DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

BLA1110: THE USE OF ENGLISH FOR

ACADEMIC PURPOSES

1
 TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..… 1

LESSON 1

Listening………………………………………………….. 1

Definition of listening………………………………………… 1

The qualities of a good listener………………………………… 1

LESSON 2

Components of the listening process………………………… 2

The listening process……………………………………… 2

LESSON 3

Causes of poor listening and how to emulate them………… 5

Ways of improving listening ability…………………………… 7

LESSON 4

Note taking techniques…………………………………………. 8

The process of note taking……………………………………… 8

LESSON 5

Speaking ………………………………………………….. 10

2
The importance of speaking and the speech situation……………… 10

Types of speech……………………………………………….… 10

LESSON 6

Qualities of a good speaker……………………………………… 12

LESSON 7

Factors to consider in preparation of a ……………………………… 13

speech and characteristics of a good speech

Speech writing…………………………………………………… 14

LESSON 8

Proximate preparation for a speech …………………………… 16

Appropriate ways of collecting materials for a speech…………… 16

LESSON 9

Discussion……………………………………………………..… 19

Patterns for Discussion………………………………………….. 21

3
LESSON 10

Reading…………………………………………………… … 23

Definition of reading and its importance ……………………………. 23

Why people read………………………………………………... 23

LESSON 11

Barriers to reading and how to overcome them……………………… 26

Reading speed…………………………………………………… 28

Scale of speed-reading in words per minute………………………….. 28

LESSON 12

Other important study skills………………………………………. 29

The use of reference books……………………………………….. 30

LESSON 13

The use of libraries and internet……………………………………. 33

Selecting reading material………………………………………… 33

LESSON 14

Writing functions and …………………………………………… 35

Characteristics of good writing

Characteristics of good writing…………………………………… 36

4
LESSON 15

Writing skills and difficulties in writing…………………………….. 37

Writing skills…………………………………………………….. 38

Difficulties in writing……………………………………………. 38

LESSON 16

The writing process……………………………………………… 39

LESSON 17

Types of writing…………………………………………………. 41

LESSON 18

The structure of the paragraph…………………………………… 42

What is a paragraph? …………………………………………..……….42

Topic sentence…………………………………………………... 42

Coherence……………………………………………………..… 42

LESSON 19

Techniques and methods ………………………………………..…. 44

Of organizing a paragraph

5
Techniques of establishing cohesion in a paragraph………………… 44

Transitional words………………………………………………. 45

LESSON 20

Paragraph development………………………………………… 46

Ways of developing a paragraph………………………………….. 46

LESSON 21

Writing a research paper…………………………………………. 49

The process of writing a research paper……………………………… 50

References………………………………………………………. 52

6
THE USE OF ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSE

INTRODUCTION

It is important to note for anybody aspiring to be a good scholar to whose academic is

presentable and admirable must be competent in the four basic language skills. These skills are:
listening, speaking, reading and writing. They play a primary role in the social and academic life
of a person. Being efficient in the four skills will also make it easier for the person to
communicate his/her ideas to others and boost his/her confidence.

The objectives of this course are therefore supposed to help the learner to:

 Develop efficiency in listening, speaking, reading and writing.

 Encourage the development and proficiency in the use of English.
 Equip the learner with basic skills in handling scholarly work, research, documentation
organizing and presenting.

7
SECTION 1: LISTENING

LESSON 1

Definition of Listening and Qualities of a Good Speaker

1.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

i. Define the term listening and state its importance.

ii. State and describe the qualities of a good listener.

1.1 Introduction: The Definition of Listening

According to Oxford advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007) to listen is to make an effort to

hear somebody or something. It is therefore clear that one who listens keenly is able to receive
and respond to information appropriately. Listening therefore is a process of acquiring
information through listening. Listening and speaking are so much linked together and the two
skills contribute significantly to the development of reading and writing. On the other hand one
who has mastered those skills is likely to create favourable impression of oneself as listening is a
communication skill which is used in most facets of our daily lives.

The Qualities of a Good Listener

We have already stated that in order to receive and respond to information appropriately one has
to be a keen listener. A good listener therefore must acquire habits that will enhance his listening
skills and must be an active listener.

i) Listening Effectively

In every listening activity he must:

 Listen effectively

8
  Avoid distraction(like day dreaming, over concentrating on the speaker,manarisms and
dressing)
 Know why he is listening
 Maintain eye contact with the speaker.
 Observe the speaker‟s use of gestures, facial expressions and tonal variation to enhance
understanding of the topic of discussion.
 Motivate the speaker and indicate to them that you are following what is being said
especially by nodding your head.
ii) By being an active listener one is able to do the following in regard to communication. He/She
tries to:

 Note why the speaker uses illustrations.

 Determine the speaker‟s intentions.
 Understand fully before making judgments.
 Remember the important points.
iii) In his evaluation he tries:

 To relate the speaker‟s information to his own interest and experience.

 Assess and carefully make a conclusion whether he or she concurs with the speaker or
not.
Activity

i. Define the term listening.

ii. Professor Wangari Maathai the Nobel Laureate is to give a lecture on empowerment of
women. What would you do it ensure that you listen efficiently?

9
LESSON 2

COMPONENTS OF THE LISTENING PROCESS

2.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

Describe three aspects of the listening process.

2.1 The Listening Process

Listening is not an easy process as one may think. It requires a high level of concentration in
order to decipher all that is said verbally and non-verbally in order to respond the information
being delivered appropriately. The process has three major aspects: comprehending,
interpreting and evaluating.

i) Comprehending the literal facts

In daily speech there are various types of language used. e.g. literally and literacy. To
comprehend speech is to be able first to get the literal meaning. The listener should ask himself:

 What exactly do the words I hear mean?

 What message is the speaker trying to pass with the words?
The listener tries to understand the fundamental meaning that everyone knows and understand
the language will grasp. The comprehension process has three main problems:

i) Understanding no literal ideas.

ii) Following the sequence of ideas.
iii) Sensing the relations namely:
 Determining the literal ideas.
 Distinguishing between the main ideas and supporting ones.
 Perceiving the relationship of each part to the others and to be the whole.
 Recognizing the scheme of the organization.
ii) Interpreting the communication

As stated above the meaning of all kind of communication can be interpreted differently
depending on the listener‟s experience, situation and circumstance at the time the communication
is taking place. A piece of information can have varied interpretation as same words can entirely
mean different things to different people. It is therefor important for the listener to try and listen
objectively and identify the speaker‟s field of perception. This helps the listener to:

10
  Determine the connective value of words by distinguishing between emotionally toned
from reportorial words.
 Recognize the type of statement heard by:
 Making a distinction between factual and judgmental statements.
 Perceiving the degree of bias in judgments.
 Sensing the relative importance of the general vs concrete information.
 Noticing extension of meaning through the use of figurative language.
 Identifying the speaker‟s purpose as revealed by his/her attitude towards the subject and
audience.
iii) Evaluating the communication

A good listener is who is not influenced by his own beliefs or prejudices on a topic or speaker. It
is who is objective and avoids being driven by his own biasness or those of the speaker. He
should be open minded and use his powers to make an objective and critical analysis in order to
have a rational appraisal of what he hears.

It should be understood that the discussed process of listening are not chronological. It calls for
concentration on to part of the listener to avoid misunderstanding hence misinterpreting the
information. Listening involves using many stimuli almost at the same time. The listening
process is therefore not an easy task.

Activity

State and describe three aspects of the listening process in detail.

11
LESSON 3

CAUSES OF POOR LISTENING AND HOW TO ELIMINATE THEM

3.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

i. State and describe the causes of poor listening.

ii. Explain way of reducing them
3.1 What makes listening difficult?

