presented as percentages.
Problem 1. Create an Ungrouped Frequency Distribution table with the data
from the survey, accomplished among the students of university, which
answered the question of how many books they read per year. The answers
are presented below:
Problem 2. Create an Ungrouped Frequency Distribution table with the data
from the survey concerning the age of the people, which attend the gym.
The results of a survey are presented below.
Grouped Frequency Distribution

As a general rule, whenever a set of data contains about 20 or more

observations, it is best to examine it in summary form by constructing tables
and charts. We can then extract features of data from these tables and
charts in order to enhance data analysis and interpretation – two aspects of
decision-making process.

We begin with example of raw data on the electricity cost during the
month of July 1999 for a random sample of 50 two-bedroom apartments in a
large city.

Table 1 – Raw Data on Utility Charges(in pesos)

183 111 149 175 153 148 139 129 116 102
96 185 171 191 165 147 114 150 168 206
202 144 137 82 128 213 135 127 187 95
197 178 167 157 172 154 166 123 109 141
163 151 130 143 149 90 130 119 108 158

1. Sort the data in ascending or descending order.

Table 2 - Ordered Array on Utility Charges

213 187 172 165 153 148 139 129 116 102
206 185 171 163 151 147 137 128 114 96
202 183 168 158 150 144 135 127 111 95
197 178 167 157 149 143 130 123 109 90
191 175 166 154 149 141 130 119 108 82

2. Determine the range or gap between the highest and the lowest
scores.

Range = highest score – lowest score

Range = 213 – 82 = 131

3. Decide/calculate the desired number of class.

 We usually have 6-20 classes of equal length.

Square root method: k = √N

k = √ 50
k = 7.07 or 7
 Sturge’s Method: k = 1+3.322 log N
Where N is the number of observations

k = 1+3.322 log 50
k = 1+5.64
k = 6.64 or 7

4. Calculate the width of class interval.

Range
C=
k

131
C=
7

C=18.7∨19

5. Pick the starting value that is less than or equal to the smallest value.
Try to make it multiple of the group size if you can.

6. Establish the Boundaries of the classes.

 To construct the frequency distribution table, it is necessary to

establish clearly defined class boundaries for each class grouping so
that the observations can be properly tallied into the classes.
Overlapping of classes must be avoided.

Utility Charges (Class)

82-100
101-119
120-138
139-157
158-176
177-195
196-214

 Since the width of each class interval for Utility Charges has been set
as 19, the boundaries of the various class groupings must be
established so as to include the entire range of observations.
Whenever possible, these boundaries should be chosen to facilitate the
reading and interpreting of data. Thus, the first class interval ranges
 from 82 to 100, the second from 101 to 119 and so on, until they have
been tallied into seven classes, each having an interval width of 19,
without overlapping. By establishing these boundaries, all 50
observations can be tallied into each class.

7. Tally and count the observations under each interval.

Table 3 – Frequency Distribution of Utility Charges

Number of 2-bedroom
Utility Charges (Class) Tally
(frequency)
82-100 4
101-119 7
120-138 8
139-157 13
158-176 9
177-195 5
196-214 4
Total 50

8. Determine the class mid-point (also known as the class mark). Class
mid-point is the point mid-way the boundaries of each class interval
and is representative of the data within the class interval.

 To get the class mid-point for intervals 82-100

82+100
o Class Mid-point = = 91
2

Table 4 – Class Mid-point

Number of 2-bedroom
Utility Charges (Class) Class Mid-point
(frequency)
82-100 4 91
101-119 7 110
120-138 8 129
139-157 13 148
158-176 9 167
177-195 5 186
196-214 4 205
Total 50
9. Compute for the relative frequency (proportion) and percentage.
 Dividing the frequencies in each class of the frequency distribution by
the total number of observations forms the relative frequency
distribution.

 Multiplying each relative frequency or proportion by 100 forms the

percentage distribution.

 In order to check the correctness of calculations, the sum of fr should

be calculated and should be equal to 1.

Table 5 – Relative Frequency Distribution and

Percentage Distribution of Utility Charges

Utility Charges
f Relative Frequency Percentage
(Class)
82-100 4 4/50 = 0.08 0.08 x 100 = 8
101-119 7 0.14 14
120-138 8 0.16 16
139-157 13 0.26 26
158-176 9 0.18 18
177-195 5 0.10 10
196-214 4 0.08 8
Total 50 1.00 100

10. Based from the relative frequency and percentage distributions, we

can now calculate for cumulative frequency and cumulative frequency
distribution.

