SHROFF S. R.

ROTARY INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (SRICT)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

Chapter 3. Fluid Mechanics

Subject: Applied Thermal and Hydraulic Engineering (ATHE)

Prepared by: Mr. Mitesh Gohil
Outline

Chapter 3. Fluid Mechanics

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Fluid Properties
3.3 Pressure measuring devices
3.4 Hydrostatic Law
3.5 Continuity Equation
3.6 Momentum Equation
3.7 Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line
3.8 Bernoulli’s equation
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
3.10 Pitot tube
3.11 Summary
3.1 Introduction
 Fluid mechanics is the branch of engineering science deals with the study
of fluid (Liquid and Gas) at rest as well as in motion.
 Application in Engineering: Flow of river, Pump, Fan, Turbine, Air Planes
Jet etc.

3.2 Fluid Properties

1) Density:
 It is the ratio of mass of fluid to it’s volume.
𝑚 1
𝜌= =
𝑉 𝑣

 Weight Density or specific weight (w)

w=𝜌𝑔

 Specific gravity or Relative density (s)

For liquid, For gas,

𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞. 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑞. = 𝑆𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
3.2 Fluid Properties
2) Viscosity:
 It appears that there is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity,” and that property is the viscosity.
 It is the property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
 Increase in gas and decrease in liquid with increment of temperature.

Newton’s law of viscosity:

 For most fluids the rate of deformation
(and thus the velocity gradient) is
directly proportional to the shear stress 𝜏,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝜇 = Co-efficient of viscosity Fig. 3.1 The rate of deformation (velocity
= Dynamic viscosity(𝑁 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚2 ) gradient) of a Newtonian fluid
3.2 Fluid Properties
Kinematic viscosity:
 It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of fluid.
𝜇
𝛾=
𝜌
3) Surface tension:
 It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas
or on the surface between immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behave like
a membranes under tension.
 This effect induced due to cohesive (intra molecular) attraction force and adhesion
(inter molecular) attraction force.
 Spherical drop of water reveals the surface tension on its surface.

4) Capillary of Meniscus effect:

 The phenomenon of liquid rise to fall in a small diameter tube is known as the capillary
or meniscus effect.
 Surface tension at surface of liquid creates capillary or meniscus effect.
3.2 Fluid Properties
 Capillary rise:

Fig. 3.2 Surface tension (i) Capillary rise (ii) Capillary fall

 Surface tension force at surface is balanced by weight force of rise liquid.

2𝜋𝑅𝜎 cos 𝜃 = 𝜋𝑅2 ℎ𝜌𝑔
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝑅𝜌𝑔
 Capillary fall
 Surface tension force at surface is balanced by hydrostatic force due to above void.
 Same way we can prove,
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝑅𝜌𝑔
3.2 Fluid Properties
5) Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure:
 It is pressure exerted by air at sea level (at 15 ºC) is called atmospheric pressure.
 1 atm. = 101.325 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2 = 760 mm of Hg. = 10.33 m of water
 Measured by mercury column barometer.
 Gauge Pressure:
 When pressure measured by taking atmospheric pressure as datum (reference) is
called as Gauge Pressure
 Vacuum Pressure:
 When pressure is below the atmosphere is called as vacuum pressure.
 Absolute Pressure:
 Pressure measured by taking perfect vacuum as datum is called as gauge pressure.

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠. = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 is positive while measuring above atmosphere and negative while

measuring vacuum pressure.
3.3 Pressure measuring devices
Manometer
 It is a device used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid with the same column or another column of fluid.
 There are several type of Manometer are available based on their use.
 Simple manometers are following explained.