According to Brown and Yule (1985) there are four clusters of factors that can cause difficulty
for the listener. Those relating to the:

 Speaker
 Listener
 Content
 Support materials

i) Those relating to the speaker

 Number of speakers
 Speaker‟s accent
 Speaker‟s audibility
 Speaker‟s speed
ii) Those relating to the listener

 The listener‟s listener interest in the subject.

 His/her role as a participant or eavesdropper.
 Level of response required.
iii) Those related to the content

 Level of vocabulary
 The complexity of the grammar involved.
 Background knowledge of listener.
iv) Support materials

The use of usual aids such as pictures, diagram to his support his claims by the speaker enhances
the listener‟s attention.

Other factors

v) a) Physical/psychological disposition of the listener

 The listener‟s health status

12
  Whether his/her hearing organs are normal
 Whether his/she‟s tired, bored or hungry.
 His/her attitude towards the speaker. Is he/she positive or negative.\his/her attitude
towards the subject?
b) Distraction in the environment\noise which may be caused by traffic, loud music,
children, playing, animals, machines e.t.c

Ways of improving listening ability

i) Recognizing that listening is complex and difficult task.


This means that the listener should appreciate the fact that listening is complex and that
there are many elements that make oral communication which involves verbal and non-
verbal cues. All these help speaker to convey meaning.
 Realize that purposeful listening requires ability visualize situations being described by
the speaker.
 Develop awareness of the importance of tonal variation in a speaker indicate difference in
seriousness if issues articulated by the speaker.
 Recognize that both the speaker and the listener are the part and parcel of the
communication process. As earlier stated the listener should motivate the listener through
nodding his head in agreement with what is said.
ii) Developing simple communication and organizational skills

 Use complete sentences and distinguish between sensible and non-sensible ones.
 Use paragraphs and identify the major points.
 Learn formula for quick evaluation namely.
 Isolate the basic essentials. Find the topic sentence.
 Discard irrelevant ones.
 Determine whether the purpose is mainly to inform or to persuade.
 Determine whether the assertions are mainly factual speculative.
Activity

i. What are causes of poor listening?

ii. How can one improve his/her listening abilities?

13
LESSON 4

NOTE TAKING TECHNIQUES

4.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i. Describe the process of note taking

ii. Take notes

4.1 Note Taking

Note taking is a skill used when one is listening to lectures or other forms of oral communication
such as the radio or when watching television. For effective note taking avoid distractors if
possible and be as close as possible to the speaker to grasp everything.

i) The process of note taking:

While taking notes a person should:

 Plenty of rough paper available.

 Make use of the headlines and sub-headings so that he can see and follow the structure of
the lecture easily.
 Pay attention to discourse makers and any introductory remarks the lecturer may make.
 Note any summary and main important points he/she intends to cover.

ii) Use of abbreviation when taking notes

To write quickly when taking notes, make use of abbreviations. One may intent his own
abbreviations like lgn (language) devt (development) e.t.c. Also use the common known symbols
and abbreviations.

iii) Following up the lecture

Notes are supposed to help the learner during revision in acquiring. It is therefore to take time to
organize your notes.

After the lecture the student should write out his/her notes. He /she should:

 Sort out the notes.

 Arrange the notes easily.
 Tabulate the notes.
 Write and understand the terms used by the lecturer.
14
Incase of omitted words or points cross check with a fellow student. The process of writing
should be soon after the lecture. This helps in recalling the left out points. It should be done after
another topic in the same subject.

15
SECTION II: SPEAKING

LESSON 5

The Importance of Speaking and the Speech Situation

5.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

i. Explain why speaking is important.

ii. Describe different types of speeches people make.
iii. Describe situations that facilitate effective speaking.

5.1: Introduction: The importance of Speaking.

In of the lessons of this course we stated that speaking is one of the basic skills of language. One
learns to speak after hearing. Speaking is very vital in our daily lives. Whatever people do when
they come together-whatever fight, play, and make machines etc. they talk. People talk to one
another in formal and informal speeches and hardly a moment in our walking lives is free from
words. It is this oral communication which is by word of mouth that is referred to as speaking. It
is through the aid of organs of speech most of which is found in the mouth that speaking is
carried out. Because of the many functions that speech serves automatically speaking becomes
fundamental to human communication.

5.2 Types of speech

The type of speech is mostly dictated by the situation, event and circumstances under which it
takes place. For instance there various speeches that may range from sermons in church,
wedding, eulogies, political addresses, nursery rhymes and even casual conversation.

Depending on the type of speech there are some general factors that need to be considered for it
to be successful or effective in a communicative situation.

These include

 The social situation

 Climate
5.3 The social situation

In oral communication there are various things that facilitate effective speaking. First and
foremost there must be a setting under which the speech is taking place. Secondly, is speech that
can take place without a speaker and finally a listener is equally important. The participants in a
social situation have to stake in the creation of the climate under the speech is to take place.

16
5.4 Climate

According to Laban et al (1969) many factors are necessary in order to help students to learn to
use oral language with honesty and vigour but the proper environment is the sine‟qua non‟ (i.e it
is indispensable)

An ideal speech situation is one in which both the speaker and the audience are relaxed and self-
confident. The speaker should believe and know that he has something worth while to give and
that his message will go down well with the audience. The audience on their part should have
confidence in the speaker, believing that what the speaker has to say will be of benefit to them.
At the same point the audience should feel assured that they will be treated with due respect by
the speaker. Mean while the language used by the speaker should be one that matches the level
of the audience. For such a conducive atmosphere to prevail some qualities are called from both
parties.

17
LESSON 6

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SPEAKER

6.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to state and describe the qualities of a good speaker.

6.1 The speaker

For an effective oral presentation the speaker must be able to use both verbal and non-verbal
cues. His or her speaking has to be accompanied with gestures, facial expressions, interactions
and body language. He should also strive to be audible and use language appropriately.

Speech and personality are related and to be effective a speaker should have attributes or
qualities which enhance the credibility of his talk.

According to Laban et- al (1961) the following are important qualities of a good speaker;

 Integrity

 Authority

 Courage

 Vitality

 Intelligibility

i. Integrity

Integrity is a basic requirement of the speaker. The audience must be convened the truth he
sees it. This attribute is in line with Grice‟s Maxims (1995) of quality which stipulated that
the speaker should not say what he believes to be false or that for which he lacks adequate
evidence,

ii. Authority

The speaker should ensure that he has a sound grasp of his subject and show that he knows
what he is talking about. He should also show respect for himself and for other people by
recognizing their right to their opinion. He should not relinquish his own opinion until he is
convinced otherwise.

iii. Courage

A courageous speaker delivers his message with conviction. He does not “curry” i.e. seek to
please avoid unpleasant truth that must be stated to clarify an issue. However he needs to be

18
 tactful or diplomatic and have a sense of humour. That way he will avoid distorting his
message.

iv. Vitality

The speaker‟s demeanour as he defines his speech should reflect the image of one who
believes that what he is saying is important and that he is convinced of its significance.

v. Intelligibility

The speaker should be able to sell his ideas with directness and economy of words. He
should be fluent and have no lapses of memory.

Activity

1) Describe the characteristics of a good speaker

19
LESSON 7

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PREPARATION OF A SPEECH AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SPEECH

7.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

i. Recognize the need for preparation of a speech

ii. Identify factors to consider when preparing a speech.

iii. Identify the characteristics of a good speaker.

7.1 Speech writing

A speech is an oral presentation where a presenter reads out a written message to an audience.
For a speech to be effective, it must be well written.

What to consider:

 Be clear about the topic you are to address.

 The audience you are dealing with for this will determine your language use.

 Acknowledge all those present, starting with the guest of honour, other distinguished
guests, ladies and gentlemen.

