REPORT WRITING

This study advice sheet highlights common features in written reports and makes

recommendations for clear presentation and a conventional format.

What is a report?

Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The tone of a report is always formal.
The audience it is meant for is always thought out section. For example – report writing about a school
event, report writing about a business case, etc.

What is a report?

A report is a more highly structured form of writing than an essay, and is designed so that it can

be read quickly and accurately; though reports are not necessarily read from beginning to end.

Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was

gathered as much as the information itself. Reports should be organised for the convenience of

the intended reader. Reports are written on a wide range of subjects for a wide variety of reasons.

Before writing any report you should identify the objective and the preferred conventions of

structure and presentation. This is as true for reports you write at university as it is for reports

written in employment.

All reports attempt to communicate findings for one reason or another, whether to inform decision

makers, change public opinion or maintain a record of development. Whenever you write a report

you must bear in mind why you are writing and who you are writing for. All reports have an

intended reader. Put yourself in his/her position. What does he/she need to know?

Stages in report writing

The following stages are involved in writing a report:

 planning your work;

 collecting your information;

 organising and structuring your information;

 writing the first draft;

Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work within a sensible time scale for

completion by the given deadline. One common structure is based on the 4 P’s: position, problem,

possibilities, proposal. This means you outline the current position, describe the problem, examine

the range of possibilities and decide on a proposal (Hemingway, 1993). Some of the most

time-consuming parts of the process are collecting and selecting your information, and checking

and revising your report.

 Clarify your terms of reference – what brief are you working to?

 Decide on the main sections of your report – what instructions have you been given?

Note for students on modules LLP002, LLP207, LLP312 and LLP314: Your assessment brief

on Learn will have specific details on the main sections you should include in your report. These

may not be the same as the structure suggested in this advice sheet. However, the

recommendations on Presentation, Style of Writing, Layout and the Checklists in this advice sheet

are still relevant.

Structuring your report

Check with your tutor to find out what your report should include and how it should be presented.

The following elements are however common to many reports:

• Title page

This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the subject

matter), the author(s)’s name(s), module, and the date.

• Acknowledgements

You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for the

report, for example from staff in your department, support services or external companies.

• Contents

You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they
begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be listed

separately under a title such as ‘List of Illustrations’ together with the page numbers on which

they appear.

• Abstract or executive summary

This should be a short paragraph summarising the main contents of the report. It should

include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any

recommendations made. The abstract or summary should be concise, informative and

independent of the report. The summary may have more than one purpose: it reminds the

reader what they have read but it is also useful to busy managers or professors who may not

always read the full report.

Write this section after you have written the main body of the report.

• Introduction

This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of

reference (what have you been asked to find out?) State your objectives clearly, define the

limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general background to the

subject of the report e.g. the company or procedure, and indicate the proposed development.

• Methodology

In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your enquiry

take? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your data? What

measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for your interviews?

• Results or findings

Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The more complicated the information

looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. Graphs, charts and diagrams help your reader

identify key results and will break the flow of written text.

• Discussion
This is the section where you analyse and interpret your results drawing from the information which

you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest explanations

for your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try and present a balanced view.

• Conclusions and recommendations

This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed

clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in

a separate section or include them with the conclusions.

• References

It is important that you give precise and accurate details of all the work by other authors which has

been referred to within the report. References are normally listed in alphabetical order by the

authors' names or in numerical order. Check your Department handbook to find out what

referencing format is required by your Department.

Appendices

An appendix contains additional related information which is not essential to read but can be

consulted if the reader wishes. However, the interpretation of the report should not depend on this

being read. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or

other such information.

Presentation

Your report should be easy to read. What are the requirements for your module?

• Paragraphs should be short and concise. They should be spaced apart.

• Avoid rambling by using short sentences.

• Avoid using unnecessary jargon and unexplained abbreviations.

• List your standard measurements, units and technical terminology in a glossary at the end.

• Headings should be clear – highlighted in bold or underlined.

• Label graphs, pictures or drawings as 'Figures', e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.

Style of writing

Keep it simple. Avoid sentences that are too long and eliminate unnecessary jargon. Your tutor will

be able to advise whether the report should be written in the ‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice.

The active voice reads as follows: ‘I recommend ...’

