COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City 6000
Philippines

CHEM 131- M10

ASSIGNMENT NO. 5

Jabello, Jiethrude John M.

BSCE-1

Date Submitted: October 2, 2019

I. TITLE
Plastic Deformation

II. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In concepts of stress and strain, engineering stress is defined as the instantaneous load
divided by the original specimen cross-sectional area. Engineering strain " is expressed as the
change in length (in the direction of load application) divided by the original length. For stress -
strain behavior, A material that is stressed first undergoes elastic, or nonpermanent, deformation.
When most materials are deformed elastically, stress and strain are proportional— that is, a plot
of stress versus strain is linear. For tensile and compressive loading, the slope of the linear elastic
region of the stress–strain curve is the modulus of elasticity (E), per Hooke’s law. For a material
that exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior, tangent and secant moduli are used. On an atomic level,
elastic deformation of a material corresponds to the stretching of interatomic bonds and
corresponding slight atomic displacements. For shear elastic deformations, shear stress and shear
strain are proportional to one another. The constant of proportionality is the shear modulus (G).
Elastic deformation that is dependent on time is termed anelastic. In tensile properties, the
phenomenon of yielding occurs at the onset of plastic or permanent deformation. Yield strength
is indicative of the stress at which plastic deformation begins. For most materials yield strength
is determined from a stress–strain plot using the 0.002 strain offset technique. Tensile strength is
taken as the stress level at the maximum point on the engineering stress–strain curve; it
represents the maximum tensile stress that may be sustained by a specimen. For most metallic
materials, at the maxima on their stress–strain curves, a small constriction or neck begins to form
at some point on the deforming specimen. All subsequent deformation ensues by the narrowing
of this neck region, at which point fracture ultimately occurs. Ductility is a measure of the degree
to which a material will plastically deform by the time fracture occurs. Quantitatively, ductility is
measured in terms of percent elongation and reduction in area. For true stress and strain, true
stress (oT) is defined as the instantaneous applied load divided by the instantaneous cross-
sectional area. True strain (eT) is equal to the natural logarithm of the ratio of instantaneous and
original specimen lengths. For some metals from the onset of plastic deformation to the onset of
necking, true stress and true strain are related. The two most common hardness testing
techniques are Rockwell and Brinell. Several scales are available for Rockwell; for Brinell there
is a single scale. Brinell hardness is determined from indentation size; Rockwell is based on the
difference in indentation depth from the imposition of minor and major loads. Names of the two
microindentation hardness testing techniques are Knoop and Vickers. Small indenters and
relatively light loads are employed for these two techniques. They are used to measure hardness
of brittle materials (such as ceramics), and also of very small specimen regions.

III.INTRODUCTION

Numerous materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or loads; examples include
the aluminum compound from which a plane wing is built and the steel in a car pivot. In such
situations it is necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to design the member
from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive, and fracture will
not occur. The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or
deformation to an applied load or force. Key mechanical plan properties are firmness, quality,
hardness, flexibility, and durability. The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by
performing carefully designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the
service conditions. Factors to be considered include the nature of the applied load and its
duration, as well as the environmental conditions. It is possible for the load to be tensile,
compressive, or shear, and its magnitude may be constant with time, or it may fluctuate
continuously. Application time might be just a small amount of a second, or it might stretch out
over a time of numerous years. Service temperature might be a significant factor.

IV. DISCUSSION
1. Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion that occurs when a material is subjected to
tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause it to
elongate, compress, buckle, bend, or twist. Plastic deformation of the cutting edge occurs when
the tool material softens at high temperature and begins to flow under the pressure of the cutting
forces. Cutting edges made of tool steel or high-speed steel deform in inverse proportion to the
difference between the temperature at the cutting edge and the yield temperature of the tool
material. Plastic deformation also occurs in cemented carbides and cermets, but only at higher
temperatures (cutting speeds) and higher forces than is the case with tool steels and high-speed
steels. With cemented carbides, the higher the percentage of the binding phase (usually cobalt),
the greater will be the deformation.

Tensile Properties
Tensile properties are composed of the reaction of the materials to resist when forces are
applied in tension. Determining the tensile properties is crucial because it provides information
about the modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, reduction in area,
tensile strength, yield point, yield strength, and other tensile properties. Tensile properties vary
from material to material and are determined through tensile testing, which produces a load
versus elongation curve, which is then converted into a stress versus strain curve.

True Stress
True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing
area with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.