 Write your speech in logical sequence starting either with the most prominent to the least
prominent or vice versa.

Considering the above one realizes that preparation for a speech therefore calls for thorough
reading in an effort of gathering the correct information. It requires time to study.

According to Fulton Sheen (1978:273):

A good speech too, has a tremendous preparation and this implies three things: study, study,
study.

There is no short cut.

A student who wishes to master the art of speech must be observant of what goes around him or
her. And Sheen (1978:197) writes;

“One has to study science, literature, history, philosophy, foregoing many social evenings just to
be alone with ones books. Books are the best friends in the world, when you pick them up they
20
are always ready to give you a few ideas, when you put them down they never go mad, when you
pick them up again they seem to enrich you all the more”.

To prepare students to become effective speakers Sheen suggests four characteristics of a good
speech or talk: sincerity, clarity and flexibility, Relevance

i. Sincerity:

A sincere speech is one which lacks affectation, pose or cultivated airs. The speaker is his plain
self. His aim is to inform and not to impress his audience

ii. Clarity.

Clarity of speech comes about when the speaker understands his topic well and can explain the
material to the audience in simple terms. Clarity can be enhanced if the speaker can give his
audience a brief and quick outline of what he intends to do. This will help in tuning the audience
and showing them the direction towards which he is moving.

It makes it easier for the audience to follow the talk.

iii. Flexibility:

A good speech is adaptable to changing circumstances. The speaker should be able to adjust his
speech to accommodate interruptions such as a member of the audience collapsing. I-le should
wait and have the situation sorted out before lie continues with his address.

iv. Relevance.

Along with the above we can add relevance to the occasion and the audience as another
important quality of good speech. An address to coffee farmers should dwell on how the crop
and its earnings can be improved. The listeners should not be told how to develop fishing
industries. In the same vein, a church sermon should reflect serenity; and a speech at wedding
should exude joy while one at funeral should evoke feelings of sympathy and hope in the
audience.

6.2 Revision questions

i. What are the points to consider in speech preparation?

ii. Explain what it entails to become an expert speaker.

iii. Describe four characteristics of a good speech

21
LESSON 8

PROXIMATE PREPARATIONS FOR A SPEECH

8.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i. Limit the topic for a speech.

ii. Collect the material for a speech.

iii. Organize the speech material.

iv. Make and support assertions.

Once a person conceives an idea he considers important for communication to an audience, his
next step is to find appropriate ways of getting the information most effectively to the audience.
To do this he needs to:

1. Select the Material for the Speech.

Most subjects when looked at initially are broad and cannot be tackled all at once.

A good speaker will limit his topic to an aspect of it that is manageable at a given time and is of
interest to a particular audience, For instance, a subject such as farming in Kenya is too broad for
anyone to treat exhaustively to any audience within a limited period of time. An intelligent
speaker „viii select a small aspect of farming such as tea farming, coffee farming or poultry
farming and focus on it for a particular audience that is interested in that aspect of farming.

2. Sources of Materials for a Speech.

Once the speaker has identified his topic and narrowed it down to a manageable level, he will
then proceeds to look for resource material which will provide him with concrete information to
support his claims. The search for materials can be done by reading library materials consulting
experts on the subject and by drawing upon He speaks own experience. It is easy to talk about
something one has witnessed.

3. Organizing the Material

According to Laban et al, (1969: 273) the principles of organizing material are the same whether
one is taking part in a discussion or a conversation, preparing a speech or writing an expository
essay. They are controlled by three basic rules: making assertions capable of development;
supporting adequately to the assertions made and making an overall plan by arranging the
assertions in a meaningful manner or pattern.

22
i) Making Assertions

Usually when a person makes a statement at a meeting during an interview or in a conversation it

is expected that if challenged, he is able to substantiate his assertions by citing examples of
events, incidents and reasons so as to win the listeners‟ confidence.

Students should be encouraged to develop the habit of supporting statements they make.

This will prepare them to be effective speakers in their daily communication.

ii) Supporting Assertions

A good speech should contain many facts. In order to help the audience visualize the message,
the speaker should use illustrations „and examples to amplify his ideas.

Accurate figures, dates, pictures and maps will assure the listener that the speaker has mastery of
his subject, i.e. he knows what lie is talking about.

The accomplished speaker is versatile. He will vary his materials to achieve his purpose: facts to
give substance; illustrations to enliven and testimony to add emphasis.

For example in teaching it is often said that if the teacher is going to teach students about
something they don‟t know e.g. the meaning of a rat he will do well by describing it to the class
verbally, he performs better if he shows the students a picture of a rat, but he will be most
effective if he can produce a real rat in class for the students to sec.

iii) Plan and writing of the speech

To prepare the plan for a speech the speaker must arrange his arguments in a meaningful and
orderly pattern. The ability to see the correct relations between ideas is very important in all
forms of purposeful communication and sustained thought.

Many subjects often lend themselves to some form of logical order, for example, historical
events may be presented in chronological order, and social sciences call for cause and effect
arrangement while other sciences require hypothesis, experiments and results or conclusions.

The speaker should try to understand the nature of his topic and then decide on the type of plan
or order in which the material is to be presented. Logically the plan should show the relations of
parts to one another, when preparing the plan the speaker should also consider, the needs,
interests and level of the audience, for instance, the level of language used in addressing primary
pupils, secondary school students and fourth year undergraduate will differ according to the
respective audience.

4. Delivering the speech

23
Having collected ideas planned and written out his speech, it remains for the speaker to
communicate his message to the intended audience. He can be aided in this if he takes the
following attributes into account as he speaks: audibility, intelligibility, directness and vitality.

Below are guidelines which can help both the listener and speaker.

i. Can the speaker be easily understood?

 Does he use the necessary volume?
 Does he enunciate clearly?
 Is his pronunciation fluent?
ii. Can his speech be easily followed?
 Is his plan apparent?
 Does he omit extraneous details?
iii. Is his manner direct?
 Does he meet the eyes of the listeners?
 Does he seem to be talking with the audience?
 Does he seem straightforward and sincere?
iv. Does he show vitality?
 Does his voice show vitality?
 Does he seem to think that what he is saying is important both to him and to his listeners?

Activity

Write speech of about 400 words that you would deliver to one of the
following:

i. Parents of whose students have just joined form one.

ii. Form four leavers

iii. Mourners at a funeral

iv. A congregation of a graduation ceremony.

Objectives

24
LESSON 9

DISCUSSION

9.0 Expected learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i) Explain the meaning of a discussion.

ii) Identify different forms of discussion.

iii) Lead or participate constructively during a discussion.

9.1 What is a discussion?

Discussion, according to Laban et al, (1969), is a learning device in which every participant
contributes a little and each learns from all. It is a means of thinking together to bring out the
facts, the possible interpretations and different points of view on any particular question. A
discussion is not a debate where the speaker sets out to prove he is right and those who disagree
with him are wrong. In a discussion ideas are important and each participant has a chance to
develop those he favors and challenge those he thinks are untenable.

9.2 The Discussion Group Leader

Each discussion group should have a group leader who moderates the activities of the
participants and keeps the discussion moving. The leader will strive for both interplay of ideas
and the involvement of as many contributors as possible, taking into consideration both the glib
and shy or unwilling participants. He will pass the opinions of one contributor to another for
reaction by asking questions such as; “What do you think of that?”

The group leader will call for summaries at strategic points in the discussion. He tactfully
restrains the talkative members while prodding on the reluctant ones with questions such as, “Do
you agree with that?”