The passive voice reads: ‘It is recommended that ...’

The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences. The passive appears more formal and

considered and is more suitable for academic writing. Avoid mixing the two voices.

In which voice will you be expected to write?

Tittle or cover page

The cover page, also known as title page, is the first and front page of the book, report, business
proposals, magazines, any other document. It is an important part of the document as it gives the
introductory information regarding what the document is about as well as who has written it.

approval page

The approval sheet comes on the second page of the paper. In simple terms, an approval sheet for a
thesis paper means the forms that are submitted by the writer to the scholarly panel for getting approval
of the work

Decleration page

Your declarations page is an official document and verifies your coverages, limits, and the insured(s)
named in the policy. It is updated when changes are made during your policy term. For example, if you
add an endorsement, your insurance company will update the dec page and send you a revised copy

table of Content

table of contents Add to list Share. The list of chapters and page numbers at the beginning of a book is
the table of contents. If you need to review the chapter in your biology book that discusses plants, the
table of contents will help you find it.
Acknowledgement

Acknowledgements enable you to thank all those who have helped in carrying out the research. Careful
thought needs to be given concerning those whose help should be acknowledged and in what order. The
general advice is to express your appreciation in a concise manner and to avoid strong emotive language.

abstract/summary

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper). The abstract
concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research so that readers know exactly what the paper is
about. Write the abstract at the very end, when you've completed the rest of the text.

list of figures

The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in
administrative or research documents. Articles in periodicals do not use lists of figures. Figures
concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence.

list of tables

In addition to the Table of Contents, a Table of Figures and Tables is usually required in a report. It is
situated immediately after the Table of Contents. It contains a list of figures, statistical tables, diagrams
and graphs, including their titles.

List of Symbols and Abbreviations in Electronics

The following are common symbols and abbreviations in the field of electronics:

A – Ampere

AC – Alternating current

App – Peak-to-peak amperes

Arms – Root mean square amperes

β (beta) – Current gain

BW – Bandwidth

C – Capacitor

DC – Direct current

F – Farad

gm – Transconductance

f – Frequency

fr – Resonant frequency

H – Henry

Hz – Hertz

I – Electric current

IB – Base current

IC – Collector current

ID – Drain current of a field effect transistor

IDSS – Saturation current

Ipp – Peak-to-peak current

Irms – Root mean square current

kHz – Kilohertz

k – Kilohm

kW – Kilowatt

L – Inductor

LC – Inductor-capacitor circuit

mA – Milliampere

mH – Millihenry
M – Megohm

μA – Microampere

μF – Microfarad

μH – Microhenry

μs – Microsecond

ms – Millisecond

mV – Millivolt

Np – Number of turns in a primary coil

NS – Number of turns in a secondary coil

Ω – Ohms

pF – Picofarad

P – Power

Q – Transistor; also the Q value of a resonant circuit

R – Resistor

Rin – Input resistance of a transistor

r – DC resistance of an inductor

T – Period of a waveform

τ – Time constant

TR – Turns ratio

θ – Phase angle

μV – Microvolt

V – Voltage

VC – Voltage at the collector of a transistor

VDD – Drain supply voltage

VE – Voltage at the emitter of a transistor

VGS (off) – Gate to source cutoff voltage

Vin – AC voltage of an input signal

Vout – AC output voltage

Vp – Peak voltage

Vpp – Peak-to-peak voltage

Vrms – Root mean square voltage

VS – Supply voltage

W – Watts

XC – Reactance of a capacitor

XL – Reactance of an inductor

Z – Impedance

body of a project topic

Chapter One: This is usually the introduction.

This describes the background, scope and purpose of the research. The rest of the report should be tied
to the information supplied. The researcher should strive to present sufficient details regarding why the
study was carried out. It shouldn't be rushed, a gradual build-up of the content from bottom to top is
ideal. It should be closed with a linking paragraph that would disclose the objectives, constraints and
limitations.

Chapter two: This is usually the literature theoretical review.

This presents basically, the work done by others. It is on the ground work done by others that the
current research is to be based, hence the review. It sums up the pros and cons of all past work but due
credit should be given to the various Authors (see the guide on referencing on this website). The use of
quotations should be less in use, more of paraphrasing (reading and making out meaning in your own
words), making comments in the review is great as well, it just depends on the context.