True Strain
True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original length
as given by Eq4
L
(Eq4)     εt = ln true strain
L0

Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation

Upon release of the load during the course of a stress–strain test, some fraction of the
total deformation is recovered as elastic strain, During the unloading cycle, the curve traces a
near straight-line path from the point of unloading (point D), and its slope is virtually identical to
the modulus of elasticity, or parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The magnitude of
this elastic strain, which is regained during unloading, corresponds to the strain recovery. If the
load is reapplied, the curve will traverse essentially the same linear portion in the direction
opposite to unloading; yielding will again occur at the unloading stress level where the unloading
began. There will also be an elastic strain recovery associated with fracture.

Compressive Stress
 If instead of pulling on our material, we push or compress our cylinder we are
introducing compressive stress. This is illustrated in the following figure:

Compressive Stress

Shear Stress
If instead of applying a force perpendicular to the surface, we apply parallel but opposite
forces on the two surfaces we are applying a shear stress. This is illustrated in the following
figure:

Shear Stress

Torsional Stress
Stress related to shear is torsional stress. If we hold one end of our cylinder fixed and
twist the other end as shown in the figure below, we are applying a torsional (or twisting) stress.

Torsional Stress

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either
mechanical indentation or abrasion. Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than others (e.g.
plastics, wood). Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength,
toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
2. For the tensile deformation of a ductile cylindrical specimen, describe changes in
specimen profile to the point of fracture
This phenomenon is termed necking, and fracture ultimately occurs at the neck. The
fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture. Tensile strengths may vary anywhere from
50 MPa (7000 psi) for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa (450,000 psi) for the high-strength
steels. Ordinarily, when the strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the yield strength is
used. This is because by the time a stress corresponding to the tensile strength has been applied,
often a structure has experienced so much plastic deformation that it is useless. Furthermore,
fracture strengths are not normally specified for engineering design purposes.

3. Computation for Ductility in terms of both Percentage Elongation and Percent

Reduction of Area
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of
plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A metal that experiences very little or no
plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as
either percent elongation or percent reduction in area. The percent elongation %EL is the
percentage of plastic strain at fracture, or

where lf is the fracture length12 and l0 is the original gauge length as given earlier.
Inasmuch as a significant proportion of the plastic deformation at fracture is confined to the neck
region,the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen gauge length.The shorter l0,the greater
the fraction of total elongation from the neck and, consequently, the higher the value of
%EL.Therefore, l0 should be specified when percent elongation values are cited; it is commonly
50 mm (2 in.).
Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as

where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-sectional area at the
point of fracture.12 Percent reduction in area values are independent of both l0 and A0.
Furthermore, for a given material the magnitudes of %EL and %RA will, in general,be
different.Most metals possess at least a moderate degree of ductility at room temperature;
however, some become brittle as the temperature is lowered.

4. Ways How to Compute True Stress and True Strain Values

The stress is on the basis of the original cross-sectional area before any deformation and
does not take into account this reduction in area at the neck. True stress is defined as the load F
divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai over which deformation is occurring (i.e.,
the neck, past the tensile point), or

Furthermore, it is occasionally more convenient to represent strain as true strain "T,

defined by

If no volume change occurs during deformation—that is, if

 true and engineering stress and strain are related according to

are valid only to the onset of necking; beyond this point true stress and strain should be
computed from actual load, cross-sectional area, and gauge length measurements.

5. Modulus of Resilience and Toughness

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the indication of resilience property of solid material. By
definition, modulus of resilience is the energy, per unit volume, required to deform a particular
solid material up to its elastic limit under tensile testing. The modulus of resilience is
proportional to the area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain diagram. Units are Pa or psi.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the indication of toughness property of solid material. By
definition, modulus of toughness is the energy, per unit volume, required for breaking a
particular solid material under tensile testing. Equal to the area under the entire stress-strain
curve. Units are Pa or psi.