9.3. The discussion process

There are several issues which aught to be considered if a discussion as learning device is to be
carried out effectively and efficiently. According to Laban et al, (1969) the issues include
preparing to lead, starting effectively, and securing variety through different patterns.

i. Preparing to lead

25
Leadership in a discussion group requires two qualities: a sound grasp of the content and a good
understanding of the characteristics of the members of the group.

a) The content

If a discussion is to be successful, the group leader should find appropriate questions to guide the
group‟s thinking. The questions should be those that will bring out facts and probe reasoning
based on facts. The leader should decide in advance the type of conclusions that are logical to the
topic and what minor Conclusions build up to these conclusions. Then he should organize his
questions in such a way that they will help the participants to arrive at the conclusions step by
step.

Breakdown in discussion usually comes about as a result of two things: asking too soon
questions that call for abstract rather than concrete answers and attempting to skip links in the
chain of reasoning- the participants may not be quite ready for the content.

The above difficulties can be avoided or minimized if the leader prepares thoroughly in advance,
for example, by assigning the members the right material to read ahead of the discussion.

b) Group members

The discussion leader should consider the strengths and weaknesses of the members of the group
when fielding questions, Usually “what” and sometimes “how” questions should be used for
laying the ground and should be put to the less able members while reserving the difficult “why”
questions for the more brilliant and controversial members of the group.

c) Starting Effectively

A discussion should start at a brisk pace. A short fast opening will help in stimulating thinking

Sometimes it is helpful to begin by assigning particular questions to smaller groups to tackle

before approaching the same questions in a larger group or class. This may help in bolstering the
courage of the weaker members of the group.

In the case of a class room discussion the teacher should write on the blackboard the questions to
be used and then ask each row of students to tackle a particular question.

Another approach is to let the students compose their own questions on the work they are
studying. These questions are then passed to a capable member of the group to select a few he
can use as a guide in leading the discussion.

d) Arriving at conclusions democratically

Leaders in discussion groups should avoid the tendency of believing that they and they alone
have the final say or the only correct answers in drawing up conclusions. It is preferable for the
group leader to let other Pa1icipants submit their contributions first.

26
After that the leader can then wind up by adding what they might have omitted. In case there is
something he feels strongly about, he should give, sufficient evidence in support of it, but he
should not appear to be imposing his views on the participants.

9.4 Polite interruption and turn taking

One may need to interrupt a discussion for whatever reason. In such a case one must use morally
acceptable ways of interruption. This is an effort to enhance proper communication and to be
courteous.

Turn-taking means that you allow each other to take turns to make a contribution to a dialogue.

What should you do if you wish to interrupt?

 Use polite expressions like excuse me, sorry for the interruption, pardon me or please
allow me to comment.

 Be patient and allow the speaker to complete their statement before you intersect.

 Do not take over conversation. Allow your partner to have their say.

 Incase you find yourself interrupting, apologize and allow the conversation to continue.
For example you can say; sorry for that, please go on…………

 Interrupt only when it is necessary for example, if one is veering from the point
especially during an interview of if you want to correct a falsehood.

 To turn take effectively avoid interrupting unnecessarily. Allow the other person to make
their point.

9.5 Patterns for discussion

There are several patterns that a seminar or group discussion can take:

i) The Round Table

The round table is, probably, the most satisfying way of tackling problems s. The members get
seated round a table. This arrangement, at its best, allows each participant to speak several times.
It gives a sense of equality and fosters informal exchange of ideas and interaction of thinking.
Ideally it resembles a stimulating conservation.

ii) The panel

A discussion panel is made up of a chairman plus two to six members who sit before an audience
and discuss a question. The issues to be tackled and the manner of presentation are agreed upon
in advance, but no set speeches are prepared. The exchange is formal with no member talking for
more than a minute at a time. The chairman steers discussion according to the outline agreed

27
upon by the members. Half the time is reversed for the audience to ask questions or give
comments.

The panel set up is usually characterized by flexibility and spontaneity and so it calls for some
ability in impromptu thinking and speaking. It can prove to be difficult for the less confident
members.

iii) The symposium

Like the panel, the symposium has a chairman and several members. The main difference that in
a symposium speeches arc prepared, in advance presentation is more formal, adhering to a
preconceived plan. The subject is divided and the members address the audience in turns. Issues
are clarified and later the chairman invites the audience to participate.

Discussions in symposia are usually handled by experts who are specialists in various fields, and
call for intensive research. They also call for a wider audience, even from as far as the national or
international levels.

28
LESSON 10

DEFINITION OF READING AND THE IMPORTANCE OF READING

9.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end this lesson you should be able

(i) Define the term reading

(ii) State why people read

(iii) Describe the types of reading

9.1 Introduction

What is reading?

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2007) defines the word read as to look and
understand the meaning of written or printed words or symbols to read therefore involves giving
meaning to visual images .It includes interpreting both verbal involve the vase of word , phrases,
sentences paragraphs leading to many pages.

Non – verbal material entails the use of forms like pictures, charts, and graphs e.t.c to lonely
detailed information

9.2 Why people read

People read for various reason .There those who read in order to get information, other they read
for pleasure while students will definitely read for examination purposes. For whatever reason
one reads if is important to know the variety of ways can affair it.

These ways include:

(i) Reading for specific information

This involves the read scamming through the text looking for what is relevant and leaving out the
others .His/her main focus is the important words that will lead him/her to the information he/her
is looking for example who wants information on nouns in English will not be interesting in the
verbs or other parts of speech she/he will look at section in text which has information on the
nouns

(ii) Reading for study

This is the preparation for acquire or an examination .It entails through organization and
preparation of the work concerned .The person therefore needs to prepare himself physically
mentally and emotionally. He /she there will be required to prepare a timetable and allocate
himself time to the study. A conducive environment is also paramount to this land of study.
29
(iii) Reading for proper understanding

This requires a high degree of concentration, skim through sections but closely read the text and
try hard to understand any material he is supposed to read.

(v) Reading for pleasure

Reading for pleasure entails reading with a purpose of wondering ones scope in various areas .It
makes people knowledge able and skillful in different areas. For example ready newspaper
formal and magazine to keep up with tropical issues. There is also reading for leisure during
one‟s free time where people read novels and other text.

(v) Reading for gist

I n reading for gist a person may read a whole text but only to gain a general ideas or impression
of for example when one is preparing for a speech or wishes to follow what is being said on
particular topic.

(vi) Predicting messages

To predict means to guess what is going to happen or what to writer will go on to say predicting
a message depends on both familiarity with the language and on prior knowledge of the topic.
These two points show how useful it is for us to continue reading extensively

(vii)The SQ 3R method

The abbreviation sq3r mean that when reading the reader should .Survey the material Question
the material ,Read and Review it .In other words he should first take a general look or overview
of what he is reading he should establish the purpose for reading for example

Preparing for an examination or interview of what he she is reading then he should establish the
purpose for his reading

(viii) Skipping

This occurs mostly when reading for pleasure. A person can save time himself by skipping less
important words and still gets the message so long as the meaning does not depend on or words
being skipped.

Activity

(i)What is reading?

(ii)Why do people read?

(iii)Describe various ways used in reading.

30
iv) “A discussion is not a debate”. Explain.

v) Discuss the qualities of a good discussion leader.

vi) Describe how one can interrupt a discussion politely.

31
LESSON 11

BARRIERS TO READING AND HOW TO OVERCOME THEM

11.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i) 1dentify barriers to effective reading.

ii) Discover and state ways of reducing or removing reading problems.