Chapter three: This is usually the research methodology.

Here the language used should be in past tense. It is a sum-up of the research design, procedures, the
area and population of study. The data sampling and data sources are detailed as well. The method used,
from all alternatives, should also be justified. The materials and equipment used is also included.

Chapter four: This is usually for data presentation and analysis (results and discussion).

The results obtained in the research are presented here. Visual aids like graphs, charts and the likes
should be used as well. The results should be discussed then compared with results of past Authors. The
effects and applications of the results should be detailed as well.

Chapter five: This part houses the conclusions and recommendations.

From the results of the research, conclusions are made, then suggestions for improvement for other
researchers with similar interest. Based on the whole happenings, recommendations are proffered.

References: This is a list of all the relevant journals, books and all sources of information consulted in the
research work, either online or print. Plagiarism should be avoided at all costs, all quoted and exact
words of different sources should be properly referenced, in-text and at the references' list/bibliography.
MLA, APA and Chicago style are the commonest referencing styles.

Appendices: This is for all extra materials that were not added to the body of the work. This encapsulates
extensive proofs, official data from case study, list of parameters, et al.

technical Report

A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and easily
accessible format. It is divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of
information.

The main purpose of an Engineering technical report is to present a solution to a problem in order to
prompt action. Technical reports provide a record of your developing expertise and are a legal record of
your work and decision making.

non-technical Report

Non-technical writing is a type of business writing that is intended to provide general information that is
likely to be helpful to the reader in some manner, but is not concerned with assembling facts, figures and
instructions for the benefit of that reader.

Background information on project

Progress report

A progress report is a report in which you are updating information about a project. Progress reports
make it possible for management and clients to stay informed about a project and to change or adjust
assignments, schedules, and budgets.

Recommendation.

A recommendation report is written to propose or recommend the options available to solve a problem
or fill a need. The goal of the report is to compare options, recommend one option, and support that
recommendation. While cost is always a consideration, there are other considerations as well.

PROJECT PROPOSALS

Project proposals are documents that define your project, including things such as start and end dates,
objectives and goals. They tell stakeholders why your project ideas should be executed. Reading about
your ideas in a well-written document should convince stakeholders to support them.

What are the 6 types of project proposal?

There are six different types of business project proposals:

formally solicited.

informally solicited.

unsolicited.

continuation.

renewal.

supplemental

1. Formally Solicited Proposal

Use this type of proposal when you're responding to an official request for proposal. In most cases, this
will be the easiest type of proposal to write as the potential client or customer will specify what they're
looking for. In some cases, they'll even outline what they want the proposal to cover.

Minimal Project Proposal Template

Minimal Project Proposal Template is a project proposal example from Elements.

2. Informally Solicited Proposal

This type of proposal is the same as the formally solicited proposal, but with one difference. The
information in the proposal isn’t clearly specified in an official document or request.

Typically, you’ll write this proposal when a client or customer is interested in what you've got to offer
and asks for a proposal. Since the client doesn’t specify their needs, you’ll have to do more research on
your part to analyze the client and understand what they're looking for.

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3. Unsolicited Proposal

The unsolicited proposal like a cold call. You could send an unsolicited proposal if you stumbled upon a
potential client and think that your offer is exactly what they need. This is one of the hardest proposal
types to write. You’ll have to do plenty of research upfront and be very convincing in how you present
your project proposal ideas.

4. Continuation Proposal

Send a continuation proposal when you want to send a reminder or an update about an ongoing project
that’s already been approved. All you’re doing with this proposal is providing an update on the project
and asking for approval to carry on with the project. These proposal types are the easiest to write unless
the client wants major changes moving forward.

Project Proposal template could be used for continuation proposal

Project Proposal template could be used for a continuation proposal.

5. Renewal Proposal
Use the renewal proposal after you’ve completed a project and want to make a case for continued
support. When it comes to renewal proposals remember to provide convincing proof why it’s beneficial
to continue with the project.

6. Supplemental Proposal

Lastly, the supplemental project proposal is reserved for when you need approval for extra resources for
the project. Provide reasons and justify why those resources are needed and create an updated estimate
of what the project will take to complete.