1) Piezometer

 A piezometer is a vertical tube, usually transparent, in which

a liquid rises in response to a positive gage pressure.
 Pressure in the pipe pushes the water column to a height h,
and the gage pressure at the center of the pipe is which
follows directly from the hydrostatic equation
Fig. 3.4 Piezometer
𝑃𝐴,𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ attached to a pipe.
3.3 Pressure measuring devices
2) U- tube manometer

 A manometer, often shaped like the letter “U,”

is a device for measuring pressure by raising or
lowering a column of liquid.
 One end of U-tube is connected to a point at
which pressure is to be measured and other end
open to the atmosphere.
 The tube generally contains mercury or any
other liquid known as manometric liquid whose
specific gravity is higher than specific gravity
of liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 In the case shown, positive gage pressure in the
Fig. 3.5 The basic U tube
pipe pushes the manometer liquid up a
manometer
height ℎ.
 We know the pressure at open end of U tube is
1 atm.
3.3 Pressure measuring devices

 By hydrostatic law at point 3,

𝑃3 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2
 In mercury at same level,
𝑃2 = 𝑃3
 By hydrostatic law between point 2 & 1,
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 − 𝜌𝐴 𝑔 ℎ1
 From above three equations,
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 − 𝜌𝐴 𝑔 ℎ1
𝑃1,𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 − 𝜌𝐴 𝑔 ℎ1

Fig. 3.5 The basic U tube manometer

 3.3 Pressure measuring devices

3) Differential Manometer
 The differential manometer is used to
measure the pressure difference between
any two points in a pipeline or in two
pipes or in two containers.
 The differential manometer consists of U-
shape bent glass tube and it contains
heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose pressure
difference is to be measured.
Fig. 3.6 Differential Manometer

 By the hydrostatic law we can find,

𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴 𝑔 ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 − 𝜌𝐵 𝑔 ℎ3 = 𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 + 𝜌𝐵 𝑔 ℎ3 − 𝜌𝐴 𝑔 ℎ1
3.3 Pressure measuring devices
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 The bourdon tube gauge consists of an
elastic element bent in a circular arc, fixed
at one end and free at the other end.
 Fixed end is open and attached with
measuring vessel.
 Free end is connected with needle via
linkage and gears.
 Cross area section of bourdon tube is
elliptical or oval and that will try to Fig. 3.7 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
become circular when subjected to
pressure whilst the circular shape tube will try to become straight and so cause
displacement at the end.
 This displacement is transfer to the needle to show the pressure on calibration scale.
3.4 Hydrostatic Law
 The rate of increase of pressure in vertically downward direction is equal to the weight
density of fluid (due to gravity) at that point
 Consider a small element of fluid totally surrounded with fluid.

 Force acting on the fluid element.

1. At surface AB,
𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑃 𝑑𝐴
2. At surface CD,
𝜕𝑃
𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑧

3. At Centre of Gravity,
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑧 𝑔

 Since fluid is at rest the element must be in Fig. 3.8 Variation of pressure
equilibrium and the sum of all vertical force vertically under the gravity
must be zero.
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 − 𝑤 = 0

𝜕𝑃
= 𝜌𝑔  Integrate equation, ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆𝑧
𝜕𝑧
3.5 Continuity Equation

 According to the principle of mass conservation, matter can be neither created nor
destroyed except nuclear processes.
 Mass entering in control volume is sum of mass leaving and mass accumulation in
control volume.

 Mass accumulation is zero at steady flow condition.

 So, mass flow rate at section 1 is equal to mass leaving at section 2

𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

 For incompressible flow, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 ,

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

Fig. 3.9 Continuous flow through a stream tube

3.6 Momentum Equation
 In fluid mechanics, the momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass and
velocity.
 Newton’s second law says that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the
change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction.

𝑑
𝐹= 𝑚 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑉
𝑑𝑡

 Consider a control volume

ABCD as shown in Fig.