11.1 Introduction

For one to read effectively, one must overcome some barriers. Mutua et al, (1992) further
identify the following obstacles to reading and suggest how to overcome them:

11.2 Obstacles to reading and how to remove them

Reading as a means of acquiring information can be done efficiently or inefficiently. When
carried out efficiently, the reader will derive maximum benefits from it, when inefficient, the
benefits will be minimal. The reader should therefore be aware of the hindrances to efficient
reading.
i) Time-wasters in reading:

Included among these hindrances are: vocalizing, sub-vocalizing and finger reading.

a. Vocalizing

Vocalizing means pronouncing each individual word. It involves the following sub processes:

Visual perception

Response to visual stimuli (words/ letters)

Transmission to the brain

Decoding (giving meaning)

Vocalizing

32
 Response to mental stimuli (understanding or not)

This process is time wasting. Pearson (1981) indicated that it takes at least twice as long as silent
reading and yet is no more effective. Vocalizing is fine in lower classes where its purpose is to
help children acquire proper pronunciation, but as one matures in reading, one should learn to
read silently by „photographing‟ whole sentences or passages by having ones eyes focus on the
entire line instead of individual words.

b. Sub-Vocalizing

This involves keeping the lips closed while still allowing the internal organs of speech like the
larynx or vocal chords to be active. This process is slightly better than full vocalizing, but should
also be avoided.

c. Finger reading

This refers to the practice of underlining each word with a finger as one reads. It is often
accompanied by vocalization. It is also time wasting and should be avoided.

ii) Noise

Noise is a serious distracter to effective reading. If, for example, you are settled in the library
trying to concentrate on reading and two people next to you arc engaged in quiet discussion, they
become a source of distraction as the aural stimuli interfere with your concentration. The two can
either be requested to stop talking or you can shift to another quiet place.

In some situations the reader has to contend with inevitable noise such as motor traffic or from
human activity like building construction. He therefore has to find à way of adjusting or adapting
to the situation. This usually happens in situations where a school is next to a road. The noise
from passing vehicles becomes part of the routine and the teachers and students hardly notice it.

There are also some readers who prefer background noise like music to absolute quiet when
reading. Should this be the case, the reader should create such an environment for himself, but he
should ensure that he is not a distraction to the neighbours. He should, for example, use
earphones. He should also remember the saying, “one man‟s meat is another‟s poison”.

i) Emotional distracters

Emotions are strong feelings of joy, fear, anxiety, anger or excitement. One should not attempt to
engage in serious reading when in the grip of these for not much will be accomplished and time
will be wasted. In such moments the person should take a break or he should engage in another
activity that will enable him to forget the emotion.

ii) Mental Distracters:

33
Like emotional distracters, mental distracters also interfere with our power of concentration.
They come in the form of daydreaming, absentmindedness, wondering or mental walk-about.
When this happens the reader should learn to control them as suggested in (iii) above before
engaging in serious reading.

1. Preparing for reading

To derive maximum benefits from reading a person should prepare him physically, mentally and
emotionally.

a. Physical preparation:

This involves removing oneself from physical distracters like noise and other elements. The
reader should create for himself a conducive reading environment either in a quite corner of the
library, under a tree or in a room. He should avail himself all the necessary materials such as
books and stationery for note making to avoid unnecessary movement after he has started
reading.

b. Mental self-preparation

For effective reading a person should also put himself in the right frame of mind for it. Whatever
topic is being read the reader should put all other messages in his short-term data bank and
concentrate on the messages at hand. It may also help to jot down notes as this helps in
restraining the mind from wandering.

c. Emotional self-preparation

Reading for study is a very unemotional exercise. The reader should rid himself of external
emotions so that they do not intrude on his concentration short term memory, Emotional
disturbances like joy and anger can be forgotten easily, but prolonged ones like pain, headaches
e.t.c. have to be coped with and accommodated in the reading framework. Using pen and paper
may again help in easing the problem.

11.3 Revision questions

i. Describe problems that can hinder efficient reading.

ii. Explain how reading problems can be overcome.

11.3 Scale of speed-reading in words per minute.

Trainers in speed-reading recommend that a native speaker of a language would be able to read
at the following speeds.

34
 Slow readers Fast readers

170-200 very slow 300-350 medium fast

200-230 slow 350-450 fast

230- 250average 450-550 very fast

250-300 above average 550-650 exceptionally fast

i) Speed vs. Accuracy

It is important for the reader to know the purpose for his reading. Sometimes it may be necessary
to sacrifice speed for accuracy or vice versa if, for example, one is reading for study and one is
not sure, it is advisable to read slowly and understand the message properly. But when reading
for pleasure, then one can afford to sacrifice accuracy and strive for general information.

ii. Summary: the DOS and DON’TS of fast and accurate reading:

DOS DON’T S

1. „Photograph‟ the message in your mind. 1. Do not point at the words with your fingers as
you read.
2. Read the message in meaningful clusters
(phrases). 2. Do not vocalize.

3. Know purpose and let it guide technique to use. 3. Sub-vocalize only when necessary, e.g. a public
speech, and only words that are difficult to
4. Have some background knowledge to help in pronounce.
predicting.
4. Do not regress i.e. reading word or sentence
5. Avoid emotional and mental distracters. more than once.

5. Do not read individual words but meaning

clusters (phrases).

22.4 Activity

i) Calculate your reading speed at present.

35
ii) Practice speed-reading following the steps described above and check how it improves after a
week, another week etc.

SECTION V

OTHER IMPORTANT STUDY SKILLS

LESSON 12

The Use of Reference Books

12.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i) Identify the types of books they can turn to for quick information.

ii) Access information from reference books.

iii) Maintain workbooks.

12.1 Using reference books

Reference books are important sources of information. An informed reader should be able to
access the information from them.

i) The use of the dictionary

Words form a very important part of every day life. People communicate using words. Radio and
TV all broadcast day and night using words. It therefore follows that anyone who wishes to have
sound mastery of words should have a dictionary and be able to use it properly.

ii) Types of dictionaries

a) Desk dictionaries: These are single volume dictionaries used for quick reference as need
arises. “The Concise Oxford Dictionary,” “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,” are
some examples of desk dictionaries.

b) Library dictionaries: they are multi-volume works of reference which give exhaustive
information about words, their meanings, derivations, past and current uses. “Oxford English
Dictionary‟ is an example of a world renowned „library Dictionary‟.

e) Specialist Dictionaries: These are devoted to the vocabulary of specialized subjects like
Science, Economics, Geography, Psychology etc David Crystal‟s “Dictionary of Linguistics and
Phonetics” is a good example of a specialized dictionary.

36
d) Other types of dictionaries include Roget‟s Thesaurus and dictionaries of synonyms and
antonyms. They provide alternative words or their opposites.

12.2 The uses of the dictionary:

The dictionary helps you to:

a. Learn the pronunciation of words: The pronunciation of words is usually given in phonetic
transcript immediately after the first listing of the word. A good dictionary will also give the
stress or accent of the word. The user should take note of these as he looks up the word.

b. Learn the spelling of words: the dictionary usually records the acceptable spelling. In case of
alternative spelling, the user should learn to be consistent on the spelling he or she adopts, e.g.
„labour‟ British English and „labor‟American English.

e. Learn the appropriate contextual meaning of the word: Many words have multiple
meanings, e.g. date: palm fruit; outing by friends; day of the month. The user should be careful
to note in what sense or meaning the word is used in the context. Most words arc listed in order
of primary and secondary usages, e.g. the word “crack” has 14 different meanings as a verb; 12
as a noun an I as an adjective in „Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English”

d. Idiomatic uses of words: Many dictionaries often give specialized or figurative uses of words
called idiomatic expressions, e.g. “to crack a crib” means “to rob a house”.

e. Word classes: Most dictionaries also indicate the different classes particular words belong to,
e.g. noun (n) Verb (y) adjective (adj.) etc.

f. General information: Good dictionaries usually supply some useful general information like
abbreviations, weights and measures etc. This will often appear either at the beginning or at the
end.

ii) Encyclopedia

An encyclopedia is like a library dictionary except that instead of words it provides summarized
information on different topics on all subjects. It is usually made up of many volumes.
“Encyclopedia Britannica” is an example of one such work of reference.

