Da .......

Experiment No. 1
Circuit Diagram: Graph: RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF THE WIRE

of a given wire by plotting a

Determination of resistance per unit length
Ba - Battery Aim: difference.
verses potential
graph of current
Rh K -Key ammeter, plug key
resistance, battery, Voltmeter,
Rh - Rheostat Apparatus: A wire of unknown
and metre scale.
V Voltmeter and rheostat
The electric current flowing
through a conductor is
T A - Ammeter
Principle: Ohm's Law: difference across the ends
of the
R - Resistance wire the potential
V (volt) directly proportional to other physical conditions
remain
and
conductor when temperature
constant.

Observation:
Formula 1) Resistance ofthe wire, R-
m
Length of the wire, L =....... Where R -
resistance of the wire,
of the graph of current versus potential
Tabular Column: m -

slope
V in Volt difference.
Trial No. I in Ampere
R
=

2) Resistance per unit length

Where L - the length of the experimental wire
2

3
Procedure:
The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
1)
4 value of current I. Current I and
2) The rheostat is
adjusted for a particular
5 corresponding voltage V are noted.
values of current I and the readings
6 3) The experiment is repeated for different
are tabulated.
V x-axis and I on y-axis. The
4) Agraph is plotted between V and I, taking on
Caleulation
slope m of the graph is found.
Resistance of the wire, R=i== calculated which gives the resistance R of the
AB 5) The reciprocal of the slope is
.2 Wire.

The length of the resistance wire is nmeasured.

6)
R
Then the resistance per unit length of the wire, is calculated.
7)
Resistance per unit length,

m-1

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 Result: Resistance per unit length of given wire . . . 2m

PRECAUTION
The key should be inserted only while taking
observations to avoid unnecessary heating
of the wire.

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 Experiment No. 2
Date:.. .
Circuit Diagram: RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE
R wire using metre bridge and
Determination of resistance of a given
Aim: of the material of the
wire.
hence to find resistivity
Ba - Battery wire, Plug key ,
resistance box, jockey.
K -Key Apparatus: Metre bridge experimental
,

galvanometer and battery.

R -Experimental wire
is balanced when current through the
S -Resistance box Principle: 1) Wheatstone's bridge
G - Galvanometer galvanometer is zero.
EC resistances of four arms of
L 100-1 and S represent the
2) If P, Q, R
Wheatstone's bridge, then
Ba K

Observation:
1) Radius ofthe experimental wire (given), r =,.. Formula: 1) Resistance of the wire, K
St
100-)
m
2) Length of the experimental wire, L.... Where S- Standard resistance
1- the balancing length in cm
Tabular Column:
TrR
Trial Resistance S in
Balancing (100-)
ST
R=;(100-) 2) Resistivity of the material oft he wire, p= L
No.
length in cm n
cm Where R- resistance of the wire.
wire.
L- length of the experimental
r- radius of the wire.
2

Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
Mean R =.... **** .2 the
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at

two ends of the wire AC alternately.

A towards C till the
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end
galvanometer shows zero deflection
the wire is calculated
5) The balancing length, I is measured. The resistance of
S
usingthe formula, f
(100-1)

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8
 for different values of S and average Value of R
Caleulation: 6) The experiment is repeated
is found.
wire is measured.
7) The length L of the experimental the formula,
of the wire is calculated using
8) The resistivity of the material

Result: Resistivity ofthe material ofthe wire, p =... ......S2m.

PRECAUTION
1. The value of balancing length should be between
30cm and 70cm for accuracy in all Wheatstone's
bridge related experiments.
2. Jockey has to be moved gently over the metre
bridge wire.

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 Experiment No. 3
Date:..
Circuit Diagram: COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Verification of the law of

combination of resistances in series using
Ba - Battery Aim: (a)
K -Key metre bridge
R&Rz-Individual key, resistance box, jockey,
Metre bridge, two different resistors, plug
resistors Apparatus:
S - Resistance box galvanometer and battery.
D
100-1 G - Galvanometer
is balanced when current through the
Principle: 1) Wheatstone's bridge
Da galvanometer is zero.
of
the resistances of four arms

2) If P, Q, R and S represent
Wheatstone's bridge, then

Observation:
1) Resistance, R1..
Formula: S
2) Resistance, R2 = . . .

1) Resistance, Ks
(100-1)
Where S-Standard resistance
I-the balancing length
2) Equivalent resistance in series, Rs= R1 t Rz
Tabular Column:
Where R1 & R2 - Individual resistances
Trial Resistance S in Balancing (100-1) Rs Sl
length (100-1)
No. cm in Q Procedure:
in cm
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.