Fig. 3.10 Momentum in a flowing fluid

 The rate at which momentum enters the control volume across AB is
𝑚1 𝑉1

 Similarly the rate at which momentum enters the control volume across CD is
𝑚2 𝑉2
3.6 Momentum Equation

 Thus the rate of change of momentum across the control volume

𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑉2 − 𝑚1 𝑉1
𝐹 = 𝑚(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) (∵ 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚)

 This is the resultant force acting on the fluid element ABCD in the direction of motion.
3.7 Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line

 The following forces are present when the fluid is flowing

(1) Gravity force
(2) Pressure force
(3) Friction force due to Viscosity
(4) Force due to Turbulence force
(5) Force due to compressibility

 In Euler’s equation of motion, the forces due to gravity and pressure are considered
and other forces are neglected.
3.7 Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line
 This is derived by considering the motion of fluid element in S-direction along a
stream line

Fig. 3.11 Force on a fluid element

 The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:

(1) Force due to pressure, (𝑃 𝑑𝐴)in the direction of flow
𝜕𝑃
(2) Force due to pressure, 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 opposite to the direction of flow
𝜕𝑆
(3) Weight of element(𝜌 𝑔 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑆).
3.7 Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line
 The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to the mass
of fluid element × acceleration in the direction S.
𝜕𝑃
𝑃𝑑𝐴 − 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌 𝑔 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑠
𝜕𝑆

𝑎𝑠 = Acceleration in direction of S.
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 (Where V is a
𝑎𝑠 = = + =𝑉 + function of S and t)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉
If the flow is steady = 0,
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉 & cos 𝜃 =
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑠
 Simplify above equation by putting 𝑎𝑠 & cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑃
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑍 = 0
𝜌

 This is known as Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline.

3.8 Bernoulli’s equation

 Bernoulli’s theorem states as follows:

 “In an ideal, incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is constant along a stream line.”
 Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion.

𝜕𝑃
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑍 = 0
𝜌

𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌 2

𝑃
𝑃 𝑉 2 = Pressure head
𝜌𝑔
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉2
= Kinetic head
2𝑔

𝑍 = Potential or Elevation head

3.8 Bernoulli’s equation

 Assumption:
(1) Fluid is ideal, i.e. inviscid, incompressible
(2) Flow is steady, one-dimensional, uniform, irrational
(3) Forces that considered are only gravity and pressure.

 All the real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow. So, Bernoulli’s by
considering losses,

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
ℎ𝐿 = Frictional head loss
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
1) Venturimeter

 It is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
 Three Part (1) Converging Prat (2) Throat (3) Diverging part

Fig. 3.12 Venturimeter

3.9 Flow Measuring Devices

 Flow rate in Venturimeter, Orifice and Nozzle meter are find by Bernoulli’s equation.
 Continuity equation (conserve volume in the case of an incompressible fluid)
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑉1 =
𝐴1

 Bernoulli’s principle with same elevation (𝑍1 = 𝑍2 )

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ = +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

 From Continuity equation & Bernoulli’s equation we have

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉2 = 2
𝐴
𝜌 1− 2
𝐴1
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices

 Now we know, 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴2 2
𝐴
𝜌 1− 2
𝐴1

 In order to account for viscous effects the relations given above are multiplied by a
quantity Cd called the discharge coefficient and it varies between 0.96 to 0.97.

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2
𝐴 𝐴
𝜌 1− 2 𝜌 1− 2
𝐴1 𝐴1

∵ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
 3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
2) Orifice meter
 Pipe orifice is a device used for
measurement the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe. The orifice
meter consists of a thin circular
plate with a hole in it.
 The hole diameter is generally
half of pipe diameter. The plate is
held in the pipeline between two Fig. 3.13 Orifice meter

flanges.
 It is cheaper device as compare to venturimeter works on the same principle and for
cross sectional area 1 and 2 we can derive same equation.
2 ∆𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2
𝐴
𝜌 1− 2
𝐴1
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices

 It is actually a correction factor that recognizes that the pressure drop developed by
the variable area flow is not all due to change in area alone. We also introduce a
factor, co-efficient of contraction (𝐶𝑐 ) is a factor equal to the ratio of flow area at
vena contracta (𝐴𝑐 ) to the orifice area (𝐴2 ), in the case of orifice plate with the
downstream tap at the vena contracta.
 So, Final equation,

2 ∆𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2
𝐴
𝜌 1 − 𝐶𝑐 2
𝐴1

 In orifice meter, the value of 𝐶𝑑 is much smaller than that for a venturimeter.
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
3) Nozzle meter

 A nozzle meter is shown in Fig.