12.3 The workbook

The student should get into the habit of noting down words that are new or of special interest to
him. This can be a useful method of building a good vocabulary or word power. It can be done
by keeping a special notebook or a glo5sary at the end of an exercise book. However, care
should be taken to avoid slowing down reading proficiency.

12.4 Activity

i) Make a list of books often used for reference.

37
ii) Maintain a workbook.

38
LESSON 13

THE USE OF LIBRARIES AND INTERNET.

13.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i) Access information for study in libraries,

ii) Access information for study through internet.

13.1 Selecting reading material:

There are some factors a reader ought to consider when selecting books or journals for reading:

i. Leisure reading.

a. Interest: - The reader should read books from an area that interests him e.g. science fiction,
romance, crime etc. In the case of journals one tends to go for those that relate to ones profession
in order to keep abreast of developments in the area.

b. Language level: In selecting reading material the reader should go for those whose level of
languages is at or slightly higher than him own level of competence. This will help in improving
his own level. If the language is too difficult it might discourage him.

c. Other factors: These include the author- (how popular), the title (how exact) the cover design
(how attractive), the print (large or small) previous experience (recommended by friends or
reviews in the blurb).

13.2 Materials for study: Course materials usually contain reading list, with three categories of
books: essential reading, recommended reading and optional reading. Essential reading are the
basic texts from which the lecturer draws his material, recommended reading are used to beef up
text book material and optional reading used to supplement other readings as in carrying out
assignments.

Use of libraries

i) Institutional libraries:

Every learning institution from primary to university should have a library to provide resource
reading material for its members.

ii) Public libraries:

Include the Kenya National Library services, the Macmillan, Library the British Council Library
etc.

39
Every „educated‟ person should be familiar with the various sections of a library like the
reference section, the lending section the journals section etc. I-le should also be able to access
books using catalogues, computers or seek the assistance of the library attendant.

Finally he should develop his own home library which serves as the first resource for
information. University students should save the text books they use in the University for Future
Reference, and all employed persons should set aside some amount of money for books every
month.

They should also subscribe to professional journals or periodicals in their professional journals
or periodicals in their fields of interest: this will ensure sustained academic growth in the
individuals concerned.

d. Internet

The Internet is a process whereby a reader can access information that is not available in the
local library from any other part of the world.

Registered members of the library can log on the information. Depending on the users request,
the foreign library can avail a whole book, a chapter or selected extracts which the member can
then download and use. In case the title requested for is not . available the member will be
offered alternative titles or authors that cover the same topic.

13.3 Activity

i. Describe the procedure for accessing information

a. Library

b. Through the internet

ii. Start developing your home libraries

40
LESSON 14

WRITING, FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD WRITING

14.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to

(i) Define writing

(ii) Identify the function of writing

(iii) Describe the characteristics of good writing

14.1 What is writing?

Writing is a deliberate and conscious process of forming letters on paper or on the surface to
record ideas or to communicate the ideas ,writing like speaking ,is a productive communication
skill which demands ,not only to writers ability to form letter on paper or other media ,but also
awareness of the position or role of the reader in their communication relationship .Each
particular piece of writing ,therefore ,should be planned and organized as well as written Cleary
and fluently ,these content dictates the type of style used.

14.2 Functions of writing

According to Holliday (1985) writing serves arrange of functions in everyday life

(i) It is prim only for action

This occurs in public signs e.g. on roads and station

Product labels and instructions e.g. food, toys purchased recipes, maps, television and radios,
bills, menus ,telephone directories ,ballet peppers, computer manuals monitor and print outs

Action also includes personal correspondence using letter, post and or greeting cards.

(ii) It is used for information

This use of writing is found in book, diction and no-fiction, newspaper, magazine, public notices
advertisement, political pamphlets scholarly .medical etc.

iii) Writing is also primarily for entertainment

This usage is found in light magazine, conic strips, fiction books, poetry, drama, and newspaper
features computer games e.t.c. These different purposes for written language will be reflected in
the text trough which the function are realized for instance letters have different character from
newspaper additional which have different characteristics and so on

41
14.3. Characteristics of good writing

These are three characteristics of good writing according to Jacqueline Barke (1974:35-89) they
include: economy, simplicity and clarity.

(i) Economy

Economy means using words purposefully. Every word or sentence should serve a purpose
Avoid repetition and specific .Economical writing is efficient and aesthetically satisfying it
makes minimum demand on the energy and patience of leader.
(i) Simplicity

The quality of simplicity requires that the writer in his choice of terms should use expressions
will make to reader get his message directly.

He should avoid affection and try to be natural and direct in style. Simplicity should not be
misinterpreted to mean lack of depth or understanding in ones subject rather it is an act that
acquired through arduous practice. A good example is the Bible writing uses simple language but
expressing very important messages.

(iii) Clarity

Clarity is third fundamental element of good writing. It comes about when the write understands
his topic well and can then put it down in an orderly ,readable and under stable prose otherwise
he /she should not bother to write at all He should also keep in mind the type of reader he is
writing for and so make his style suitable to the standard or needs of the reader .When using
words or expressing that have multiple meanings he should ensure that the intended meaning is
Cleary bought out in text . For example, the word „‟bank‟ can mean either the place where
money is kept or the river bank, therefore a sentence
Like „‟John and Mary where at the bank „‟ by use lf may obligors.

Activity

(i)Define the term reading

(ii)Prescribe the primary functions of reading

(iii)Describe the major qualities of good writing

42
LESSON 15: WRITING SKILLS AND DIFFICULTIES IN WRITING

15.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to

(i) Describe the writing skills

(ii) Explain the difficulties one may experience writing

15.1 Writing skills

Writing skills can be categorized into two broad groups: basic and advanced skills. Basic
writing skills include: good handwriting, proper spelling and right punctuation constitute the
primary skills that are needed to write well. Advanced skills include these related to visual
presentation, grammar, style and organization

Advanced writing stalls

Visual presentation skill concern using specific

Some formats such as format of letter, memorandum minutes and report. They also concern the
use of appropriate punctuation makes as well as capitalization.
(i) Grammatical skills: relate to the ability to use a variety sentence patterns and constructions
proficiency in this ability depends to a great proficiency on student‟s oral proficiency as well as
grammatical skills.

(ii) Expressive skills, which are also referred to as stylistic skills concern the ability to express?
This is done by selecting appropriate vocabulary and sentence structure students reading habits,
specifically reading widely, have a lot to contribute to the development of these skills.

(ii) Organization skills concerns the ability to write currently .it is also the ability to use
linguistic cohesive devices such as use of right connections in sentence .Note taking and making
skills as well as the ability to summaries, are closely related to this ability.

15.2 Difficulties in writing

Some leaner‟s experience difficulties in understanding what is expected in continuous writing.
Hence they need help with the choice, planning and arrangement of content, which referred to as
contend organization.
Coe and Rycroft (1983:2) outline the following as the reasons why a learner‟s writing may be of
comprehension on the reader.

i) The ideas may not have been presented in a logical order that easily makes sense to the
reader (scrambled sentence)

ii) The relation between the ideas may not be clear because of the absence or inappropriate use of
linking words and phrases such as although, for example, lastly, on the other hand.

43
iv) A person‟s purpose for writing may not be clear: Is she/he describing, suggesting or
criticizing something?

v) The ideas may not be grouped together into distinct paragraphs. Learners may also begin
practically every sentence in a new line.

vi) A text may contain ideas that are not readily relevant to what the learner want to express.
Consequently he/she may find it difficult to think enough ideas.