2
3) The circuit is ehecked for opposite deflections by placing the Jockey at the
two ends of the metre bridge wire AC alternatcly.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the

Mean Rs *************'°'*** S2
galvanometer shows zero deflection.
5) The balancing length, I is measured. The cquivalent resistance of the series
combination is calculated using the formula,
S
s(100-)
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 value of Rs
for different values of S and average
Calculation 6) The experiment is repeated
is calculated.
Theoretical value of equivalent resistance, Rs =
R1 + R2 . . ....

Result: Theoretical value of resistance (Rs) is equal or nearly equal to experimental

of resistances in
value of resistance (Rs), Hence the law of combination
series is verified.

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14 KSPUPTF
Circuit Diagram:
of combination of resistances in parallel
Aim: (b) Verification of the law
using metre bridge
Ba- Battery
K Key Metre bridge, two different resistors, plug key, resistance box, jockey,
Apparatus:
R&R2-Individual galvanometer and battery.
resistors
S - Resistance box Wheatstone's bridge is balanced when current through the
Principle: 1)
D 100-1- G -Galvanometer galvanometer is zero.
resistances of four arms of
Ba K 2) If P, Q, R and S represent the
Wheatstone's bridge, then

Observation: Sl
Formula: 1) Resistance, Kp
1) Resistance, R1= (100-1)
2) Resistance, R2 =, .. S2 Where S-Standard resistance
1- the balancing length
RR2
2) Equivalent resistance in seriesS, Kp Ri+ R2
Tabular Column: Where Ri& R2 - Individual resistances

Sl
Balancing (100-1) Rp
Trial Resistance Sin length (100-1) Procedure:
No. 2 n cm
in 2 1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
in cm

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box

the Jockey at the
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing
2
two ends of the metre bridge wire AC alternately.
3 4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the

galvanometer shows zero deflection.

I js measured. The equivalent resistance of the seres
Mean Rp. . S2
2 5) The balancing length,
combination is caleulated using the formula,

Rp 100-)

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Caleulation
Theoretical value of equivalent resistance, Rp = RR2
= . . . .2 6) The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of Rp
R+ is calculated.

Result: Theoretical value of resistance (Rp) is

equal or nearly equal to
value of resistance (Rp), Hence the law of experimental
combination of resistances in
parallel is verified.

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18
 Experiment No. 6 Date:...
Circuit Diagram: FIGURE OF MERIT OF
GALVANOMETER
K1
- E -Cell
Aim: Determination of the resistance of a

method and to find its figure of merit

galvanometer by half -

deflection

K &Ka -Keys cell, resistance boxes and two keys.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer,
G -Galvanometer to the current
Deflection in a galvanometer is directly proportional
R&S-Resistance boxes Principle:
through the galvanometer

L- Where K is called
I=K6
figure of merit of the galvanometer.
Observation: Formula: Figure of merit of the galvanometer,
E
Emf ofthe battery, E=.
***********" V
K= (R+G)6
Tabular Column Where E- emf of the cell.
R - resistance in series with the galvanometer.
Resistance Deflection
Trial No. R
in 2
6
in Div.
Sfor

in Q2
G in 2
(R+G)0
in A/Div
G - Galvanometer resistance.

deflection in the galvanometer.

Procedure
1) The connections are made as diagram.
shown in the circuit

opened and key K1 closed. The suitable resistance R is unplugged

to
2) Key K2 is
3
get even deflection 0 in the galvanometer.
is closed and suitable resistance S is unplugged so that deflection becomes
3) K2
Average G=. 2
the formula,
Then the resistance of the galvanometer G is calculated using
Average K=. A/Div
RS
G R-S

4) The experiment is repeated for different values of 0 and average value of G is

found.

29
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28
 voltmeter.
Calculation 5) The emf E of the cell is measured using a
each using the
of merit of the galvanometer is calculated in
case
6) The figure
E
formula,K=.(R+G)0
is found.
7) Experiment is repeated
for different values of R and value of K

Result: The resistance ofthe galvanometer = . . .2

The figure of merit of the pointer galvanometer =..... .... A/aiv.

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Diagram: Graph: Experiment No. 8 Date.
FREQUENCY OF A.C

Aim: Determination of the frequency of alternating current using a

sonometer and an electromagnet.

E-Electromagnet
P&Q-Wedges Sonometer with wire, an electromagnet, slotted weights with hanger.
Apparatus:
1-Resonating
string is pulled and
length Principle: 1) In each cycle of A.C., the sonometer

T-Tension O| T released twice.

