PRACTICAL MANUAL

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS
3(2+1)
For M.Sc. (Ag.) Entomology

Prof. Neerja Agrawal

Emeritus Professor (ICAR)

2021

Department of Entomology
College of Agriculture
Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur

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Syllabus:

Practical
Study of Orders of insects and their identification using taxonomic keys. Keying out
families of insects of different major orders: Odonata, Orthoptera, Blattodea, Mantodea,
Isoptera, Hemiptera, Thysanoptera, Phthiraptera, Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Diptera,
Lepidoptera and hymenoptera.
Field visit to collect insects of different Orders.

Name of Student .........................................................................................

I D No. ..........................................................................................................

Batch ............................................................................................................

Session ........................................................................................................

Semester ......................................................................................................

Course Name : ............................................................................................

Course No. : .................................................................................................

Credit .............................................................................................................

Published: 2021

@ CSAU, Kanpur

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 CONTENTS
Sl. No. Name of the Exercise Page No.
1 To study about characters of Phylum Arthropoda. 4
2 To study about classification of insects. 8
3 To study about characters and classification of order 10
Orthoptera and Isoptera.
4 To study the about characters and classification of order 13 Comment [n1]:
Hemiptera.
5 To study about characters and classification of order 15
Phtheraptera and Neuroptera.
6 To study about characters and classification of order 17
Lepidoptera.
7 To study about characters and classification of order 19
Coleoptera.
8 To study about characters and classification of order 21
Hymenoptera.
9 To study about characters and classification of order Diptera. 23
10 To study about identification for different Orders using pictorial keys. 25
11 To study key to major families of Orthoptera, Hemiptera 35
(Heteroptera , Homoptera) and Coleoptera.
12 To study about Entomological methods. 39
13 APPENDICES 60
14 EXPECTED QUESTIONS FOR VIVA- VOCE 65

Exercise no. 1.

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Objective: To study about characters of Phylum Arthropoda.

Observation:

Arthropods were first studied by Aristotle. It is the largest phylum in the

animal kingdom. Von Siebold coined the term Arthropoda.

It is derived from the Greek word Arthos = jointed; podas = legs. It constitutes
the largest Phylum of animal Kingdom. At least 80 per cent of all known species
of animals are arthropods. This phylum comprises invertebrate animals

General characters
1. Cosmopolitan in distribution found in aquatic, terrestrial and aerial forms.
Some are ecto-parasitic and vectors of disease.
2. Body have jointed appendages or legs (which are modified to different
structures to perform different functions like jaws, gills, walking legs, paddle).
There may be 3 pairs, 4 pairs, 5 pairs, many pairs.
3. Body is triploblastic.
4. Bilaterally symmetrical.
5. Organ system level of organization.
6. Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
NOTE: In some (crustacean and arachnids) body is divisible into
cephalothorax (head and thorax is fused) and abdomen.
7. This is the first group to develop a true head, which contains sense organs and
feeding organs specialized for their particular habitats.
8. Body is covered with chitinous exoskeleton.
9. They are haemocoelomate. Coelom i.e. body cavity is filled with blood or
fluid.
10. Head bears a pair of compound eyes and antenna.
11. Locomotion takes place by jointed appendages.

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12. Digestive system is complete, straight and well developed.
The mouth bears mouth parts for ingestion of foods. Mouths are modified for
chewing, biting, sponging, piercing, siphoning.
13. Respiration takes place by general body surface or gills (in Crustaceans) or
trachea ( in insects, Diplopoda and Chilopoda) or booklungs (Arachnida) and
book gills.
14. Circulatory system is of open type i.e. do not have blood vessels and enters
directly into the body chambers. The blood is colorless.
15. Excretion takes place through Malphigian tubules (in terrestrial form) or green
glands or coxal glands (in aquatic forms).
NOTE: Aquatic forms are ammonotelic, terrestrial forms are uricotelic.
16. Nervous system is of annelidian type, which consists of brain and ventral nerve
cord.
17. Unisexual i.e. sexes are separate.
18. Fertilization is internal or external.
19. They are either oviparous or ovoviviparous.
20. Development may be direct or indirect.
21. Sensory organs include antennae, sensory hairs for touch and chemoreceptor,
simple and compound eyes, auditory organs (in insects) and statocysts (in
crustacean).

Phylum Arthropoda is divided in the following classes.

Class 1- Onychophora –
1. Terrestrial in habit
2. Body not divided into distinct regions.
3. One pair of antennae many pair of unjointed legs.
4. Breathing through trachea.
5. Example- Peripatus.

Class 2- Arachnida –
1. Body divided into cephalothoraxes (Persoma) and abdomen
(opesthosoma).

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 2. Prosomatic appendages are one pair of chelicerae,
3. One pair of pedipalpi,
4. Four pairs of walking legs,
5. True jaws are absent,
6. Terrestrial or aquatic in habit
7. Example- Scorpion, spiders, ticks & mites.

Class 3- Crustacea –
1. Aquatic in habit
2. Body divides into cephalothoraxes and abdomen.
3. Two pairs of antennal and five pairs of walking legs.
4. Breathing through gills.
5. Example – Crab, Prawns.

Class 4- Chilopoda –
1. Terrestrial in habit
2. Body divided into head and trunk region
3. Head with one pair of antennal, one pair of mandible and two pairs of
maxillae.
4. Each trunk segment with one pair of legs.
5. The 1st pair of leg is modified into poison claw.
6. Example- Centipede (Scolopendra)

Class 5- Diplopoda –
1. Terrestrial in habit, body divided in to head thorax and abdomen.
2. Body elongated, cylindrical and vermiform.
3. Head five segmented and bears one pairs of antennal, one pair of mandible
and a long maxillae.
4. Thorax four segmented and each segment with one pair of walking legs.
5. Each abdominal segment carries two pairs of walking legs.
6. Breathing through trachea.
7. Example – Millipede (Julus).

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Class 6- Insecta or Hexapoda –
1. Terrestrial or aquatic in habit.
2. Body divided into head thorax and abdomen.
3. Head carries one pair of antennal, one pair of mandible and one pair of
maxillae.
4. Thorax three segmented (Pro, meso and metathorax)
5. Each segment carries one pair of legs and meso and meta thorax also carry
one or two pairs of wings.
6. Breathing through trachea.
7. Example – Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, termites, moths, Butterflies,
beetles, plants bugs etc.

Different arthropods and their relationship

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 Exercise no. 2
Objective: To study about Classification of Insects.

Observation:
INSECT CLASSIFICATION
Classification of insects is basically adopted by A.D. Imms (1957),
according to him class Insecta or Hexapoda is divided into two sub classes-

Sub Class 1- Apterygota – Apterous insects, the wingless condition presumed to

be primitive, metamorphosis slight or absent. Adult with one or more pair of
pregenital abdominal appendages. Adult mandible usually articulating with the
head capsule at a single point. This sub class is divided into following four orders-
1. Thysaneura  Example Silver fish
2. Diplura  Example Japygids
3. Protura  Example Telson tails or proturans
4. Collembola  Example spring tails

Sub Class – Pterygota – winged or secondarily wingless insects, metamorphosis

varied, Adults without pregentital abdominal appendages. Adult mandible usually
articulating with the head capsule at two points. This subclass is divided into
following two divisions -

Division I - Exopterygota – Wings develop externally. Metamorphosis simple,

pupal stage rarely present. Immature stages are called nymphs which are similar
to adults in structure and habit. In this division following orders are present -
5. Ephemeroptera Eg- Mayflies
6. Odonata  Eg- Dragon flies
7. Plecoptera  Eg- Stone flies
8. Grylloblatoidea  Eg- Gryloblatta
9. Orthoptera  Eg- Grasshoppers & crickets
10. Phasmida  Eg- Phasmids

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 11. Dermaptera  Eg- Earwings
12. Embioptera  Eg- Embiids
13. Dictyoptera  Eg- Cockroaches & Mantids
14. Isoptera  Eg- Termites
15. Zoraptera  Eg- Zorapterans
16. Procoptera  Eg- Booklice
17. Mallophaga  Eg- Birdlice
18. Siphunculata  Eg- Sucking lice
19. Hemiptera  Eg- Plantbugs, Aphids, Whiteflies, mealy bugs etc.
20. Thysanoptera  Eg- Thrips
21. Mantophasmatodea – Eg- Mantophasmatids (New order discovered in
2002)

Devision II –Endopterygota – Wings develop internally meteramorphesis

complex, pupal instar present immature stages are called larvae which differ from
adults in structure and habits. It is divided into following order –

Order –22. Neuroptera – Eg - Lace wings, Alderflies, snake flies etc.