44
LESSON 16 THE WRITING PROCESS
16.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

i) Describe the writing process.

16.1 The Writing Process

Introduction: Writing is usually an individual process. A writer makes marks on a surface

which are looked by someone else later. A piece of writing constitutes a visible permanent
product so long as it remains unaltered. This is what makes it different from speech which is
motivated as it occurs. A writer also has to consider that the meaning may be interpreted long
after the words have been committed to paper. Moreover he/she has to consider that they will be
interpreted without the benefit of face-to-face interaction where information may be clarified or
questions answered. It occurs in space and in time independent of the physical content, in which
it was produced and will continue to exist as long as the ink and paper or other marks on
alternative surface exist.

The steps of the writing process

The nine stages identified by the Raimes (1983:21) can be classified as follows:

i) Planning

 Identifying the purpose and audience for writing.

 Choosing the topic for writing.
 Generating and drafting the material through observing, brainstorming, making and
taking notes, talking to other people and reading.
 Organizing the ideas into some logical order in preparation for the next step which is the
actual writing down of ideas. Prose form that makes the essay.

ii) Writing

This is the step during which you draft down your composition in prose form from the beginning
to the end. That is, from

 Introduction
 Body –here you give all points you want to express
 The conclusion

At this stage of your writing process you use complete sentences; paragraphs and produce the
complete essay.

iii) Revising.

45
  Reading through your draft piece and making the necessary changes in language known
as editing.
 Also you make necessary changes in content and organization known as revising.
 Rewriting the essay incorporating the changes made.
 Rereading to identify and make corrections on mechanical errors such as spelling
mistakes and punctuation errors-this activity is known as proof reading and it is the last
activity before writing is sent out to the reader,

The Completed Writing

Will have

 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion

Activity

Describe the steps in good writing

46
LESSON 17

TYPES OF WRITING

17.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

Describe the three categories of writing

17.1 Types of Writing

Writing can be placed under three broad categories: Creative Writing, Functional Writing and
Academic Writing.

Creative writing includes dialogues, conversations, plays, poetry stories and anecdotes.

Functional writing includes for instance reports, book reviews, scientific experiments, articles,
letters, announcements, speeches, factual essays, invitations etc.

Under academic writing there are things like taking notes, making notes, academic papers like
projects, thesis e.t.c

Note: Creative and Functional writing may also be considered as academic depending on the
purpose and circumstance.

Activity

Describe the three types of writing.

47
LESSON 18: THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

18.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this structure lesson you should be able to

i) Define the word paragraph

ii) Describe the components of a good paragraph

18.1 Introduction: What is a paragraph?

Paragraph is group of sentence that builds a main idea. Paragraph is also described as group of
related sentences that express one idea .Centre to the paragraph is the topic sentence

18.2 Topic sentence

A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph .It announces the paragraph will
be focusing on .It enables the reader to follow the ideas expressed in the paragraph because it
links the entire sentence in it. It is in fact a generations as well as summary of the paragraph ,Not
all paragraphs in writing will have the topic sentence give direction to most of your paragraph
,otherwise ,you may lose focus .for example ,before you start writing ,ask yourself what you
want to write about in every paragraph ,The answer to the question may well be the topic
sentence for every paragraph
You should note that, it is not always that a topic sentence at the topic of your
Paragraph as may be misconstrued .It could be anywhere within the paragraph .When placed in
middle .The paragraph ,a topic sentence is the beginning and end of the paragraph very
effectively and hence ,unifies the paragraph .Placed at the beginning but also summaries the
only concludes but also summaries the paragraph ,appropriately as at serves as a clincher.

A topic sentence can be written as a declarative or an interrogative sentence e.g

 My college offers a wide range of courses hence catering, for almost interests of the
students
 Need I state that my college offers a wide range of courses hence catering for most
interest of the students

18.3 Supporting sentence

The topic sentence will normally create expectations in the reader, that the writer will provide
details the topic sentence .T he supporting details will usually take the form of facts and
statistics, example or anecdotes

18.4 Paragraph coherence

Your paragraph must be cohesive. Cohesive is largely as a result of cohesive devices which
enable. The meaning of elements is the proceeding part of the text to be reiterated by element s
48
in the following sentences. The interpretation of a cohesive device is therefore impossible except
by recourse to an earlier text. As a result cohesive creates links among the various sentence in a
text making it unified whole In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relater Cleary to the topic
sentence. The sentence flows smoothly into each other without obvious shifts or jumps.
Furthermore, a coherent paragraph highlights the tie between old information to make the
structure of ideas or arrangement clear to the reader.

Activity

Describe the word paragraph?

What are the components of a good paragraph?

49
LESSON 19: TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF ORGANIZING A PARAGRAPH

19.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to

i) State and explain the techniques of creating cohesion in a paragraph

ii) Describe methods of organizing a paragraph

19.1 Techniques of establishing cohesion in a paragraph

Cohesion in a paragraph may be achieved by the use of the following ways:

i) Repeat key words or phrases

Whenever you are writing on a specific topic you cannot help but to the topic now and then. This
consistence and repletion will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your
definition or description

ii) Creating parallel structures

Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentence that have the
same grammatical structure and use of the easier to read you make your sentence clear in a series
in addition repeating a pattern reader see of consecutive between ideas.

iii) Be consistent in point of new, verb tense and number’s

Consistency in point of view verb, tense and number is a subtle but important aspect of
coherence .If you shift from more per sound „‟owner‟‟ to impersonal „‟you‟‟ from part to present
tense for example your paragraph less coherent .such inconsistence can also confuse your reader
and to following make your argument more difficult to follow.

iv) Use transition words or process between sentence and between paragraphs

Transitional expression emphasis the relationship between ideas, so they can help readers follow
your train or though or see connections that they might otherwise misunderstand.

Cohesive devices

Cohesive devises can broadly be divided into two categories

 Those that refer the reader basic to a text that has already been read: called static devices

Repletion and pronouns

50
  Those that send the reader forth using them to read on i.e. dynamic cohesive devises e.g.
furthermore and for example

Transitional words

These are words that create cohesive and logical sequence in a paragraph .This sentence the flow
of information and create clear and meanful understanding of any piece of writing. Transitional
words also write sentence and paragraphs in writing

Common transitional words include

 According, furthermore, nevertheless, as a result of however etc.

Organisation of the paragraph is very crucial to any type of writing .You there must organise it
in way that your reader will understand your I deed with ease .The most common methods used
are

 Chronological order –items are arranged according to when they happened in time.
 Spatial order- items are arranged to their location.
 Order of importance- items are arranged in order of importance, interest or degree.
 Development order-items are arranged in a logical progression in which one idea grows
out of another.

Activity

1. Describe the techniques used in creating cohesion in a paragraph

2. Describe methods of organising a paragraph.

51
LESSON 20: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

20.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

Describe how you would develop a paragraph.

Introduction: Ways of developing a paragraph

Once you have atopic to write on, you will get down to brain storm on it so as to escort that you
have enough material to write on it.

The next step is to decide the major points or subtitles your text fall into. After this your
challenge will be to expand on the main ideas, you can do this by:

 Using comparison
 Facts and statistic
 Reasons
 Rhetorical questions
 Examples
 Cause and effect
 Expository/explanatory story
 Explaining a story

a) Developing a paragraph using compassion

Paragraphs can be developed using comparison .The two things being compared must have
something is common e.g. two hospitals, two writing styles e.tc

Comparison can be done in two ways,

 Contrast -When asked to contrast things you are expected to write only the
differences between the items of comparison
 Comparison -If you are asked to contrast things, you will need to find both differences
and similarities.

For example you can compare two professions: teachings and doing business

-What are the advantages of each?

-Why would you refer one over the other?