AB 2) At resonance, the frequency of alternating currentis equal to

Emg Slopep half of the frequency of fundamental mode of vibration of the

stretched string.
Observation
1) Mass per unit length ofthe wire, m (given)=
...
..kgm Formula: Frequency of alternating current,
2) Acceleration due to gravity, g= 9.8 ms4
4 mxslope
Tabular Column: Where m- mass per unit length of the string.
Mass attached to Tension Resonating
Trial
the string (M) T Mg length in m4 Slope Slope of the graph of 14 versus T
No. in N in m
in Procedure
1) Suitable mass is attached to the string and the tension T is found.
2 the middle of sonometer
2) One pole of the electromagnet is placed close to

3 Wire.

3) The alternating current supply is switched on and the length of the vibrating
Calculation: wedges such that the amplitude of the
portion PQ is adjusted by moving
vibrating string is maximum. (By paper rider method)
4) The resonating length l is noted.
T and readings
5) The experiment is repeated for different values of
are

tabulated.
y-axis. The
6) A graph is plotted between T and 1, taking T on x-axis and on

slope of the graph is found.

41
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 7) Frequency of the alternating current is calculated using the formula,

Vm slope

Result: The frequency of alternating current,f... Hz.

PRECAUTION

After each observation, the alternating current supply should be

switched off for a few minutes

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42
Diagram: Experiment No. 9 Date:..
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

P - Object pin Determination of the focal length of a concave mirror by u -v method.

Aim:
Pa - Image pin mirror of focal length
Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, concave

0 I - mage less than 20 cm, three uprights with clamps and metre scale.
-- is the distance between the pole and principal focus of
M-Concave Principle: 1) Focal length
mirror the mirror.
P P.
of the
U- 2) The object distance must be greater than the focal length
concave mirror to get a real and inverted image.

Formula: Focal length of concave mirror,

Observation:
Tabular column: f:
uv
Image distance v
Where u- distance of the object from the mirror
Object distance u
Trial No. in cm distance ofthe image from the mirror.
in em in cm

Procedure:
1) The given concave mirror is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp
2
image of the distant object on the white sheet of paper kept vertically before
3 the mirror. Then the distance between the mirror and the sheet of white paper
gives the approximate focal length fof the concave mirror.
Meanf= ****** .
' ' ' ' * Cm
2) The uprights mounted with concave mirror, object pin Pi and image pin P2
are placed on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3) The heights of the object pin Pj and image pin Pz are adjusted such that their
tips lie on the principal axis of the miror.
4) The position of the object pin P^ is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u

which is greater than f.

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44 KSPUPTF 45
 and enlarged image of the object pin Pj from the other
5) Secing the inverted
Calculation optical bench, the position of the image pin P2 is adjusted so that
side of the
of the image without parallax. Then the distance
its tip coincides with the tip
mirror and image pin P2 becomes image distance v.
between the concave

mirror is calculated using the formula,

The focal length fof the
concave
6)
uv

tabulated and
for differed values of u and readings are

7) Experiment is repeated
length is found.
average focal

Result: The focal length ofthe concave mirror,f=.. . C m .

PRECAUTION

1. The aperture ofmirror should be small otherwise the image

formed will not be distinct.
2. Eye should be placed at a distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
from the inmage pin.

Note: The pin which is taken as an object is called object pin.

The pin which is used to locate the position of image is called image pin.

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46 KSPUPTF
 Graph Experiment No. 10 Date:.....
Diagram:
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

I P- Objectpin .Aim: Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph
P2- Image pin of u versus v.
A
2f lens of less than 20 cm
I Image
Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins,
convex
Apparatus:
and metre scale.
2F L - Convex
focal length, three uprights with clamps
mirror of the
be than focal length convex
Principle 1) The object distance must greater
lens to get real and inverted image.
the
Observation: 2) When object distance is equal to twice the focal length of
the
convex lens, then the image distance will be equal to twice
Object distance u Image distance v focal length.
Trial No. in
incm Focal length of the convex lens,
Formula:
0A+OB
4

Where OA - image distance

OB-object distance
5 Procedure:
6 1) The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp

image of the distant tree on the white sheet of paper kept vertically behind the

Calculation lens. The distance between the lens and white sheet of paper is measured. This
is the approximate focal length fof the lens.
2) The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin Pj and image pin P2 are

placed on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.

3) The heights of the object pin P and image pin Pa are adjusted such that their
tips lie on the principal axis of the lens.

4) The position of the object pin P is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u

which is greater than fof the lens.

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48
 of the object pin P1, the position of
5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image
that its tip coincides with the tip of the image
the image pin P2 is adjusted so

Then the distance between the convex lens and image pin P2
without parallax.
becomes image distance v.

differed values ofu and readings are tabulated.

6) Experiment is repeated for
and v, taking u on x-axis and v on y-axis. The
7) A graph is plotted between u
& OB are measured.
angular bisector OZ is drawn and OA
8) Focal length fof the convex lens is
calculated using the formula,

0A+0B
4

Result: The focal length ofthe convex lens,f=.. .Cm.