23. Mecoptera – Eg – Scorpion flies
24. Lapidoptera – Eg – Butterflies and moths
25. Trichoptera – Eg – Caddish flies
26. Diptera- Eg – Two winged flies or true flies
27. Siphonoptera- Eg- Fleas
28. Hymenoptera –Eg- Ant, Bees, Wasp etc.
29. Coleoptera – Eg- Beetles and weevils
30. Strepsiptera – Eg – Stylops

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 Exercise no. 3
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Orthoptera and Isoptera.
Observation:
Order – Orthoptera ( orthos = straight, pteron = wing)
Grasshoppers, crickets and locusts
Characters -
1. Winged or brachypterous or apterous.
2. Month parts biting and chewing type (Mandibulate type)
3. Hind leg usually enlarged and modified for grouping.
4. Two pair’s wings, sometimes absent or vestigial, following straight,
thickened called Tegmina, hind pair of wing membranous.
5. Gradual metamorphosis, the nymphs resemble the adults in all essential
features and habits.
6. A pair of unsegmented short cerci is present.
This order is divided into two sub orders.
Suborder- 1 – Ensifera:
1. Antennal are longer than their body length and many segmented.
2. Tympanal organs (auditory organs) are located on the tibia of the leg.
Example – Long horned gross hoppers and crickets.
Suborder- 2 – Caelifera:
1. Antennae are shorter than their body length with less than thirty segments.
2. The Tympanal organs are located at the sides of 1st abdominal segment.
Example- Short horned gross hoppers and locusts.

Family – Acrididae
1. These are moderately long insects with prominent head begs.
2. Diurnal in habit.
3. The antennae are always much shorter than the body length.
4. The auditory organs are located on the sides of the Ist abdominal segment.
5. There are usually one generation in a year.

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Example- Kharif grass hopper, Hieroglyphus banian, H. Nigroreplatus, Desert
locust, Schistocerca gregarea Migratory locust, Locusta migratoria

Order – Isoptera (Iso = equal, ptera = wing)

Termites or white ants
Characters -
1. Moderate sized, thin skinned, social insects, consisting of several castes
such as winged king and queen, wingless king and queen, workless and
soldiers.
2. Metamorphosis simple.
3. Mouth parts of the typical biting and chewing type.
4. The wings are equal in size, long, narrow, membranous, some what
opaque.
5. Workers and soldiers of both the sexes are wing less and sterile forms.
Family 1. Masto termitidae eg.- Masto termes spp.
Family 2. Kalotermitidae eg.- Kalotermes spp.
Family 3. Rhinotermitidae eg.- Rhinotermes spp.
Family 4. Hodotermitidae eg.- Hodotermes spp.

Family - Termitidae:
Characters:-
1. Members are mostly subterranean and form a termitarium.
2. Wings only slightly reticulate, wing membrane and margin more or less
hairy.
3. Pronotum of workers and soldiers narrow.
4. The queen attains enormous proportions, the increase effecting only in the
abdomen and not the head and thorax. This obesity is known as
Physagastory.
Example- Termite- Odontotermes obesus /microtermes obesi.

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 Exercise no. 4
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Hemiptera.

Observation:
Order – Hemiptera (Hemi = half, pteron = wing)
Characters –
1. Two pair of wing usually present. The anterior pair most often of harder
consistently than the posterior pair, either uniformly (Homoptera) or with
the apical portion membraneous than the remainder (Heteroptera).
2. Mouth parts piercing and sucking type.
3. Metamorphosis usually gradual.
4. The abdomen has no cerci.
Example – Plant bugs, leaf hoppers, coccids, white flies etc.
This order is divided into two suborders.
Suborder 1. Heteroptera (Heter = Different, pteron = wing)
Characters –
1. The fore wing thickened and lengthy basally and membranous apically
known as hemelytra.
2. Metamorphosis is complete.
3. Body usually broad and flattened dorsoventrally.
4. A plate usually triangular in outline called scutellum, located between
the bases of the wings.
Following are the imporntant families:
Family 1. Pyrrhocoridae Example- red Cotton bug, Dysdercus cingulatus.
Family 2. Coreidae Example- Rice gundhi bug, Leptocorisa varicornis
Family 3. Pentatomidae Example- 1- Stink bug, Aspongopus janus
2- Green bug, Nezara virudula
3- Painted bug of mustard, Bagrada cruciferarum

Suborder 2. Homoptera (Homo = similar, pteron = wing)

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Characters –
1. Two pairs of wings are usually similar in texture and each wing is
practically same thickness throughout.
2. Excretion of honey dew is common in many members of this suborder.
3. Metamorphosis usually gradual while in some cases complete
metamorphosis is also found.
4. Mouth pests procuring and sucking type.
Following are the important families:
Family 1. Cecadellidae (jassids) leaf hopper or jassids
Example – Paddy leaf hoppers, Nephotettix apicals.
Paddy leaf hoppers, Nephotettix bipunctatus
Mango leaf hopper, Idiocerus atkinsoni
Cotton jassid, Amrasca beguttula
Family 2. Lophopidae (Fulgoridae) Pyrilla
Example – Sugarcane Pyrilla, Pyrilla perpusilla
Family 3. Aleurodidae – white flies
Example – 1. Sugarcane whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis
2. Cotton white fly, Bemisia tabaci
3. Citrus white fly, Dialeurodes citri
Family 4. Aphididae – Aphids green flies or plant lice.
Example – 1. Mustard aphid, Hydophis (Lipaphis) erysimi
2. Bean aphid, Aphis craccivora
3. Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii
4. Potato aphid, Myzus pessiki
Family 5. Coccidae – Mealy bugs and scale insects.
Example – Mango mealy bug, Drosicha stebbingi
Family 6. Lacciferidae – Lac insect
Example – Lac insect, Laccifer lacca

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 Exercise no. 5
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Phthiraptera and Neuroptera.
Observation:
Order Phthiraptera ( Greek word Phthir = lice, aptera = without wing)

Suborder - Anoplura

Common Name: Parasitic Lice / Biting Lice / Sucking Lice.

Characters:

Small, wingless insects that are parasitic on birds and mammals.

1. They are usually less than 10 millimetres in length.

2. Lice are short lived and usually host specific. They are-
3. Small, flattened body
4. Wingless and colourless
5. Short, stubby antennae
6. Legs with hooked tarsi adapted to gripping their hosts
7. Chewing or biting mouthparts (biting lice) or piercing and sucking
mouthparts (sucking lice)
8. The nymphs resemble adults and have 3 instars before they reach sexual
maturity.

Family- 1. Himatopinidae Example - Himatopinus asini,

Family -2. Pediculidae Example - Pediculus humanus

Characters:

 A few species of lice have adapted to live and feed on humans, such as the
head louse Pediculus capitis, the eggs of which are commonly called nits
and the body louse Pediculus humanus.

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  Most sucking lice species feed on the blood of the animals they live on
while biting lice usually feed on the feathers and skin of their hosts.
 Haematopinus asini is a common louse found feeding on horses
while Linognathus species are common parasites of domestic mammals

Order Neuroptera (Greek word “neuron” = sinew and “ptera” = wings)

Net-winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantidflies, antlions, and
snakeflies.

Characters:

1. Head well-developed with ocelli, antennae,

2. Chewing or pinching mouthparts.
3. Three pairs of thoracic legs.
4. tarsi 1-segmented; claws paired.
5. Aquatic forms have thread-like gills on most abdominal segments.
6. Most of the insects are biological control agents of other insects and mites.

Family- Chrysopidae (green lacewings) Example- Chrysoperla carnea

 Large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera.

 Green lacewings are delicate insects with a wingspan of 6 to over 65 mm,
though the largest forms are tropical.
 Adults have tympanal organs at the forewings' base, enabling them to hear
well.
 Adults are crepuscular or nocturnal.

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 Exercise no.6
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Lepidoptera.
Observation:
Order – Lapidoptera (Lapido = Scales, pteron = wing)
Moths, butterflies and skippers
Characters –
1. Insect with two pairs of membranous wings, but not transparent, covered
by minute overlapping scales.
2. Mouth parts greatly reduced possessing siphoning type of mouth parts.
3. Metamorphosis complete.
4. Larvae Known as caterpillar or semilooper which possess biting and
chewing type of
This order is divided into two suborders-
Suborder 1. Heterocera – Moths
Characters –
1. Mostly nocturnal in habit.
2. Antennae are of varied form, filiform, pectinate bipectinate etc.
3. The wings usually lie horizontally or roof like at the sides of abdomen.
4. Pupae very often protected by cocoon.
Following are the important families.
Family 1. Gelechidae
Example 1. Grain & flour moth, Sitotroga cerealella
2. Pupate tuber moth, Phthoremoea operculella
3. Pink boll worm, Pectinophora gossypiella
Family 2. Pyralidae (Pyraustidae) Pyralid moth
Example 1. Cotton leaf letter, Sylepta derogata
2. Jowar stem borer, chilo partillus
3. Sugar cane top borer, Tryporyza novella
4. Rice stem borer, Tryporyza incertulus

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 5. Rice case worm, Nymphula depunctalis
6. Sugar cane root borer, Emmalocera deprecella

Family 3. Arctiidae (Hairy caterpillars)

Example 1. Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma (Diacresia) oblique
2. Red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorii
3. Castor hairy caterpillar, Pericalia riceni
4. Sun hemp hairy caterpillar, Utetheisa pulchella
5. Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis lunata
Family 4. Cymbidae (Arctiidae)
Example – spotted bollworm, Earias vitelli, E. insulana, E. crumataria
Family 5. Noctuidae (Noctuid moths)
Example – 1. Gram cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon
2. Gram cutworm, A. flamatra
3. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa (Heliothis) armigera
4. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera (Prodenia) litura
5. Cabbage semilooper, Plusia orichalcea
6. Army worm, Mythimna seperata
7. Fruit sucking moth, Ophideres (Othris) conjuncta
8. Fruit sucking moth, O. fulonica
9. Fruit sucking moth, O. materna
10. Fruit sucking moth, Calpe emerginata
11. Fruit sucking moth, Achoea janata
Family 6. Bombycidae Silk moth
Example – Mulberry silk worm, Bombyx mori

Sub Order 2. Rhopalocera – Butterflies and skippers

Characters 1. Diurnal in habit
2. Antennae club shaped or clavate
3. Wings remain vertical above the body
4. Pupae are necked and they are called chrysalis.