 It is similar like orifice meter but
smooth rounded entrance which
practically eliminates the vena
contracta (𝐶𝑐 = 1).

 The non-recoverable loss is large

because there is no diffuser Fig. 3.14 Nozzle meter
provided for gradual expansion.
 The discharge and other equations for the nozzle meter are the same as for the
venturimeter and can be derived in the same manner

2 ∆𝑃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2
𝐴
𝜌 1− 2
𝐴1
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
4) Notches and Weirs

 Notches are devices used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small
channel or a tank.
 It is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free
surface.
 A Weirs is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in an open channel over which the
flow occurs.
 It is generally in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp edge.
 The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size.
 The shape of opening of notch or weir may be rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal.
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
Discharge over a rectangular notch or weir

Fig. 3.15 Side view of Rectangular notch with cross sectional at crest

 Consider a sharp edged rectangular notch/weir with crest horizontal and normal direction
of flow as shown in figure.
 Consider an elementary horizontal strip of water of given dimension.
 Theoretical kinetic energy of flowing fluid through strip is equal to loss of its potential
head.
𝑉2
ℎ=
2𝑔
𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices

 Discharge through the strip

𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑑ℎ 𝐿 2𝑔ℎ

 Total Discharge (flow rate)

𝐻
𝑄= 𝑑𝑄
0
𝐻
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐿 2𝑔 ℎ1 2 𝑑ℎ
0

𝐻3 2
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐿 2𝑔
3
2
2
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐿 2𝑔(𝐻 3 2 )
3
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices
Discharge over a triangular notch or weir

 Triangular notch is also called as V-notch.

 Considering horizontal strip of water.

Fig. 3.16 Front view of Triangular notch

𝜃
 From figure we can see that area of strip = 2𝐴𝐶 × 𝑑ℎ = (𝐻 − ℎ) tan 𝑑ℎ
2
 Discharge through the strip
𝜃
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2𝐶𝑑 𝐻 − ℎ tan 𝑑ℎ 2𝑔ℎ
2
3.9 Flow Measuring Devices

 Total Discharge (flow rate)

𝐻
𝑄= 𝑑𝑄
0
𝐻
𝜃
= 2 𝐶𝑑 tan 2𝑔 𝐻 − ℎ ℎ1 2 𝑑ℎ
2 0
𝐻
𝜃
= 2 𝐶𝑑 tan 2𝑔 𝐻ℎ1 2
− ℎ3 2
𝑑ℎ
2 0

𝜃 𝐻𝐻3 2
𝐻5 2
= 2 𝐶𝑑 tan 2𝑔 −
2 3 5
2 2
𝜃 𝐻5 2 𝐻5 2
= 2 𝐶𝑑 tan 2𝑔 −
2 3 5
2 2
8 𝜃
= 𝐶𝑑 tan 2𝑔 𝐻5 2
15 2
3.10 Pitot tube

 The Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of a fluid stream and consists of a
simple L shaped tube facing into the incoming flow.
 It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point become zero
(stagnation point), the pressure head is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy.

 By Bernoulli’s equation,

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠 2
+ = +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃𝑠
+ =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
∵ 𝑉𝑠 =0

2(𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃1 ) 2𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
𝑉1 = =
𝜌 𝜌
Fig. 3.17 Pitot tube
3.11 Summary

 Newton’s law of viscosity: 𝜇 = Co-efficient of viscosity

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

 Hydrostatic Law ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆𝑧

 Continuity Equation 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

 Momentum Equation 𝐹 = 𝑚(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

 Euler’s equation 𝜕𝑃
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + 𝑔𝑑𝑍 = 0
𝜌

 Bernoulli’s equation
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