TECHNICAL NOTE · RS 101

Reflection and retroreflection

Types of reflection Characteristics for reflection

The image shown in a reflecting surface can maximum
When looking at a reflecting surface, the surface shows an
have the brightness of the part of space, which is shown
image of the space in front of the surface.
as an image, but in practise the brightness is reduced be-
The image may be complete blurred as in a surface with cause of reflection losses.
diffuse reflection, or it may be sharp as in surface with
The physical measure of brightness of a surface is lumi-
mirror reflection.
nance L, which is the luminous intensity of light towards
Most practical surfaces have mixed reflection, which is a the drivers eyes in proportion to the apparent surface area
mixture of diffuse reflection and mirror reflection in the of the surface. As the luminous intensity is measured in
surface, mostly with the surface reflection partly blurred by the unit of candela (cd) and surface area is measured in
2 -2
texture. square metres (m ), the unit of luminance is cd⋅m .

A particular kind of reflection is retroreflection, where the

surface preferentially shows an image of the part of space
around the observer. Retroreflection may be mixed with
other kinds of reflection. low luminance high luminance

diffuse Figure 2: Luminance is the stimulus for the perception of

reflection brightness.

A surface with diffuse reflection has a luminance, which is

mirror a proportion of the average luminance of the space in front
reflection of the surface. The proportion is called the luminance fac-
tor with the symbol β or Y and is often measured in the
45°/0° geometry, implying illumination at 45° to the sur-
mixed face and observation perpendicular to the surface.
reflection
The luminance observed in a mirror is a proportion of the
luminance of the object studied in the mirror image. In this
case the proportion is called the reflectance, which is of-
retroreflection ten measured at 8° entrance angle.

Mixed reflection can be described by means of a lumi-

nance coefficient, which is the ratio between the lumi-
Figure 1: Types of reflection.
nance of the surface and the illuminance at the surface. As
illuminance is measured in lux (lx), the unit of the lumi-
nance coefficient is cd⋅m ⋅lx . The conditions of observa-
-2 -1

tion and illumination are generally specified, because the

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value of the luminance coefficient may depend sharply on Pavement markings
the conditions.
Pavement markings are used to guide and regulate traffic
Retroreflection has a very useful effect for nighttime driv- by means of longitudinal and transverse markings, and by
ing. A driver of a vehicle sees an image in a retroreflecting means of symbols and text on the pavement surface.
surface that includes the headlamps of the vehicle, and
therefore is more bright than a surface with ordinary re- Pavement markings are provided by the application of mate-
flection. rials in the liquid form (paint, thermoplastic materials or cold
hardening materials), or by the application of pre-formed
Retroreflection is among else used to: lines and symbols or by other means.
• enhance the brightness and visibility of the pavement
markings Retroreflection of pavement markings
• greatly improve the brightness and readability of Most pavement markings have glass beads embedded in
retroreflective road signs. the surface in order to create retroreflection.

The luminance coefficient is applicable for a retroreflecting These are added as drop-on beads during the application
surface, but with the name of 'coefficient of retroreflected of materials in the liquid form, or during the production of
luminance': pre-formed lines and symbols. Some materials have addi-
tional premix glass bead that are intended to replace the
RL = L/E surface beads as the markings are eroded by the actions of
traffic and weather.
where L is the luminance of the surface in illumination
from a single light source The glass beads cause retroreflection in a three step proc-
ess involving refraction (bending) as light enters a bead,
and E is the illuminance at the surface created by the reflection in the material in which the bead is embedded
light source and measured on a plane perpendicular to the and refraction as the light leaves the bead.
direction of illumination.

Chromaticity of reflecting surfaces

The reflected light can have the same colour as the inci-
dent light, or it can have a different colour because of se- Figure 3: Glass beads in the surface of a pavement marking.
lective absorption of parts of the spectrum of light (or other
phenomena).

The colour of reflected light is used to characterize the sur- 1: refraction

face, when assuming particular spectral compositions of 2: reflection
3 3: refraction
the incident light. The colour of the surface is expressed in
terms of the CIE chromaticity coordinates x, y. Particularly
1
relevant spectral compositions of the incident light are the
CIE illuminant A, representing vehicle headlamps, and CIE 2

illuminant D65, representing daylight (ISO/CIE 10526).

glass bead

marking material

Figure 4: Three step process for retroreflection in a glass bead.