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Family – Papilionidae
Example- Lemon butterfly, Papelio demoleus
Exercise no. 7
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Coleoptera.
Observation:
Order – Coleoptera (Coleos = sheath, Pteron = wing)
Beetles and weevils
Characters:
1. Two pairs of wing, fore wing thickened (hard & sclerotized) called elytra, hind
wing membranous and protected by fore wing.
2. Both larvae and adult have biting and chewing type of mouth parts.
3. Metamorphosis complete.
4. Larvae of beetles are commonly known as grub. Snout beetle (weevils) grubs
are leg less (apodous).
This order is divided into following two suborders

Suborder 1. Adephaga
Characters – 1. Beetles mostly predatory in habit, they feed on other, insects.
2. Antennae generally filiform.
3. Notopleural suture is present.
4. The Ist visible abdominal sternum is divided by the hind coxae
and the posterior margin of this sternum does not extend completely across the
abdomen.
Followings are the important families –
Family 1. Cicindellidae
Example – Tiger beetle, Cicindella sexpunctata
Family 2. Carabidae
Examples- 1. Carabid beetle, Anthia sexguttata
2. Carabid beetle, Chlaenius bioculatus
3. Carabid beetle, Calosoma indica

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Suborder 2. Polyphaga
Characters:
1. The Ist visible abdominal sternum is not divided by the hind coxae and the
posterior margin of this sternum extends completely across the abdomen.
2. Hind trochanters are small.
3. Notopleural suture is absent.
Followings are the important families –
Family 1. Dermestidae
Example – Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium
Family 2. Curculionidae (curculioni = weevils or snout beetles)
Examples – 1. Rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae
2. Gujhia weevil, Tanymecus indicus
3. Sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius
Family 3. Bruchidae
Example – Pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis
Family 4. Chrysomelidae
Example - 1. Red pumpkin beetle, Raphidopalpa foveicollis
2. Rice hispa, Decladispa armigera
3. Singhara beetle, Galerucella bermanica
Family 5. Tenebrionidae
Example – Rust red flour beetle, Triboliuam castaneuam
Family 6. Coccinellidae
Sub family – Coccinellinae lady bird beetles
Example – 1. Lady bird beetle, Coccinella septempunctata
2. Lady bird beetle, Chilomenus sexmaculata
3. Lady bird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis
Family 7. Melolonthidae (Scarabaeidae)
Example – White grub, Holotrichia consanguinea

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 Exercise no.8
Objective: To study about characters and identification of insects
of Order Hymenoptera.
Observation:
Order – Hymenoptera (Hymen = membranous, pteron = wing)
Bees, wasp, sawflies and parasitic wasp.
Characters:
1. Wings typically four, small and membranous, hind pair of wing smaller,
wing venation highly specialized.
1. Mouth parts biting and chewing or chewing and lapping type.
2. Metamorphosis complete.
3. Abdomen of female usually provided with a saw or piercing organ or
sting.
4. Larvae either caterpillar like or grub like or leg less.
This order is divided into two suborders –

Suborder 1. Symphyta (Sawflies)

Characters:
1. These insects are characterized by the abdomen being broadly joined
to the thorax. with no marked constriction between the Ist and IInd
abdominal segments.
2. Ovipositor adopted for sawing or boring but never a sting.
3. larvae (grubs) are caterpillar like which possess well developed
thoracic and abdominal legs.
4. Prolegs without crockets.
Family – Tenthredinidae (Saw flies)
Example – 1. Mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima

Suborder 2. Apocrita (Bees, Wasp, Parasitic wasp etc.)

Characters:

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 a. These insects are characterized by a deep constriction between the
propodeun (Ist abdominal segment) and the IInd abdominal
segment called petiole or waist.

2. The larvae (grubs) are apdous (legless) or grub like with head and mouth
parts reduced.
3. They possess a well-developed ovipositor with sting.

Family – Apidae (Bees)

Example – 1. Bush bees, Apis florae
2. Rock bees, Apis dorsata
3. Indian honey bee, Apis cerana indica
4. Italian bee, Apis mellifera

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 Exercise no.9
Objective: To study about characters and classification of Order
Diptera.
Observation:
Order – Diptera (Di = two, pteron = wing)
True flies, Houseflies mosquitoes etc.
Characters:
1. Insects with single pair of membranous wings, hind pair of wings
modified into halteres.
2. Mouth parts piercing and sucking or sponging type.
3. Prothorax and metathorax small and fused with well-developed
mesothorax.
4. Metamorphoses complete.
5. Larvae are apodous (legless) called maggots which have biting and
chewing type of mouth parts.
6. Pupa are generally free or enclosed in a puparium.
This order has been divided into three suborders –

Suborder 1. Nematocera (Mosquitoes and Gall midge)

Characters:
1. Antennae of image (adult) usually longer than the head and
thorax, many segmented, majority of segments alike, not
forming on arista or style.
2. Larvae (maggots) are eucephalous type which have well
developed head and horizontally biting mandibles.
3. Discal cell generally absent.
4. Maxillary palpi 4-5 segmented.
Family 1. Culicidae: Mosquitoes
Example- 1. Anopheles spp.

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 2. Culex fattigaus
Family 2. Cicidomyiidae: Gall midge
Example- 1. Rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzae
2. Mango gall midge, Dasyneura mangiferae
3. Linseed gall midge, Dasyneura lini

Suborder 2. - Brachycera (Horse flies, Robber flies etc.)

Characters:
1. Antennae of imago are shorter than head and thorax, generally
three segmented with the last elongate, arista present terminal.
2. larvae are hemicephalous type which possess an incomplete
usually retractile head and ventrally biting mandibles.
3. Discal cell almost always present.
4. Maxillary palpi one or two segmented.
5. Pupa is free.

Family 1. Tabanidae: Horse flies

Example – Horse flies, Tabanus maculicornis
Family 2. Asilidae: Robber flies
Example – Robber flies, Philonicus albiceps
Family 3. Bombyllidae: Bee flies
Example – Bee flies, Bombylius major

Suborder 3. – Cyclorrhapha (Fruit flies, Syrphid flies, Vinager flies)

1. Characters – 1. Antennae three segmented with a dorsal bristle like
arista.
2. Maxillary palpi one segmented
3. The larvae are acephalous type, in which head is reduced and the mandibles
are replaced into mouth hooks which are working in a vertical plane.
4. Pupa are enclosed in a puparium.
Family 1. Tephritidae: (Fruit flies)
Example – Melon fruit flies, Bactrocera cucurbitae
Family 2. Syrphidae (Syrphid flies or Hover flies)

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Example – Syrphid fly, Episyrphus balteatus
Family 3. Agromyzidae:
Example – 1. Pea leaf miner, Phytomyza atricornis
2. Arhar pod fly, Melonaglowyza obtusa
Exercise no.10
Objective: To study about identification of different Orders using
pictorial keys.
Observation:

PICTORIAL KEY TO THE ORDERS OF INSECTA

Characters of couplet Draw

diagram

1. Winged insects …………………………………………….. 2

- Wing less or vestigial winged insects………………………. 23

2. With only one pair of wings……………………………….. 3

- With two pairs of wings………………………………………

5

3. Wings net –veined; haltares absent

…………………….certain mayflies: Ephimeroptera

- Wings not net veined; haltares present

25
 …………………………………………………………. 4
4. Wings with highly reduced venation; caudal filaments usually
present; delicate insects…………..…male mealy bugs and scale
insects………………………………………….: Homoptera

- Wings with longitudinal and a few cross veins; no caudal

filaments (Fig. 1) ……… flies, mosquitoes, etc….: Diptera

5. Forewings horny, without veins, meeting in a straight line

over middle of body and usually concealing membranous hind
wings (certain forms have the hindwings vestigial or
absent)……………………………………………………………
6

-Forewings not as above …………………………………. 7

6. Abdomen provided with forceps like cerci at posterior end

(Fig. 2) …………………………………………. Earwigs:
Dermaptera

- Abdomen without forceps like cerci (Fig. 3)

……………………………….. beetles, weevils: Coleoptera

7. Two pairs of wings unlike in

structure……………………………………………………… 8

- Two pairs of wings similar in structure

26
……………………………………………………………. 10

8. Forewings reduced to slender club- shaped appendages;

hindwings folded fan like at rest (Fig. 4)
……………………….…twisted winged insects: Strepsiptera

- Forewings not as above ……………………………….… 9

9. Forewings thick and leathery at base and membranous at tip;

mouth parts form a sucking beak (Fig.5)…… bugs Hemiptera

- Forewings thick and leathery throughout; chewing mouth parts

(Fig. 6) .…………. grass hoppers, cockroaches, etc.: Orthoptera

10. Wings partially or more often entirely covered by

microscopic scales (Fig. 7) ……………………moths,
butterflies: Lepidoptera

- Wing transparent or covered with fine hairs

…….……………11

11. Wings very narrow and fringed with long hairs, small
slender – bodied inscts (Fig. 8) …………… thrips:
Thysanoptera

- Wing not as above …………………………………………..