Alternate Method:
Note: A graph is plottedbetween and V

takingon x-axis andon y-axis, which

is a straight line. From the graph, OA and
OB are measured. Focal length is
1/v
A
calculated using the formula,
2
f= OA+0B X- 1/u B

51
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Diagram. Experiment No. 13 Date:
ANGLE F MINIMUM DEVIATION

Determination of angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by

D N N2 Aim:
plotting a graph between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence.
40
a Apparatus: Drawing board, triangular glass prism, drawing pins and white paper

A sheets.
The angle of deviation is the angle between the incident ray and the
Principle :

CRd Ra m
emergent ray. At minimum deviation, the light ray passes through
the

prism symmetrically.
Hence, angle of incidence = angle of emergence

Procedure:
Observation 1) A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing
board.
Angle of Angle of XY at distances of about
2) The points Og, O2, 03, O and Os are marked on
Trial No. incidence ) deviation (d)
10cm apart.
indegree in degree
3) A normal N,O, is drawn to XY at Oj and a straight line D,0, is drawn to

represent ray of incidence which makes an angle of 35° (i) with N,O1.
4) The prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in the figure and its boundary
is drawn.

5) Two pins P and Q1 are vertically fixed about Scm apart on the ray of
incidence D,01
5

6
6) While seeing the images of pins P and Q through BC, two more pins Ri and
S are fixed on the side of BC so that images oftips of pins P and Q, R, and
S will be collinear.
7) Pins are removed and their pricks are encircled. A straight line is drawn
through pin pricks of R1 and S, to obtain ray of emergenc.
extended shown in the figure to find
8) Rays of incidence and emergence are as

angle of deviation (d).

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 9) Experiment is repeated for different values of angle of incidence 40°, 45°, 50°.

55°, 60° and readings are tabulated.

10)A graph is plotted between angle ofincidence (i) and angle of deviation (d),
taking i on x-axis and d on y-axis. The angle of minimum deviation dm is
found from the graph.

Result: The angle of minimum deviation, dm=.* * * '*** **

PRECAUTION

. Angle ofincidence should be greater than 30

2. The position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given
set of observations.

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Diagram: Experiment No. 154
Date:......
ABB A AB- Object pin
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER
A'B Image by concave mirror
-

A"B" - Image by water filled cancave Aim: Determination of the refractive index of water using a concave mirror.
miror
Concave mirror, water, a pin and a metre scale.
MM' - Concave mirTOr Apparatus:
Principle: 1. The rays of light form the object incident normally on the concave

A B" B A
mirror, retrace their paths so that image of the object forms by the
side of the object..
2. The bottom of the concave mirror containing water, appears to be
raised up because of refraction of light through water.
Formula:
Refractive index of water with respect to air, 7 R
Where R - Radius of curvature of Concave mirror.

R apparent radius of curvature of concave mirror with water.

Procedure:
TTTTTATTT
TTTTTTTTTTT P
P
1) A concave mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand as shown in the
figure.
2) A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the pole of the
mirror and clamped.
Observation:
3) The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides
1) Radius of curvature of concave mirror, R =.
exactly with the tip of its image A'B' without parallax.
2) Radius of curvature of concave mirror with water, R= . Cm

4) The vertical distance R between the mirror and pin is measured.

Calculation: 5) Now a small quantity of water is poured into the concave mirror.
R
6) The position of the pin AB is lowered such that the tip of the pin coincides
Refractive index ofwater with respect to air, 7
with tip of its image A"B" without parallax.
7) Then vertical distance R' between the mirror and the pin is measured after the
removal of water.
8) Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula,
R
7 R
Result: The refractive index of water,7

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 Experiment No. 1641 Date. ... . .
Circuit Diagram: Graph: SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Ba K
To draw the current (1) verses voltage (V) characteristic curve of
Aim: a p-n
H-- junction diode in forward bias and hence find cut-in voltage.
Rh
Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, milliammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle: When the diode is forward biased it offers very low resistance.
(mA
Cut-in voltage is the characteristic voltage at which diode current
increases exponentially even for a small increase in bias voltage, when
>X
P diode is in forward bias.
V (volt)
Procedure:

OP cut-in voltage 1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
Ba - Battery
K Key 2) Using the rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for suitable value V. The voltage V
Rh - Rheostat
and the corresponding current I are noted.
V - Voltmeter
mA - Milliammeter 3) The voltage is increased in small steps. The values of V and I are noted in
D - Semiconductor Diode
each case and readings are tabulated.
Observation 4) A Graph is plotted between V and I, taking the voltage V along X-axis and
current I along y-axis
Voltage V 5) Cut-in voltage is found.
in V
Current I
in mA

5
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 Result: Cut-in voltage ofthe given diode = . . . . V

SPECIFICATIONS
1) P-n junction diode = OA79/IN4007

2) Power Supply:0- 12 volts

|3) Voltmeter -0 -12V
4) Milliammeter -0-200mA

Note: 1) The voltage should be increased in small steps.

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