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 The glass beads provide poor focus and collimation and, considered to be less developed than measurement with
therefore, cause retroreflection in a broad beam. This, in portable instruments.
combination with several losses relating to the density of
beads in the surface, variations in embedment, the reflec- New, white pavement markings with glass beads of normal
glass have RL values of for instance 300-400 mcd⋅m ⋅lx . In
-2 -1
tion in the marking material, etc., causes a low level of ret-
roreflection. some cases, glass beads made of glass with a high refractive
index is used, causing RL values that may be twice as high.
The coefficient of retroreflection RL is used to characterize New glass bead technologies may result in even higher val-
the retroreflection. Because of the low level of retroreflec- ues. Yellow pavement markings have inherently lower RL val-
tion, the one thousand times smaller unit of mcd⋅m ⋅lx
-2 -1
ues, for instance lower by 20%.
(millicandela per square meter per lux) is used to provide
convenient numbers instead of the full unit of cd⋅m ⋅lx .
-2 -1 The RL values typically decrease strongly during functional
life with abrasion by wheels and actions of weather. The RL
value used for warranty purposes is often 100 mcd⋅m ⋅lx .
-2 -1
The retroreflected beam includes the drivers eyes at all rele-
vant distances so that the value of RL does not depend
strongly on the distance. It does, for geometrical reasons, In comparison, the pavement itself may have RL values of
10 mcd⋅m ⋅lx for a dark asphalt concrete up to perhaps 40
-2 -1
depend on the geometry of the vehicle, but in predictable
mcd⋅m ⋅lx for a light asphalt concrete or cement concrete
-2 -1
manners.
pavement.
For these reasons, an RL value for a single geometrical situa-
tion is used to characterize the overall performance of a In wet or rainy conditions, the surface of pavements mark-
pavement marking, regardless of distance and vehicle ge- ings may become covered by a film of water that makes the
ometry. This so-called 30 m geometry is normally explained RL values decrease strongly, in some cases to virtually zero.
for a driver of a passenger car, but does strictly speaking ap-
ply for a motorcyclist; it has been adopted in standards by In order to maintain some performance in wet or rainy condi-
the American ASTM (E1710), the European CEN (EN 1436) tions, the retroreflection is sometimes enhanced by special
and in several national standards. The illumination is accord- properties. The properties can be produced by surface texture
ing to CIE illuminant A. (as with structured markings), large glass beads or other
means. In the case of surface texture, the passage of wheels
can produce acoustic or vibration effects.

ASTM = 1,05
Such pavement markings, when new, may have relatively
= 88,76
high RL values in wet or rainy conditions. However, these RL
values also typically decrease during functional life and may
CEN
end up not being very high, often 25 to 50 mcd⋅m ⋅lx , but
a = 2,29 -2 -1

still with contrast to the pavement with an RL value of for

instance 5 mcd⋅m ⋅lx .
-2 -1
e = 1,24

Figure 5: Angles defining the '30 m geometry' in ASTM and Daylight reflection of pavement markings
CEN standards. Daylight reflection of pavement markings is described by the
luminance factor β (or Y) measured in the 45°/0° geometry
RL values of pavement markings are measured with hand- and/or by the luminance coefficient under diffuse illumina-
held instruments which, by means of optics, reproduce the tion Qd with observation as in the 30 m geometry. For both
30 m geometry in a compact form. Measurement on panels characteristics, illumination is according to the CIE illumi-
by range instruments in laboratory conditions is defined nant D65.
(ASTM D4061 and EN 1436) and sometimes used, but is

Page 3 of 7
The luminance factor is the traditional measure of daylight (EN 1436) or national standards. Some national standards
reflection. Values can be measured in laboratory condi- specify colour boxes for other colours such as orange, red,
tions, but are normally measured with handheld instru- green and blue.
ments, which also measure the colour.
Generally speaking, colours measured in β conditions are -
The luminance factor under diffuse illumination Qd is the for a number of reasons - more saturated than in real driv-
more recent measure. The same unit of mcd⋅m ⋅lx as for
-2 -1
ing situations in which white and yellow pavement mark-
the RL is used to provide convenient numbers. Qd values are ings can not always be easily distinguished from each
measured with handheld instruments. other.