27
12

12. Mouthparts a piercing- sucking beak arising from the rear of

the head near the first pair of legs (Fig. 9)
…...……………………….. aphids leaf hoppers etc. :
Homoptera

- Mouthparts not a piercing sucking beak, normally situated at

the front of the head
……………………………………………… 13

13. Antennae small and bristle like ……………………………

14

- Antennae conspicuous and of many forms …………………..

15

14. Fore and hind wings nearly equal in size; tip of abdomen
without terminal filaments (Fig. 10)
……………………………… dragonflies, damselflies: Odonata

- Forewings much larger than hind wings; tip of abdomen with

2-3 long terminal filaments (Fig. 11)…… Mayflies:
Ephemeroptera

15. Wing with many veins and cross veins ……………………

16

28
- Wings with few veins and cross veins ……………………….
20

16. Hind tarsi with fewer than five segments …………………

17

- Hind tarsi with five segments ………………………………..

18

17. Tarsi three segmented; hind wings as large as or larger

(wider) than forewings (Fig. 12) …………………. stoneflies:
Plecoptera

- Tarsi four segmented; forewings and hindwings of equal size

(Fig. 13) ……………………………………….termites: Isoptera

18. Head prolonged into a beak (Fig. 14)

………………………... ………………………………………..
scorpionflies: Mecoptera

- Head not prolonged into a beak ……………………………..19

19. Wings covered with fine hair (Fig. 15) …………….

…………………………………………. caddisflies: Trichoptera

- Wings transparent not covered with hair (Fig. 16)

29
…………………………………………... lacewings: Neuroptera

20. Tarsi two or three segmented; wings approximately equal in

size …………………………………………………………. 21

- Tarsi usually five segmented; forewings larger than hindwings

(Fig. 17) ……………………….. ants, bees, wasps:
Hymenoptera

21. Basal tarsal segment of foreleg greatly enlarged (Fig. 18)

………………………………………. web spinner: Embioptera

- Basal tarsal segments not enlarged ……………………….. 22

22. Cerci present; body less than 3 mm long (Fig. 19)

………………………………………… zoraptarans: Zoraptera

- Cerci absent; body 3 mm long or longer….bark lice:

Psocoptera

23. Abdomen composed of six or fewer segments with ventral

spring apparatus (Fig. 20) ……………….. sprigtails:
Collembola

- Abdomen with more than six segments and no spring

………24

30
24. Abdomen segments 1-3 each with a pair of small ventral
appendages; antennae, eyes and cerci absent; minute and rare
(Fig. 21) ………………………………….. telsontail : Protura

-Abdomen and appendages not as above ……………………..25

25. Abdomen with 2-3 long terminal appendages or pair of

forcep like cerci, segments 2-7 may each have a pair of small
ventral leg like appendages ………………………….bristletails:
Thysanura

- Abdomen without terminal filaments or ventral appendages

………………………………………………………………. 26

26. Mouth parts fitted for chewing ………………………….. 27

- Mouth parts fitted for piercing, lapping or sucking, sometime

concealed …………………………………………………….. 31

27. Louse like insects ………………………………………. 28

- Insect not louse like, various forms……………………….29

28. Antennae with 5 or less segments (Fig. 23) …lice:

Mallophaga

- Antennae with more than 5 segments (Fig. 24)

31
……………………………………………..booklice: Psocoptera

29. Abdomen constricted at base……ants, wasps: Hymenoptera

- Abdomen not constricted at base…………………………… 30

30. Body very slender and linear, hind legs modified for
jumping, or body oval and flattened…grasshopper, cockroach:
Orthoptera

- Body or legs not as above, body antlike but abdomen broadly

joined to the thorax……………………………termites: Isoptera

31. Tarsi with 5 segments…………………………………….32

- Tarsi with fewer than 5 segments

……………………………34

32. Body strongly compressed laterally (Fig. 25)………………

.………………………………………………fleas: Siphonaptera

- Body not strongly compressed

laterally………………………33

33. Abdomen not distinctly segmented, covered with

hairs……………………………….sheep ked, other flies:

32
Diptera

-Abdomen distinctly segmented covered with scales

………………..females of bagworms, tussock moth:
Lepidoptera

34. Last tarsal segment a bladder like organ, without well-

developed claws …………………………....thrips:
Thysanoptera

- Last tarsal segments with one or two claws …………………35

35. Louse like; sucking beak not evident (Fig. 26)

………………………………………....... sucking lice:
Anoplura

- Insect not louse like, sucking beak evident…………………36

36. Beak arising from front of head

………………………………
………………………………bedbugs, water striders: Hemiptera

- Beak arising from rear of head (Fig. 9)………………….

……………………………aphids, scale insects etc.: Homoptera

33
34
35
 Exercise no.11
Objective: To study key to major families of order Orthoptera,
Hemiptera (Heteroptera and Homoptera) and
Coleoptera.
Observation:
KEY TO MAJOR ECONOMIC FAMILIES OF ORTHOPTERA
1. Antennae much longer than pronotum; tympanum in front tibiae ………… 2
- Tympanum about as long as pronotum; tympanum present on first abdominal
tergum ………………………………………………….. Grasshopper : Acrididae
2. Tarsi four segmented; ovipositor usually sword like or sickle like (long horn
grsshoppers) ……….………...............................katydids and others : Tettigonidae
- Tarsi three segmented; ovipositor spear shaped or awl shaped
…………………………..………………………………….. crickets: Gryllidae

KEY TO MAJOR ECONOMIC FAMILIES OF SUB ORDER

HETEROPTERA
1. Antennae shorter than head; concealed in grooves beneath the eyes (short
horned bugs: most of the bugs) ……………………………………………
- Antennae longer than head and plainly visible from above (long horned bugs:
terrestrial bugs and water striders) …………………………………………….2
2. Forewings reduced to short pads; body flattened and modified for actoparasitic
habit……………………………………………………… bed buds: Cimicidae
- Forewings not reduced to short pads; body not flattened and modified for
ectoparasitic habit ……………………………………………………………..3
3. Membranous portion of forewing with two closed cells ……………………
……………………………………………………………… . plant bugs: Miridae
- Membranous portion of forewing without two closed cells……………………4

36
4. Membrane with row of small cells around margin ….....damsel bugs: Nabidae
- Membrane without row of small cells around margins…………………………5
5. Membrane with 4-5 open veins ………………………..chinch bug: Lygaeidae
- Membrane without 4-5 open veins (may be many) ……………………………6
6. Membrane with many branched veins and cells but without numerous
longitudinal veins …… …………………………….. Red bugs: Phyrrhocoridae
- Membranes without many branched veins and cells but with numerous
longitudinal veins …………..……………………………………………………7
7. Antennae four segmented scutellum usually not large …squash bugs: Coreidae
- Antennae five- segmented; scutellum very large ............stink bug: Pentatomidae

KEY TO MAJOR ECONOIC FAMILIES OF HOMOPTERA

1. Antennae setaceous (bristle like) ……….……………………………………2
- Antennae filiform (thread like) or rudimentary ………………………………4
2. Pronotum extending backward over abdomen …..…tree hoppers: Membracidae
- Pronotum not extending backward over abdomen ……………………………3
3. Hind tibiae with one or more rows of spines ……..…leafhopper: Cicadellidae
- Hind tibiae with one or two stout spines and usually a circlet of spines at apex
………… ……………………………………………..…spittle bugs: Cercopidae
4. Tarsi two- segmented and with two claws ….………………………………..5
- Tarsi one segmented and with single claw (Coccoidia) ……………………….8
5. Hind femora large for jumping ; antennae with 5-10 segments (usually 10)
segments ….…………………………………………………. Psyllids: Psyllidae
- Hind femora not enlarged for jumping; antennae with 3-7 segments …………6

37
6. Wings opaque, usually covered with white powdery wax …………………….
…………………………………………………………...white flies: Aleyrodidae
- Wings transparent when present ……………………………………………….7
7. Cornicles (pair of tubules on top of rear of abdomen) usually present and
conspicuous; wing venation not highly reduced …..……………aphids: Aphididae
- Cornicles not present; wing venation highly reduced ………..…………………
……………………….. bark aphids, gall aphid and phylloxerans: Phylloxeridae
8. Body hidden by waxy or scale like covering; sessile during most of life ……..9
– Body covered with powdery wax; mobile throughout life
………………………………...…………………….. mealy bugs: Pseudococcidae
9. Body covered with hardened shell formed from wax; shed skins and fibrous
material easily removable; females without posterior end cleft …………………...
…………………………………………………….... Armored scales: Diaspididae
- Body covered with soft wax not easily removable; if not covered with soft wax,
then females with hard, smooth, often greatly convex, endoskeleton with posterior
end cleft …………………………………………………….. soft scales: Coccidae