There are at least two ways of arranging information in a compare and contrast essay.

 Block method -present all the information on one subject first followed by all the
information o n the subject .present the features in the same order for both subjects.
52
  Point by point method- arrange the information point by total, one feature for one
subject following by the same feature or the subject

b) Developing a paragraph using facts and statics

Facts are statement that have been proved by experience ,observation or scientific studies, statics,
on the order and other a laid ,give precise numerical information ,and therefore a laid of facts
you can develop a paragraph by spoiling facts and statics ,One of the common mistakes students
make their work without knowing whether these figures are accurate .It is not necessarily wrong
to do this .The problem is when one provides statics as facts without proof you should avoid
falling into this snare by either quoting your sources or stating that these are rounded figures by
using such words as perhaps ,probably or approximately.

 Kenya may be the most corrupt country in the Africa, rather than
 Kenya is the most corrupt country in Africa

c) Developing a paragraph using reasons

A paragraph developed the question why. For instance why would you like to follow the
career path you have chosen? Why be a teacher and not an accountant

d) Rhetorical paragraphs

A rhetorical paragraph is paragraph written largely using statement presented as questions are
actually statements presented as question that have observes answers and thus need not be
answered .such question appeal to the reader to agree with the writers point of new .All your
sentence need attempt to write most of them as questions. I need whole essays and books can
be written in this format.

e) Developing a paragraph using examples

A graph can be developed through examples .These are the points used to develop a paragraph
when you develop a paragraph using examples you led credibility to your work.

f) Developing a paragraph using cause and effect

When you explain causes, you answer the question why that the reason the body your paragraph
explains effects, you answer the questions, what next and state to consequence of an event or
action.

The clincher sentence

Before you end your paragraph, you must write a clincher .This is the closing to the sentence that
says “I have come to the end of the paragraph? A good closing sentence clinches the rest of the
paragraph by:

 Restating the main idea

53
 Concluding an argument
 Suggesting a plan of action
 Giving a personal opinion
 Announcing a conclusion
A good paragraph is there one that has topic sentences, which is supported by related
sentence, and conclude by the clincher sentence.

54
LESSON 21: WRITING A RESEARCH AND TERM PAPER.

21.0 Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

i) Describe the process of writing a research or term paper.

ii) Practice the procedures described as they write term papers at the university.

20.1 Introduction

i. The research paper is a standard assignment for university and college students. It is
sometimes called a documented paper, a term paper, or a research report. Lecturers and
college tutors often assign students research or term papers for a number of reasons:

ii. The research paper helps students to utilize a wide range of skills in the language, for
instance, reading habits, note making, logical thinking, organization of facts, and the
development of mature and critical approach to academic work.
iii. The paper exposes the college or university students to efficient use of library and
related sources of knowledge and information.
iv. It introduces and builds in the students conventional approaches to research.

v. It enhances a student‟s ability at specialized investigation in particular areas of

knowledge.

vi. The paper provides the student with the opportunity to working independently.

20.2 The process of writing a research paper

Writing a research paper calls for more planning from the undergraduate student
than the ordinary essay assignment. The following are the areas to be addressed as the
writer prepares and produces such papers.

(e) Aims and objectives

A research paper should have general aims and specific objectives. The general aims indicate the
direction of investigation in the selected problem area. Specific objective refer to particular
aspects of the problem that are being investigated. For example, for the problem cited be stated
as:
“To establish whether children whose home linguistics environment is mainly dominated by the
medium of instruction before entering nursery school have an advantage over those who mainly
speak their mother tongue in the acquisition of new ideas at nursery school.”

Whereas the specific objectives would be stated thus:

i. To establish the degree of advantage children who speak the medium of instruction have in
understanding their teachers.
55
ii. To suggest ways of helping children without adequate exposure to the medium of instruction
to benefit from their experiences in nursery school.

(f) Writing out the research paper

After identifying his aims and specific objectives and reviewing the literature the researcher
writes the first draft of the essay concentrating on the content, argument and organisation.

When the first draft is ready, the writer then revises it in the first reading asking himself the
following questions.

i. Does the entire essay make sense to me?

ii. Does it answer the questions set?
iii. Does it cover all the main points?
iv. Does it go into sufficient depth?
v. Is all the content relevant?
vi. Have I acknowledged all the sources and clarified my ideas and those of others.

Having satisfied himself on the above the writer will then go on to reread the paper checking the
technical aspects thus:
vii. Is the organisation logical?

(a) Definition

A research report or term paper is one that enables the researcher to gather pertinent information
and presents it in a clear and orderly way without necessarily giving it a critical interpretation.

(b)Title

A research paper‟s title should be short clear and precise. It should be describe and summarize
the content of the paper for example:

“An investigation into the extent to which prior exposure to the medium of new ideas or
knowledge by nursery school children”

The clarity and suitability of the title depends on how the writer understands his topic and how
he introduces it.

(e) Back ground to the problem.

The background information about the problem to be researched on is usually contained in the
introductory paragraphs. It explains and justifies why the reader is undertaking the investigation
and how it bridges gaps in the existing knowledge.

56
(d) Review of related literature

This section of the research paper shows the work that has already been done on the problem in
question and goes on to explain what remains to be done which the written is seeking to cover.

In reviewing the literature the investigator or researcher explores the following broad areas.

i. Current and previous studies done on the subject.

ii. The nature of present studies regarding the extent, nature and causes of the stated problem.
iii. The information or knowledge lacking on the subject area.
iv. Why the problem needs to be studied.
v. Why the problem has not been tackled before.
vi. The writers plan for solving the problem.

Examining the above issues will help the researcher understand the problem better and look for
appropriate solutions.

viii. Is the style simple and easy to read?

ix. Do sentences vary in length?
x. Are there words or phrases that are repeated too often? Is spelling and punctuation in order?

After satisfying himself with all the above, the research can then settle on the final draft. This
can be either written out neatly or typed. When this is ready, it can be given to a friend to go
through before it is bound for presentation.

(g) Presentation

Before submitting a research or term paper for examination the writer should check and ensure
the following:

i) Good quality paper of reasonable size is used.

ii) All the essential details are in order and properly numbered.
iii) The essential details are presented neatly on the first page. This should include topic, the
course, and the name of the lecturer, the name of the writer, the year, and date of presentation.
iv) A content page should follow the cover page and a bibliography or list of references should
be included at the end.
v) Tables and diagrams should be indicated appropriately.
vi) A one-inch margin should be left at the end of each page to allow for the examiner‟s
comments.
vii) All the pages should be firmly fastened and placed in a simple folder.

57
20.3 Activity

i) Describe the procedure for conducting research work for a paper.

ii) Practice these procedures as you write your term papers and other research work in the
University and thereafter.

REFERENCES

Bosrnajian. H.A. (1965) Readings in Speech. Harper and Row.

Bright J.A and G.P Mc Gregor (1970) Teaching English as a Second Language.

Longman.

Burton S.H. and J.A. Humphries (1992) Mastering English Language. Macmillan.

Casty A and D Tighe. (1969) Staircase to writing and Reading: A Rhetoric Anthology

Prentice Hall Inc.

Loban, W. M. Ryan and J.R. Squire (1969) Teaching Language and Literature. Harcout,

Brace and World, Inc.

Mc Cuen J.R and A.C. Winker (1974) Readings for Writers. Harcourt, Brace and

Javanovich, Inc.

Mutua R. W; S. J. Omulando and J. E Otiende (1992) Study and Communication Skills.

Macmillan.

Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice hall.

Perine L. (1965) Sound and Sense. An Introduction to Poetry. Harcourt, Brace and world,

Inc.

Sheen. F (1997) The Sacred and the Profane. Popular library.

Yule, J. (1985) The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press.

58