Altogether, Qd may be considered a more realistic measure Such cases are exposed if chromaticity coordinates are
than β, because the observation is relevant for car driving measured in the conditions of RL and Qd for respectively
and the illumination simulates daylight illumination - or an nightime and daytime driving. The American ASTM has de-
average road lighting. The correlation between the two fined colour boxes for white and yellow measured in RL con-
characteristics is poor, because: ditions (D6628) and is working on suitable methods for the
measurement of colour in both RL and Qd conditions (WK 358
• Qd includes only the top of the pavement surface as
and WK2310).
seen by the drivers at a distance while β includes the
whole depth including the bottom
• Qd includes surface reflection, which is excluded from
β.

The two characteristics have been adopted by the Ameri-

can ASTM (D6628 and E2302), the European CEN (EN 1436)
and in national standards. They are used sometimes in a
complementary or alternative manner, or sometimes one is
preferred to the other.

The theoretical maximum value of β is unity, while the theo-

retical maximum value of Qd is 1000/π = approximately 318
mcd⋅m ⋅lx .
-2 -1

For white pavement markings,values are typically up to β =

0,6 or Qd = 200, but can sometimes get low when dirt and
oil stick to the surface. For yellow pavement markings val-
ues are somewhat less.

Colour of pavement markings

The colour of pavement markings is expressed in terms of
the CIE chromaticity coordinates x, y as measured in the
same conditions as for the luminance factor β. Handheld
instruments are used to measure all three parameters (β, x
and y) simultaneously.

The chromaticity coordinates are normally to be within speci-

fied colour boxes defined for white and yellow pavement
markings by the American ASTM (D6628), the European CEN

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 and collimation is far better and losses are less. Therefore,
Road signs retroreflection is much in a much more narrow beam and
stronger than for pavement markings.
Road signs are used extensively to guide and regulate traf-
side view front view
fic in the form of directional signs, tourist signs, warning
1 2
signs, prohibition signs, background signs etc. 2
4 3
3+4 5

Retroreflection of road signs 1 : refraction

2-4 : mirror
Almost all road signs are retroreflective in order to be visi- reflection
5 : refraction
ble and readable at night in vehicle headlamp illumination.
The sign face itself is formed by retroreflective sheetings,
either in overlay, or with coloured overlay films, or screen air
plastic
printing, to form a background with one or more legends,
and sometimes an edge.

The retroreflective sheetings may be based on the glass

bead technology, or they may be microprismatic.

Figure 7: A microprismatic sheeting.

3 2 1
4
5
The process of retroreflection in microprismatic sheetings is
6 7
entirely different than for glass beaded sheetings, involving
1-3: refraction mirror reflections (by total reflection in the plastic-air inter-
4 : mirror
face) in three mutually orthogonal surfaces that are back-
reflection
5-7: refraction sides of prisms. Additionally, there is refraction as light en-
ters and leaves the plastic medium in which the prisms are
formed. This allows retroreflection in a beam that can be
glass bead
even more narrow than for glass beaded sheeting materials.
plastic
The conventional measure of retroreflection of a retroreflec-
plastic
tive road sign is the coefficient of retroreflection RA, which
has a somewhat different definition than the coefficient of
mirror
retroreflected luminance RL. The connection between the
two is given by RA = RL×cosβ, where β is the entrance angle
of the light incident on the road sign. The unit used for RA is
cd⋅lx ⋅m .
-1 -2

Figure 6: A glass beaded sheeting of the enclosed lens type.

Due to the narrowness of the retroreflected beam, the RA
Some glass beaded sheetings have glass beads enclosed in value depends on of the observation angle α, which meas-
plastic, while other glass beaded sheetings have glass beads ures the angular location of the drivers eyes relative to centre
encapsulated behind a plastic layer, but otherwise sus- of the retroreflective beam. The RA value generally decreases
pended in air. The two principles are called respectively en- with increasing α, this corresponding to a decrease as a
closed an encapsulated lens. driver approaches a road sign. This causes the remarkable
feature that the luminance of a road sign often stays roughly
The process of retroreflection of glass beaded sheetings in- constant over a range of distances during approach.
volves refraction and reflection. The process is basically the
same as for glass beads in pavement markings, but focus