KEY TO MAJR ECONOMIC FAMILIES OF COLEOPTERA

1. Head not prolonged into a snout; guar suture (on underside of head) double …2
- Head usually prolonged into a snout; gular sutures fused or lacking …………13
2. First abdominal sternum divided by hind coxae ………………………………...
............................................................................................ground water: Carabidae
- First abdominal sternum not divided by hind coxae …………………………….3
3. Click mechanism (prosternal spine fitting into groove in mesosternum) present
……………………………………………....click beetles, wire worms: Elataridae
- Click mechanism not present ……………………………………………………4

38
4. First two abdominal sternum fused; body usually metallic …………………….
………………………………..…………... flat headed wood borers: Buperestidae
- First two abdominal segments not fused; body not usually metallic ……………5
5. Hind coxae dilated and grooved not hairy or scaly beetles ……………………6
- Hind coxae not dilated and grooved; not hairy or scaly beetles ………………...7
6. Head concealed from above; front coxal cavities open behind ……..………...
…………………………………………………………skin beetles: Dermestidae
- Head not concealed from above; front coxal cavities closed behind ,,,,,,,,,,,,……
……………………………………………………... fruit worm beetles: Byturidae
7. Tarsi usually three segmented (Third segment minute and fused to base of
fourth (Fig. 6); body almost hemispherical ………….. lady beetle: Coccinellidae
- Tarsi not apparently three segmented; body not almost hemispherical …………8
8. Body highly flattened and narrow (Fig. 7) ………... flat bark beetles: Cucujidae
- Body not highly flattened and narrow ……………………… other coleopterans

39
 Exercise no. 12
Objective: To study about Entomological methods.
Observation:
COLLECTION MOUNTING AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
Place of Search: -
Insects are present everywhere. In the world where life is possible insect
can be found. To begin to study them it is not necessary to go to distant places.
You can make a start in your garden, cultivated fields or even in your house. For
the collection of insect you want you must have some idea of the following-
1. How they live.
2. What they require at different stages of life.
For example, in complete metamorphosis, there are four stages-
i. Egg stage
ii. Laval stage
iii. Pupal stage
iv. Adult
While in incomplete metamorphosis, there are three stages-
i. Egg
ii. Nymph
iii. Adult
Catching of adult stage is only one part of collection which give
very little view of their life cycle. To know an insect, you have to find out the
young insects, keep them alive, rear them to maturity. Beside this, things that
insect of all stages are concerned with are-
1. Light, 2. Warmth, 3. Food, 4. Moisture and 5. Shelter

40
 Knowing habits of insects makes collection much simpler. Before
you start collection, stand and watch the insects for a while. See how pollen
loving insects sit on the flower. Some like bees go from flower to flowers without
wasting little time. Others like, butterflies, some moths and many flies love the
warmth of Sun and spend much of their time just basking, either quite still, or
slowly opening and closing the wings. On the other hand, hovers are able to
remain poised in the air, apparently motionless but the wings moving at very high
rate.
The leaves and stems of the plant shelter many insects.
Underneath the leaves clusters of eggs can be seen or hanging pupae as well as
many insects. On foliage a number of adult insects may be seen some of which
are carnivores and look for a prey.
Insects that fly can be easily caught by the net, but smaller insects
that keep still, or hide away are more difficult to collect.

General Collection:
For making general collection one should search the follows
places-
1. Scrub land: With low bushes of different species, long and short grasses.
2. Open hill side: At this place the insects are not so crowded together as in
scruby land. At hillside most of the collection is done on the tree trunks or on the
ground at the foot of the trees. Bigger insects can be stalked and trapped. The new
forest is a good locality and tremendous local variation in the number of insects
can be seen.
3. Grass Land: It can be looked at following places-
A. Low Land Pasture: It has a much varied insect fauna. The number of
individual insects may be mainly butterflies with an occasion bee or beetles. Most
of the insects are hidden in the grass or around its root. Sweeping is the best way
to the collect them.

41
B. Open down land: Has a fauna of its own. Flowers are usually plentiful, and
there are more insects than on many lush pastures. Butterflies are the common
insects at this place.
C. Heath land: Has fewer flowers but more scope for sand living, fossorial
insects, especially Hymenoptera and beetles.
D. Limestone fells: They have very poor grass where the species of scale insects
can be collected.
All these are more general way of collecting in daylight, but there
are other places where you may look for a special and some peculiar fauna. All
kind of rubbish and debris have their own insects as rotting and decaying are part
of natural cycle. Insects play an important role in this process. These are-
1. Animal dung: Attracts many insects to lay eggs and to use it as food for their
larvae.
2. Parasitic insects: Parasitic insects can be caught on the wing by as waiting
near a bait animal, such as cow, dog, horse, monkey etc.
Ectoparasite : Are insects that live on the outside of other animals. Fleas and
lice are the best known example of this group.

CATCHING AND TRAPING OF INSECTS:

After finding and observing the insects, next step is to obtain some
of them for further study either dead or alive. For catching insects some
equipments are required such as nets, aspirators and tubes etc. There are various
types of nets used for collecting different insects, but the best collection is done
by a general purpose net that suits their need.

NETS:
An insect may be captured by net in the following ways-
1. By catching it in flight

42
2. By stalking the insects until it settles, and them dropping the mouth of the net
over it.
3. By sweeping, by swinging the mouth of net through grass or soft hertiae, so
that the insects are disturbed are traped in lag of the net.
4. By beating, that is holding the net beneath bushes and beating the foliage with a
stick so that insects fall into the net.
5. Insects in the pond and streams can also be captured by net.

General Purpose net:

The general purpose net is either circular or pear shaped. The
frame should be 12-18 inches across. The pear shaped frame makes it easier to
swing the net close to branches, tree trunk, wall or the ground. This kind of frame
is also easier to put one’s head into the net to inspect the catch. A frame that can
be folded, or taken apart into several pieces, is convenient to carry in the pocket
or under the arm when not in use.
A simple frame is made from three or more pieces of cane, joined
together either with brass hinges, or with brass tips and sockets pushing into each
other. Such a frame is light and strong. Metal frame are made by either a single
ring of heavy metal rod or two or more section joined together. The best all-round
frame is made from two pieces of steel strip in round or pear-shaped design.
When folded it makes a straight object, like a ladies’ umbrella.
The bag should be at least twice as long as the diameter of the
frame, so that with a twist of the wrist it can be closed over the frame. The
material from which the bag is made should be light and soft made of mosquito
netting.
For various type of insects’ collection, if net is to be used, a
general purpose net can be improved upon as follows-
1. For flying insects only: The aperture should be big, the net frame light in
weight and bag of open mesh.

43
2. For stalking individual insects: A smaller frame is most advantageous
because the ground is generally uneven, and bigger the frame the more likely it is
to leave a crevices and a light flexible frame is easier to press down the ground.
3. Sweeping: The frame should be big for bigger collection and also the collector
can put his head and hands inside to inspect the catch. Both the bag and frame
should be very strong. Bag should be of denser material. This frame can also be
used on the water net with an inter changeable bag.
4. Beating: For this purpose, a simple beating tray can be made from canvas
spread over strips of wood bamboo on the same line as making the kite. An old
umbrella will also serve the purpose. Beating is intended for catching crawling
insects.
5. Water Collection: It is better to carry a separate net for collecting in water. It
should be stronger and heavier A square frame is more advantageous.

Handles for Net:

For air collection short handle of about 2 feet is ideal because it is useful in
carrying for one place to other. Water nets need a long, strong handle to get
enough reach.
TRANSFERRING THE INSECT FROM NET TO CONTAINER:
Water insects are helpless when the water is drained away and they can
easily be tipped into jar. But other insects are more active and can be transferred
in the following ways-
(1) Tubes: Useful size of tubes are10 cm x 2.5 cm or 5 cm x 1.25 cm with cork to
fit. Resting insects, plant bugs, mosquitoes can easily be caught by putting a tube
directly over them.
(2) Collecting bottles: It is a simplest variation of the tube. In this case both ends
of the tube are open which is passed through the cork of an oval bottle which can
early be held by hand. The open end of the tube is placed over the specimen and
when the insect has walked in the tube the end in corked. This bottle can be
converted into a killing bottle also.

44
(3) Aspirators: After the simple tube and bottles, these as the most useful of
collecting equipments. These are used to collect small insects from the net or
directly from foliage from walks or even from the ground. A suction bottle is
made by taking a small bottle, like collecting bottle, but fitting of the cork with
two small tube instead of one. The two tubes are bend at right angle or to any
other angle as per convenience of collector. By sucking at the rubber tube, one
can draw small insect into the bottle.

45
46
COLLECTING INSECT ON LIGHT TRAP:
Most of nocturnal insects one attracted to light. These may be moths,
many kind of midges some beetles and lacewings and stone flies. Collection on
light trap is affected by a number of factors and weather conditions i.e. moonlight
temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
The simplest form of light trap in the box trap which can easily he made.
Five of the six faces of the box are solid. The sixth is blocked by two over lapping
sheets of glass which slope inwards. Thus an insect seeking the light is guided
through the narrow slit between the sheets of glass, but it has a small chance of
finding the slit in the opposite direction. An open killing bottle and lamp may be
placed inside the box so that the fumes coming from bottle may kill the insect.
A mercury vapour lamp is more useful because it gives the light with high
content of ultra violet.
OTHER TYPES OF TRAP
(1) Baits and Bait trap: For this purpose, baits for insects, either a natural
substance that is known to attract them or, or a synthetic substance giving off the
same odour in ever greater concentration is used. The bait is prepared with a
fermenting mixture of sugar, molasses and beer.
(2) Rot-holes in the tree: Different types of insects, their immature stage can be
collected from these places.
(3) Pit falls: Crawling and running insects may be caught in baited traps sunk
into the ground so as to form pitfalls from where insect cannot climb out again,
because the sides are too steep and smooth. Glass jars can be used to make the
most convenient containers. A piece of wood is supported over the mouth so that
frogs do not get in and eat the insects.