Why Use a Business Project Proposal?

If you and your prospective client are keen to work together, you may be tempted to skip the business
project proposal. But that can be a big mistake. Having a written project proposal has several
advantages. These include:

Better planning. Preparing a project proposal forces you to do research, analyze the client’s problem, and
think through a proposed solution. Lori Smith, CEO of Acu-Elligent and author of Winning Business
Proposal Strategies for Success, says this helps you to plan better:

“You have to put forth the necessary efforts and resources to know client values, what you can deliver,
and weaknesses of competitors, to develop a compelling blueprint or win strategy.”

Rock-solid documentation. A business proposal forms the basis for a contract between you and your
client, sponsor, or partner. No matter how much you trust each other, it’s best to have everything you
agreed on in writing. This can help prevent or even settle legal disputes.

Improved project management. The proposal sets the phases, milestones, and steps of the project. This
level of detail helps you keep track of progress to ensure the project is proceeding as planned.

How to Write Project Proposals

1. Research and Plan Your Project Proposal

The first step in writing and designing your business project proposal is to make a plan. The plan should
include researching your client and their business.

Research helps you understand the problems, the budget, the preferred timelines, and specific industry
requirements. This ensures that your proposal will present them with the best possible solution. The tips
in this article can help:

2. Clearly State the Problem

Once you've got a plan for your proposal, you need to clearly state the problem. This section has to make
it obvious to the client what their pain points are and why they need to act on the problem. It should
convince them to take action by relating the problem back to them, using their own words and concepts
they can easily understand.

3. Present a Compelling Solution

Now that your audience is aware of their problem and they know what happens if they don’t act, it’s
time to present them with a solution. You’ll want to back this up with evidence and data. Show the
benefits of the solution along with the steps necessary for the successful implementation of the solution.
This will make it clear what they can expect throughout the entire project.

4. Give Accurate Estimates

Your potential clients will also be interested in how long the project will take as well as how much it’s
going to cost them. Include a section that gives accurate estimates of time, materials, expenses, and
other resources needed.

5. Outline Next Steps

When you’re done writing out all the necessary sections of your proposal, conclude with a section that
outlines next steps. This can include asking them to get in touch with you via phone or email, booking an
appointment, sending over a signed proposal or similar.

6. Use Visuals

When it comes to the design of your proposal, include plenty of visuals. Photos, charts, graphs, icons,
and infographics can help potential clients visualize how the project will go. It'll also make it easier for
them to understand more abstract or complex concepts of the proposal.

7. Make Your Cover Engaging

Your proposal cover is the first thing potential clients will see. Make it more engaging by including a
photo that relates to their project or a photo of your company.

8. Pay Attention to the Alignment

Your proposal will include both text and visual elements. Make sure they're properly aligned with the
help of guides in your document.

Proper alignment will make the entire proposal more visually appealing by adding hierarchy to your
design. Your project proposal format is important. Formatting issues like proper alignment make a
difference.

9. Save Time With Templates

Save time on writing and designing your business project proposal by using professionally designed
business proposal templates. These templates will not only have all the necessary sections, but they'll
also have the basic layout and design elements. All you’ll have to do is add your content and then
customize the template with your choice of colors and fonts.

10. Proofread Everything

Our last tip is to proofread the entire proposal several times to ensure there are no grammar or spelling
mistakes. Make sure that all the information is accurate and up to date, especially if you’re talking about
your company history or about your client’s business.

how to write a project proposal

Step 1: Define the problem.

Step 2: Present your solution.

Step 3: Define your deliverables and success criteria.

Step 4: State your plan or approach.

Step 5: Outline your project schedule and budget.

Step 6: Tie it all together.

Step 7: Edit/proofread your proposal.

Logbook
A logbook (or log book) is a record used to record states, events, or conditions applicable to complex
machines or the personnel who operate them. Logbooks are commonly associated with the operation of
aircraft, nuclear plants, particle accelerators, and ships (among other applications).

What is the function of log book?

A log book is a way to record and keep track of events in your classroom. Log books are important
classroom management tools that can be used in a variety of ways such as recording tardy students
entering the classroom, communication with students' parents, and student-teacher conferences.