 A cumulative frequency distribution table is constructed by first

recording the true class boundaries of each class from the frequency
distribution table. The true class boundaries of the lowest class (82-
100) will have a cumulative frequency of 4. The next class will have a
CF of 11 obtained by getting the sum of the frequency of the lowest
class and the frequency of the succeeding class (4+7=11). The CF of
the third class will be determined by adding the frequency of that class
to the CF of the second class interval (11+8=19). Do the same
procedure until we get the CF of the highest class and must be equal
to the total frequency.

 To obtain the greater than cumulative frequency, same procedure will

be used as in the less than cumulative frequency. The only difference
 is we start on the highest class interval, 196-214 thus, its CF is 4. The
next CF will be 9, obtained by adding 4 (frequency of the highest
class) + 5 (the frequency of the second highest class).

Table 6 – Cumulative Frequency Distribution and

Cumulative Relative Frequency Distribution of Utility Charges
Utility Charges f <CF >CF <CRF >CRF
81.5 – 100.5 4 4 50 0.08 1.00
100.5 – 119.5 7 11 46 0.22 0.92
119.5 – 138.5 8 19 39 0.38 0.78
138.5 – 157.5 13 32 31 0.64 0.62
157.5 – 176.5 9 41 18 0.82 0.36
176.5 – 195.5 5 46 9 0.92 0.18
195.5 -214.5 4 50 4 1 0.08
Total 50

C. Graphical Representation
 Graphical Representation is a way of analyzing numerical data. It exhibits
the relation between data, ideas, information and concepts in a diagram. It
is easy to understand and it is one of the most important learning strategies.
It always depends on the type of information in a particular domain. There
are different types of graphical representation. Some of them are as follows

 Line Graphs – Linear graphs are used to display the continuous data
and it is useful for predicting the future events over time.

 Bar Graphs – It is used to display the category of data and it

compares the data using solid bars to represent the quantities.

 Histograms – The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of

numerical data that are organized into intervals. Since all the intervals
are equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width.

 Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘ x
‘ is placed above a number line each time when that data occurs again.

 Frequency Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that
falls within the given interval.

 Circle Graph – Also known as pie chart that shows the relationships
of the parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the
categories occupied is represented with that specific percentage like
15%, 56% , etc.

 Stem and Leaf Plot – In stem and leaf plot , the data are organized
from least value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place
values from the leaves and the next place value digit forms the stems.

 Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarizes the data by
dividing into four parts. Box and whisker shows the range (spread) and
the middle ( median) of the data.
Graphic presentation has a number of advantages, some of which
are enumerated below:

1. Graphs are visual aids which give a bird’s eye view of a given set of
numerical data. They present the data in simple, readily
comprehensible form.

2. Graphs are generally more attractive, fascinating and impressive than

the set of numerical data. They are more appealing to the eye and
leave a much lasting impression on the mind as compared to the dry
and un-interesting statistical figures. Even a layman, who has no
statistical background can understand them easily.

3. They are more catching and as such are extensively used to present
statistical figures and facts in most of the exhibitions, trade or
industrial fairs, public functions, statistical reports, etc. Graphs have
universal applicability.

4. They register a meaningful impression on the mind almost before we

think. They also save a lot of time as very little effort is required to
grasp them and draw meaningful inferences from them.

5. Another advantage of graphic form of data is that they make the

principal characteristics of groups and series visible at a glance. If the
data is not presented in graphic form, the viewer will have to study the
whole details about a particular phenomenon and this takes a lot of
time. When data is presented in graphic form, we can have
information without going into much details.

6. If the relationship between two variables is to be studied, graphic form

of data is a useful device. Graphs help us in studying the relations of
one part to the other and to the whole set of data.

7. Graphic form of data is also very useful device to suggest the direction
of investigations. Investigations cannot be conducted without any
regard to the desired aim and the graphic form helps in fulfilling that
desired aim by suggesting the direction of investigations.

8. In short, graphic form of statistical data converts the complex and

huge data into a readily intelligible form and introduces an element of
simplicity in it.
Limitations:

1. As discussed earlier, graphic form is supplementary and cannot replace

the tabulation. Tabulation is a ‘must’ and graphic form is an ‘option’. It
is, at the most, only suggestive and cannot reveal certain
inconsistencies. They are capable of being deliberately misused by
interested persons. They are sometime, incomparable.

2. The main limitation of graphic form is that graphs cannot show so

many sets of facts or so much information as may be shown in a table.
A table can have many rows and columns to present the data in its
true form, while we cannot form a graph with many, inter twining and
connected lines. Such a form of graph will become more complex and
complicated than tabular form. The information provided will also be of
limited use.

3. Another limitation of graphic form is that the information is not

supplied in much details. It simply provides a quick picture of general
situation and is at the most suggestive. In a table we can mention any
figure of as many digits as we desire, this is not possible in a graph. A
graph cannot accurately present the data beginning from 1 (one) to
one million.