47
48
 REARING OF INSECTS
For the collection of immature stages, it is necessary that insects should be
reared in laboratory. The insect that can be successfully reared continuously in the
laboratory are those whose immature stage are all passed in a uniform and stable
medium. This include insects living in decaying or fermenting materials (fruit
flies), dry stored products (beetles, moths) etc.
The insects can be reared in a glass jar covered with a muslin cloth or
netting on desired humidity and temperature. It is better to put some sand or soil
at the bottom with one or two twigs of plant so as to provide some natural
condition. Moisture can be provided by damping the soil daily. It is better to put a
piece of sponge soaked with water or to put a small glass tube filled with water
and its mouth plugged with cotton inside the cage.
Larval rearing:
For rearing in laboratory, the immature stages of insects such as nymphs,
larvae or pupae are kept alive until they develop into adults. The larval stages can
be reared on natural food or an artificial food. West (1951) described in detail a
number of artificial foods for rearing larvae of house flies which may be used for
other insects too. They are mostly made up from bran, oats or powdered milk
which is moistened. Carnivorous larvae can be reared on ground meat provided it
does not contain too much fat. Larvae can also be reared on an entirely artificial
medium consisting of Agar, baker’s yeast and salt.
Pupation:
Suitable site for pupation is very essential for successful rearing.
Caterpillar which feed on leaves in the open need support for pupa and some form
of shelter also. Fruit flies reared in bottles climb up and pupate on the glass above
the culture medium. An artificial site can also be provided by putting a card board
inside the bottle.
Many insets pupate in soil. For this purpose, sand may be used in the jar
instead of soil. Insects that are usually resistant to drought in the pupal stage (eg.
blow flies) will pupate successfully in any crumpled paper and rough cellular
material that is used for packing eggs. It will also be useful for lepidopteran larvae

49
which spin a silken cocoon. Sufficient moisture should also be provided for
successful pupation.
REARING OF LEAF MINING INSECTS:
In this case the infested leaves are put directly into an airtight tin or screw
topped jar to avoid loss of moisture from the mine. As soon as the insect is seen to
have pupated, it is removed from the leaves. The pupae are kept in small labeled
tubes initial they emerge when they are killed and mounted with the empty pupal
skin on the same mount.
SLEEVING OF LARVAE:
When it is not possible to remove part of the food plant of a larvae and
grow this in a small cage, the damaged twigs where larvae are present may be
confined by enclosing the twig in a sleeve of fine muslin. Larvae that do not
pupate in the soil will make their cocoons inside the sleeve and the twig can be
cut off and moved to a separates cage, ready for the emergence of adult insect.
For larvae which pupate in soil, when the larvae are fully fed, one end of the
sleeve is opened and tilted down in the rim of a pot or jar containing soil. When
the larvae move down in the jar, it is transferred to a cage for adult emergence.
KILLING OF INSECTS
Insects caught in various catches may be killed in killing bottle by various
methods-
1. Cyanide bottle:
Killing bottles are made in a strong bottle or tube with a specially will filled cork.
In the bottom a layer of 5 mm thick broken potassium cyanide is placed.
Powdered plaster of Paris is used to fill the space between the lumps of cyanide.
Some more plaster of Paris is mixed with enough water to make a slurry and this
is poured over the previous mixture. The setting of plaster is an exothermic
reaction in which much heat is generated and much water vapour is released. It is
necessary, therefore to set the bottle or tube aside, open for a day or so until the
plaster is hard and dry. When the drying is finished, the cyanide will be held
safely under a hard but porous layer of plaster and the gradual decomposition of

50
the potassium cyanide will release hydrogen cyanide, which will percolate
through the plaster and fill the interior of the bottle. The cyanide bottle is liable to
release vapour when in use, therefore, a circular piece of blotting paper may be
placed on the top of the plaster which should be renewed when damp. The used
blotting paper must be burned.
2. Liquid Killing Agents:
Tubes or bottles are provided with a layer of plain plaster of Paris (without
cyanide). This type of bottle is permanent and can be used over and over again
with any of the liquid killing agents.
Before going out for collection, a little of the liquid is poured on the
plaster, taking care that only limited amount of liquid is poured, that the block can
soak up. If it is more, the specimen will get wet and spoiled. The cork is replaced
tightly and bottle is ready for use. It is important that excess liquid will harm the
person if the bottle is left in sun or kept in warm pocket or held in hand for longer.
Killing agents:
1. Ethyl acetate (CH3COOC2H5)
2. Ammonia (NH4OH)
3. Benzene (C6H6)
4. Chloroform (CHCl3)
5. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
6. Trichloro-ethylene (C2HCl3)
Destruction of Killing Bottles:
It is important in case of cyanide bottles, as the other kind of bottles with
an absorbent layer for using liquid killing agents may be used over and over
again.
The old cyanide bottles should be broken and buried in damp soil, taking
care that dog or other animal may not dig it. Never get rid of it by throwing it into
a stream.

51
 PRESERVATION OF INSECT
After killing the insects, it is necessary to preserve them permanently for
further study or display. Methods of permanent preservation can be categorised
into 4 categories.
(1) Preserving the specimen dry (dry preservations)
(2) Keeping it in liquid.
(3) Immersing it in a resinous material.
(4) Mounting on a microscope slide.
DRY PRESERVATION
Insects with their external chitinised skeleton have great advantage over
mammals or birds that most of them can be left out to dry naturally without
offensive decay. The pinned and dried specimen is the most common and useful
for ordinary purpose. Dried insects are extremely brittle and can be broken even
with a slight touch, therefore, all manipulation of them should be completed while
they are still fresh. That is why pinning as early as possible after collection is
advised.
Drying and handing can be postponed by using ethyl acetate as a killing
agent and having the specimen in the vapors. Simply keeping the specimens in a
tin with moistened blotting paper will delay drying. Any fleshy specimens should
be split open and the body contents should be removed, before decay can start and
turn the specimen black.
When the person who is collecting is on a long journey and collecting the
specimens daily for longer period, it is not possible to pin the specimen daily out
of laboratory. After one or two days of collection the specimen will be quite hard
and brittle. Such specimen requires relaxing or re-softening of the external
skeleton for further studies.

52
RELAXING:
This can be done simply by keeping the specimen in a humid atmosphere until the
integument absorbs enough moisture again to become soft. For this purpose,
relaxing tins are prepared which are made of zinc or other rust less metal and
these have tightly fitting lids. In the bottom there is fairly thick layer of cork and
other synthetic cellular material of an absorbent texture. The absorbent layer is
moistened with plain water. An exposure of 12-24 hours will be sufficient to relax
most specimens but exceptionally big insects, old ones or greasy ones may take
longer. To prevent mould or fungus in the relaxing tin, it is desirable to put in a
liquid such as phenol or ethyl acetate.
SETTING:
This is also called stretching or spreading. This is the craft of arranging the soft,
relaxed insects with its wings extended horizontally and allowing it to harden in
that position.
Setting boards: Can be bought ready-made or easily made. The side boards are
covered with cork and a groove in the middle to take the body and legs of the
insect. This groove has underneath it a sheet of cork to allow an entomological
pin to pass freely through it.
For setting of wings where both wings are membranous, they are set with
the hind margins of the fore wing at right angles to the body and overlapping the
hind wings, so that the pattern of the fore wing can be seen in its full. Where only
hind wings are membranous as in Orthoptera, the fore margins of hind wings are
arranged at right angles to the body and the forewings we drawn forwards to get
the wings into position. A paper strip is used across the bases and to pin a broader
strip across the rest of wing making sure that this is flat and uncreased. Thick pins
(No. 2 or No. 3) can be used to flatten the wings.
The antenna may be held under the narrow strips of paper or may be
positioned independently and held by pins. Similarly, the legs if they are to be
displayed are teased into position with a pin and held there by crossed pins.
Upside down setting:

53
 For bigger insects such as grasshopper which have a large body, upside
down setting is recommended. The relaxed insect is pinned upside down on the
plain sheet to cork and fixed with paper as before. The legs are stretched out and
laid out in the same plane as the wings. When the setting is complete the main pin
is removed.
The length of time taken for a specimen to harden depends on the amount
of moisture present and on temperature and humidity doing drying. Generally, it
takes about a week. After drying remove the pins used for stretching and finally
draw the specimen out from setting board on its mounting pin. Put the label on the
mounting pin at once and if possible put the specimen into a store box.
BLOWING AND STUFFING
Any insect that has large and soft abdomen will shrink badly on drying as
well as discoloured by the decay of the internal tissues before drying is
completed. In such case abdomen should be emptied as soon as the insect is dead.
To empty in abdomen, the insect is placed on a hard surface and a round pencil is
placed across the base of the abdomen. Rolling the pencil gently towards the tip
of abdomen with moderate pressure cause the intestine to bulge out of the anus.
The rolling is to be continued until all the contents of the abdomen have been
pushed out then inflate the abdomen by blowing in its original shape and stuck the
cut portion of anus by mending cement.
Insect larvae particularly caterpillars can be preserved dry by the similar
process of rolling and flowing but in this case almost whole body is emptied and
more care is needed when re-inflating to recover the true shape. It is advisable to
keep larvae alive without food for a day or two so that much waste matter from
the intestine may be removed. The larvae is then killed in an ethyl acetate killing
bottle and immediately rolled starting the pencil just behind the head when the
skin is empty it is inflated and kept inflated during the period of drying in a warm
atmosphere.
Blowing apparatus can be prepared easily. A piece of glass tube is drawn
out until it is fine enough to be inserted into the anus of larvae. It is clamped in
position by a wire clip made from watch spring. The skin can be inflated by