6. Two Most Common Hardness-Testing Techniques and Its Differences

Rockwell Hardness Tests
The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness
because they are so simple to perform and require no special skills. Several different scales may
be utilized from possible combinations of various indenters and different loads, which permit the
testing of virtually all metal alloys (as well as some polymers). Indenters include spherical and
hardened steel balls having diameters of and (1.588,3.175,6.350, and 12.70 mm),and a conical
diamond (Brale) indenter, which is used for the hardest materials. With this system, a hardness
number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration resulting from the application of
an initial minor load followed by a larger major load; utilization of a minor load enhances test
accuracy. On the basis of the magnitude of both major and minor loads, there are two types of
tests: Rockwell and superficial Rockwell. For Rockwell, the minor load is 10 kg, whereas major
loads are 60, 100, and 150 kg. Each scale is represented by a letter of the alphabet; several are
listed with the corresponding indenter and load in Tables 6.5 and 6.6a. For superficial tests, 3 kg
is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible major load values. These scales are
identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according to load), followed by N, T, W, X, or Y, depending on
indenter. Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens. Table 6.6b presents
several superficial scales.
Brinell Hardness Tests
In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is forced into the
surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide)
indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg
increments; during a test,the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30
s).Harder materials require greater applied loads. The Brinell hardness number, HB,I s a function
of both the magnitude of the load and the diameter of the resulting indentation (see Table 6.5).16
This diameter is measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that is etched
on the eyepiece. The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB number using a
chart; only one scale is employed with this technique. Semiautomatic techniques for measuring
Brinell hardness are available. These employ optical scanning systems consisting of a digital
camera mounted on a flexible probe, which allows positioning of the camera over the
indentation. Data from the camera are transferred to a computer that analyzes the indentation,
determines its size, and then calculates the Brinell hardness number. For this technique, surface
finish requirements are normally more stringent than for manual measurements. Maximum
specimen thickness as well as indentation position (relative to specimen edges) and minimum
indentation spacing requirements are the same as for Rockwell tests. In addition, a well-defined
indentation is required; this necessitates a smooth flat surface in which the indentation is made.

Differences
 The Rockwell hardness is based on difference of indentation depth of indenter from two
different load applications, first minor load is applied to achieve zero level then major
load is applied for specific period while in Brinell hardness test hard ball indenter is
pressed under load on surface of material, Brinell hardness number is expressed as ratio
of load and area of indentation.

 In Rockwell harness test, hardness value is directly readable , no optical evaluation

required quick and cost-effective process, non-destructive testing and not always the most
accurate hardness testing method while in Brinell test, surface quality of the metal must
be very good because the indent is measured optically, process is very slow (the test cycle
takes somewhere between 30 and 60 seconds), it can be applied on thin specimens of
very hard materials, high risk of deforming the materials to be tested when testing in
micro range with very high test loads, can be used to test non-homogenous materials
(castings).

7. Two Different Microindentation Hardness Testing Techniques:

Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness
Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop (pronounced and Vickers (sometimes
also called diamond pyramid). For each test a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal
geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen. Applied loads are much smaller than for
Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g. The resulting impression is observed under
a microscope and measured; this measurement is then converted into a hardness number (Table
6.5). Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be necessary to ensure a
well-defined indentation that may be accurately measured. The Knoop and Vickers hardness
numbers are designated by HK and HV,respectively,18 and hardness scales for both techniques
are approximately equivalent. Knoop and Vickers are referred to as microindentation-testing
methods on the basis of indenter size. Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small,
selected specimen regions; furthermore, Knoop is used for testing brittle materials such as
ceramics. The modern microindentation hardness-testing equipment has been automated by
coupling the indenter apparatus to an image analyzer that incorporates a computer and software
package. The software controls important system functions to include indent location, indent
spacing, computation of hardness values, and plotting of data.

V. CONCLUSION

Materials and metallurgical designers are worried about delivering and manufacturing
materials to meet help necessities as anticipated by these pressure investigations. This
fundamentally includes a comprehension of the connections between the microstructure (i.e.,
interior highlights) of materials and their mechanical properties. The role of structural engineers
is to determine stresses and stress distributions within members that are subjected to well-defined
loads. This may be accomplished by experimental testing techniques and/or by theoretical and
mathematical stress analyses. Those topics are treated in traditional texts on stress analysis and
strength of materials. Materials are frequently chosen for structural applications because they
have desirable combinations of mechanical characteristics. The present discussion is confined
primarily to the mechanical behavior of metals; polymers and ceramics are treated separately
because they are, to a large degree, mechanically different from metals. In this chapter, it
discusses the stress–strain behavior of metals and the related mechanical properties, and also
examines other important mechanical characteristics.

VI. REFERENCES

ASM Handbook, Vol. 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 2000.
Bowman, K., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.
Boyer,H.E.(Editor), Atlas of Stress–Strain Curves, 2nd edition, ASM International, Materials
Park, OH, 2002.
Chandler,H.(Editor),Hardness Testing,2nd edition, ASM International,Materials Park,OH,1999.
Davis, J. R. (Editor), Tensile Testing, 2nd edition, ASM International,Materials Park,OH,2004.
Dieter, G. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986.
Dowling, N. E., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall (Pearson
Education), Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2007.
Hosford, W. F., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Cambridge University Press, New York,
2005. Meyers, M.A., and K. K. Chawla, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Prentice
Hall,Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999

VII. APPENDICES