54
mouth but since it has to be maintained under pressure while it is drying upto a
period of at least one hour, it is better to arrange some form of pressure reservoir.
Rubber tubes with double bulb are available at medical stores or an ordinary scent
spray bulb can be coupled to a simple reservoir made from toy balloon. In either
case, the outer bulb is used to inflate the skin and the reservoir keeps up the
pressure until the skin is dry.
Dry Preservation in the solid state:
PRESERVATION OF LARVA
If a soft bodied insect, particularly a larva is to be preserved dry without
removing the interior part, it can only be protected against shriveling by removing
the moisture either very slowly or very quickly. The very slow method has the
advantage that it requires no apparatus but only common reagents. Freshly killed
larvae should be used, but the dried larva can be softened again by immersing for
one or two days in 2% caustic potash solution when they get their natural shape.
They must be partially dehydrated by transferring first to 40%, then 70%, 80%
and 95% alcohol. Fresh larvae are put straight into 95% alcohol.
Small larvae are kept in 95% alcohol for one week and bigger one for longer
period. Then they are kept is absolute alcohol for 3 days which is changed daily.
After this the larvae are treated as follows-
1. Transfer to a mixture of one part of xylol to two parts of absolute alcohol.
2. Then transfer in two parts of xylol to one past of absolute alcohol.
3. Finally transfer in pure xylol.
It would be better if they are kept for one day in each mixture. The finished
specimen is bottled dry and may be pinned.
PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS
1. Keep in 95% alcohol for 7 days
2. In absolute alcohol for 1 day
3. Change absolute alcohol, and keep for 1 day

55
 4. Change absolute alcohol and keep for 1 day
5. One part of xylol + 2 part absolute alcohol for 1 day
6. Two parts of xylol + one part absolute alcohol for 1 day
7. Xylol for 1 day
Total 13 days are required for dehydration of specimen. Then dry and pin the
specimen. This method has been described by Van Emden (1942)
METHOD OF PINNING AND VARIOUS NO OF PINS
Insects that can be pinned through the body are those of which the skin is
tough enough to grip the sides of the pin, and strong enough to support the weight
of the specimen. Very small, fragile or soft bodied insects are damaged or even
ruined if they are pinned, so they must be struck on a card or celluloid point.
Insect of a number of groups especially the small and soft bodied Apterygota,
Thyasnoptera, aphids, lice, fleas and other parasitic group are unsuitable for study
if they are preserved dry. They are preserved in liquid and mounted on a
microscope slide.
Pinning should be done while the specimen is still fresh. If a hardened
specimen is to he pinned, first it should be relaxed. At the time of pinning one
should have the idea how the specimen is to be preserved so that a suitable pin is
used from the start.
Pin and their Nos:
There are 3 series of Entomological pins, English, Continental and "Points" (or
minuten)
1. English pins: offer a range, not only in thickness, but also of length,
particularly in the range 18-30 mm.
English pins Nos – 9,10,11,13,16 and 20 are made of stainless steel. They are sold
by weight ¼ or ½ and 1 ounce.
2. Continental pins: are used for direct pinning and so they concentrate on
length, thinness and sharpness of point. They generally vary in thickness, but
available in three lengths-

56
 35 mm (Nos. 000,00,0 and 1-7)
38 mm (Nos. 8-10)
50 mm (Nos. 11-12)
Nos 2 and 3 are useful size for general use. Common nos. are 2,3,5 and 8
made of steel. They are sold in hundreds.
3. True minute: are very fine, black pins used for pinning the smallest and softest
insects and are extremely fragile is use. they are used exclusively for staging.
DIRECT PINNING:
Direct pinning is done for bigger insects. A pin passes through the specimen and
all the various labels, and still has enough length to insert firmly into the bottom
of the box. The pin must be sharp as well as long. The drawbacks of direct
pinning are-
(1) If the specimen is small it is difficult to choose a pin that suits the
specimen and get stout enough to hold all the tables firmly and stick into the box
without bending.
(2) Once the pin has been bent it is nearly impossible to get it truly straight
again.
(3) At the time of taking off labels to read them, it may easily break the legs.
These risks are reduced by following 3 methods of double mounting, this is called
Indirect pinning.
INDIRECT PINNING:
1. Staging:
Staging is done for those insect which are small to be pinned directly. They are
pinned on to the support or stage. For medium sized insects, a stainless steel,
headless pin is used because one with a head is liable to twist suddenly in the
pinning forceps and damage the specimen.
For smaller insects, these are very fine black steel pins known as “minuten
nadeln” or “minuten”.

57
2. Carding:
A rectangle piece of white card may be used as a stage and the specimen is stuck
on it instead of being pinned.
3. Pointing:
This is the best way of mounting the smallest dry insects. A small triangle is cut
from the white card. Normally the tip of the point should be a little broader than
the thorax of the insect to the mounted on it.

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59
 LABELLING
A specimen requires certain information for which labels are used.
Without labels specimens are useless for taxonomic study.
Information on Labels:
(1) The name of the country should come first and should be written in full. The
locality is essential.
(2) Detailed locality should be clear, and provide the information of place.
Also part of the plant should also be mentioned.
(3) Date of collection
(4) Collector's name
India

Uttar Pradesh

CSAU, Kanpur

On flower

17.01.2021

N. Agrawal

STORAGE OF INSECTS IN BOXES

Permanent collection of pinned insects one kept either in store boxes or in
cabinet of drawers.
Stores Boxes:
These may be either of wood or of card a board, but they should be strong.
Boxes for permanent storage are invariably rectangular and flat so that they can
easily the stacked in a pile or arranged neatly like books on a shelf. Size of box
commonly ranges from 10 x 8" to 18 x 12". These boxes may be either single or
double sided i.e. they may have specimens in the bottom only or in the lid as well.
The pining material is cork, or one of the synthetic material and is covered with
white paper. The wood of box should be well seasoned so that it may not turn out
of shape. In the front wall of box there should be a small cell for holding

60
naphthalene or paradichlorobenzene. The depth of the box is generally about 1½"
on each side, if double sided, including the soft lining material. Extra deep sized
boxes are only needed for bigger insects.
Cabinets:
Cabinets consist of a number of glass topped drawers, each sliding on a
pair of runner so that any drawer can be pulled out without disturbing the drawers
above and below it. These drawers should be completely interchangeable without
sticking or exerting any force.
LABELLING OF BOXES AND DRAWERS:
The labelling of boxes and drawers acts as a guide and an index to the
collection. The boxes should be arranged in order, families, genera and species.
The outside of box or cabinet drawers should have a general label either stuck on
or fitted into a little frame. The label should bear the name of order of insects in
capital, the family etc. Inside the drawer rectangular labels should be cut and
fixed with short pins.
PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS, MOULD AND GREASE:
Most cabinet drawers and store boxes have a compartment at the front for
preservatives. A piece of gauze or mesh in the wall of the box through which the
fumes of the preservative can escape into the interior. The most convenient
general preservative is flake of naphthalene. If there is no cell in the box flake of
naphthalene should be wrapped in muslin cloth which is tied in the corner of box
with the help of pins to avoid loose lumps in the box as they may damage the
insects by shaking.
Moulds can be removed by cleaning the specimens in a solution of glacial
phenol benzene in the ratio of 1:10 or a dilute formaldehyde.
Grease oozing out or the surface of a specimen can be dissolved by putting
the specimen in benzene for few hours.
LIQUID COLLECTION
Soft bodied larvae and nymphs of most of the soft bodied insects are to be
stored permanently in a liquid. The best liquid for general use is 70-80% ethyl

61
alcohol. Other liquid agents are chloral hydrate and pampel’s fluid; Glacial acetic
acid in 95% alcohol (industrial methylated spirit) 12 parts, chloroform 2 parts and
glacial acetic acid 1 part. Fix for 12 hours then rinse the specimen in 80% alcohol
and finally preserve in 80% alcohol, for the early stages of preservation. Formalin
is also used for preservation but it should be avoided as it has a strong handing
effect and is troublesome to the eyes and nose when the specimen is being
examined under the microscope.
For liquid collection normally glass tubes are used and the size of tube
depends on the size of specimens. It is very important to restrict the movement of
the specimens otherwise they will soon breakup. These tubes are stored in jars
which have the straight side walls, a little higher than the length of the tube and
with a close fitting lid. The bottom of jar should be covered, either with two
layers of blotting papers or shallow layer of cotton wool so that the tubes to do not
strike against the glass bottom of jar. The sprit collection should be checked
frequently to see that no tube ever dries up.
MAKING SLIDE MOUNTS
For making permanent slide mounts we have to do the following steps.
1. Removed of hardened or chitinised parts of the insect. It will be done by
destroying all the soft, internal tissue leaving the rest soft and transparent.
2. These transparent portion are then stained or bleached as may be
necessary.
3. Dehydration
4. Clearing in oil and finally immersed in Canada balsam or DPX on a slide
to make a permanent mount
(1) Caustic Potash (10% KOH in water) used both to soften the specimen and to
destroy the soft internal tissues. The soft to small specimen may be left in cold
potash overnight. Bigger and more substantial specimens may be boiled for about
5 minutes and should have a small cut made in skin underneath the base of the
abdomen to allow the potash to penetrate quickly.
(2) The next step is to rinse away potash as much as possible with tap water.

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(3) Third step is dehydration of specimen. This is done in small dish like solid
watch glass. Put glacial acetic acid in one dish and clove oil in other dish.
Transfer the specimen with fine forceps in the glacial acetic acid for dehydration,
then in clove oil for clearing.
(4) If the specimen is very dark even after washing it may be desirable to
bleach it by immersing in a weak solution of bleaching power (NaOCl) or
parazone and adding a drop or two of glacial acetic acid.
(5) To stain very transparent specimen such as skin of small larvae, small
insects, wings etc., use a solution of Fuchsine in 2% alcohol. Put the specimen in
glacial acetic acid and add a few drops of the stain.
(6) After this the specimen is to be put in glacial acetic acid for about 5
minutes to remove all the water from it. Transfer the specimen to clove oil or
cedar wood oil for clearing. After clearing, display the specimen on glass slide
and little Canada Balsam or DPX mountant is dropped on the specimen and cover
it with cover slip. It takes few days to harden the mountant therefore, slide must
be kept horizontal. Finally label the slides.
Direct mounting:
Small soft bodied insects may be mounted direct in one of the compound
media such as de Faures, Gum Chloral, Polyvinyl lactophenol or Shellac gel. For
these media, no treatment in potash nor dehydrating process is required and the
specimen may be transferred direct from spirit or put into the medium while they
one still alive.

63
 APPENDICES

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:

Phylum: A large group of taxa (singular Taxon which include many classes).
Class: A unit of Classification in animal kingdom which is a part of the phylum and
includes many orders.
Family: A classification category that includes a number of genera sharing one or a
number of characteristics, ending in suffix “idae” (eg. Acrididae).
Genus: A special group or taxa of animals having similar characters which include many
species. In the Binomial Nomenclature, the first name is genus which starts with capital
letter.
Species: Groups of actually (or potentially) interbreeding natural populations which are
reproductively isolated from other such groups.
Types: Whenever a new species or other group is described, a describer is supposed to
designate a type, which is used as a reference, if there is ever any question what that
species or group includes. The type of a species or subspecies is a specimen, the type of
a genus or subgenus is a species and the type of a family or sub family is a genus.
Biotype: A population or group of individuals composed of a single genotype.
Genotype: In nomenclature, the type species of a genus (ef. Type species); in genetics,
the class in which an individual falls on the basis of its genetic constitution, without regard
to visible characters (ef. Phenotype)
Strain: A biological strain of an organism, morphologically indistinguishable from other
members of its species but exhibiting distinctive physiological characteristics; particularly in
regard to its ability to successfully utilize pest-resistant host organisms or to act as an
effective beneficial species.
Holotype: Species selected by the author of the species from the type species.
Syntype: A series of specimens designated by the author of first species at the time of
establishing species.
Lectotype: A specimen selected by reviser from among Syntypes.
Neotype: In case Holo, Syn or Lecto types are lost or destroyed, a new specimen is
designated.
Specific name: “The binominal combination of a generic name and a specific trivial name
which constitutes the scientific designation of a species” (International Commission 1948);
also used by many workers and in the original rules in place of trivial name.
Scientific name: The binomial or trinomial designation of an animal, the formal
nomenclatural designation of a taxonomic category.

64
Senior homonym: The earliest published of two or more identical names for the same or
different taxonomic categories.
Senior Synonym: The earliest published of two or more available synonyms for the same
taxonomic unit.
Primary homonym: One of two or more identical trivial names which, at the time of
original publication were proposed in combination with the same (or an identical) generic
name (eg- X-us albus Amith 1910 and X-us albus Jones 1920); the later of such primary
homonyms are to be permanently rejected; also one of two or more identical names for
genera or higher categories .
Secondary homonym: One of two or more identical trivial names which , at the time of
original publication ,were proposed in combination with different generic names but which
through subsequent transference, reclassification or combination of genera have come to
bear the same (or an identical combination) trivial name (for nomenclatural status see
Bulletin of Zoological nomenclature, 4:97 – 105 (1950).
Phylogeny: The study of the historical development of the line or lines of evolution in a
group of organisms; the origin and evolution of higher categories.
Polytopic: Occurring in different places as, for instance, a subspecies composed of
widely separated populations.
Polytypic: A category containing two or more immediately subordinate categories, as a
genus with several species or a species with several subspecies.
Natural classification: As currently used, classification based on characters or groups of
characters which indicate phylogenetic relationship.
Law of Priority: The provision in the international rules of zoological nomenclature that the
correct name for a genus or species can be only that name under which it was first
designated in conformance with the requirements laid down in these rules.
Hierarchy: In classification, the system of ranks which indicates the taxonomic level of
various taxonomic categories (i.e. kingdom of species).
Sibling species: This name is applied to pairs or groups of very similar and closely related
species. They occur commonly from protozoa to mammals. Sibling species are not a
separate taxonomic category. They do not differ from other species in any respect for the
miniatures of their structural differences.
Polytypic species: It was found that some species are wide spread and consist of many
local populations. If these local populations are sufficiently distinct from each other they
are called subspecies. Species that consists two or more subspecies are called polytypic
species.
Monotypic species: Species which have no subspecies or which to be more precise
consist of only a single subspecies are called monotypic species.

65
Super species: Super species is a monophyletic group of very closely related and largely
or entirely allopatric species.
Subspecies: Subspecies are geographically defined aggregate of local populations which
differ taxonomically from other such subdivisions of a species.
Not more than one subspecies can exist in breed condition in any one area.
Adjacent subspecies interbreed or are potentially capable of doing so if separated by
extrinsic barriers.
Origin of the Bionomial System:
January 1, 1758 is the starting date of all valid zoological names.

Zoological Nomenclature:
The role of nomenclature is to provide names for taxonomic categories in order to facilitate
communication among biologists. They are bound by law of availability.

66
EXPECTED QUESTIONS FOR VIVA- VOCE:

Q1. In which order of insects do cerci are found?

Ans. Blattodea (Super order- Dictyoptera).
Q2. What is the position of head in Mantoidea?
Ans. Hypognathous.
Q3. To which family does silkworm belong to?
Ans. Bomycidae.
Q4. The hind wings in Dipterans are represented by a pair of?
Ans. Haltere.
Q5. What is the full form of CAB?
Ans. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.
Q6. What is the book written by Linnaeus on Taxonomy and in which year it was published
?
Ans. Systema naturae, 1735.
Q7. In which order fore wings are modified into leathery elytra?
Ans. Coleoptera.
Q8. What is the lowest category in classification?
Ans. Species.
Q9. Who introduced the term binomial nomenclature?
Ans. Linnaeus.
Q10. Who studied evolution of animals?
Ans. Darwin.
Q11.Who wrote the book “Principles of systematic zoology”?
Ans. E. Mayr.
Q12. Which order do dragonflies belong to?
Ans. Odonata.

67
Q13. To which family do Holotricha consanguinea belong to?
Ans. Scarabaeidae.
Q14.To which order and family Robber fly belongs to?
Ans. Diptera , Asilidae.
Q15. Which super family do mulberry silk moth belongs to?
Ans. Bombicoidea.
Q16. Which order do bristle tails belong to?
Ans. Thysanura
Q17. Which order do chalcid parasite belong to?
Ans. Hymenoptera.
Q18. Which is the lowest category in classification?
Ans. Species.
Q19. Which is the smallest insect order and has been reported in 2002?
Ans. Mantophasmatodea.
Q20. How many suborders do order Lepidoptera divided into? Name them.
Ans. (i) Monotrysia (ii) Ditrysia.
Q.21. Name the Hemipteran insect and family which secrete sweet substance?
Ans. Aphid, Aphididae.
Q22. Give name of insect orders represented by the following taxa?
a) Cecidomyidae b) Noctuidae
Ans. (a) Diptera (b) Lepidoptera.
Q23. To which order do bristle tails belongs to?
Ans. Thysanura.
Q24.To which family do ants belong to?
Ans. Formicidae.
Q25. What is the lowest category in classification?
Ans. Species.

68
Q26. Chalcid parasite belongs to which order and family?
Ans. Hymenoptera, Chalcididae
Q27. To which order do sliver fish belongs to?
Ans. Thysanura.
Q28. In which order all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia have coalesced to form a single
mass?
Ans. Hemiptera.
Q29. Which class do millipedes belong to?
Ans. Diplopoda.
Q30. Insects belong to which subphylum?
Ans. Uniramia.

69