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Additionally, the RA value has a dependence on the entrance NOTE 2: Handheld instruments are to be held upright
angle β. for normal measurement. Rotation from this position
does not change the reading significantly for glass
Because of these dependencies, specifications for road signs beaded sheetings, but does change the reading for
are provided as minimum RA values in tables with α and β as most types of microprismatic sheetings.
parameters. ASTM (D 4956) distinguishes between two
types of the enclosed lens, one type of encapsulated lens, White parts of road signs have RA values in these geometries
in tens or hundreds of cd⋅lx ⋅m , depending on the type of
-1 -2
and several types of microprismatic sheetings, enumerating
these as I, II, III etc. CEN (EN 12899-1) presently defines only the retroreflective sheeting. This is a testimony to the effi-
one type of enclosed lens and one type of encapsulated lens. ciency of retroreflection, as the maximum RA value of a dif-
fuse reflecting surface is only 1/π equal to approximately
0,3 cd⋅lx ⋅m .
-1 -2

observation angle
retr oreflected light
Coloured parts of road signs have smaller RA values than
t ligh t
in ciden white parts to a degree depending of the colour.

The RA values of road signs eventually degrade with exposure

to weather, abrasion by particles and other actions. Hand-
entrance angle
perpendicular to sign
held instruments are used among else to decide warranty is-
sues and need for replacement.
t lig ht
inciden

ASTM:
receiver =0,2
=4
lamp
Figure 8: Observation angle α and entrance angle β.
CEN:
receiver =0,33

=5

NOTE 1: It does require two more angles in addition lamp

to α and β to specify the geometrical situation com-

pletely.
Figure 9: Geometries used for handheld RA instruments accord-
For glass beaded sheetings, a possible variation of ing to ASTM and CEN.
the RA values with the additional angles is normally
ignored by keeping all relevant axes in the same ver-
tical plane during measurement.
NOTE 3: ASTM E1709 allows an 'annular' receiver for
For microprismatic sheetings, the variation of the RA handheld instruments in addition to the 'point' receiver
values with the additional angles may be fairly strong. of the same principle as used for the range instru-
There are different approaches regarding variation of ments. Handheld instruments with these two types of
these angles during complete testing. receivers provide different readings for some of the
types of microprismatic sheetings.
Complete testing to verify compliance with specifications is
done by range instruments on samples in laboratory condi-
tions. Other testing is done with handheld instruments in the Daylight reflection and colour of road signs
field or on samples at single geometries defined in standards The colour of road signs is expressed in terms of the CIE
by the American ASTM (E1709) and the European CEN (EN chromaticity coordinates x, y as measured in the same
12899-1). Handheld instruments simulate long distances, but conditions as for the luminance factor β. Handheld instru-
are reduced to compact form by means of optics.

Page 6 of 7
ments are used to measure all three parameters (β, x and WK2310- Test Method for Measurement of Daytime
y) simultaneously. Chromaticity of Pavement Marking Materials Using a Port-
able Reflectocolorimeter
The chromaticity coordinates are normally to be within speci-
fied colour boxes defined for different colours by the Ameri-
Standards for road signs:
can ASTM D4956), the European CEN (EN 12899-1) or na-
tional standards. EN 12899-1 Fixed, vertical road traffic signs - Part 1: Fixed
signs
These chromaticity coordinates represent daytime conditions.
For nighttime conditions, the chromaticity coordinates E810 Standard Test Method for Coefficient of Retroreflec-
change because of the change of illuminant (from daylight tion of Retroreflective Sheeting Utilizing the Coplanar Ge-
represented by CIE illumninant D65 to headlamps repre- ometry
sented by CIE illuminant A). Additional changes may be in-
D4956 Standard Specification for Retroreflective Sheeting
voked because of optical phenomena like diffraction in the
for Traffic Control
small retroreflective elements.
E1709 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Retrore-
For this reason, the American ASTM (E811) has defined a
flective Signs Using a Portable Retroreflectometer
test method for nighttime chromaticity. So far, handheld in-
struments have not been equipped with this facility, and
E811 Standard Practice for Measuring Colorimetric Charac-
measurements are to be performed in laboratory conditions.
teristics of Retroreflectors Under Nighttime Conditions

Standards for colorimetry:

ISO/CIE 10526: CIE standard illuminants for colorimetry

Standards for pavement markings:

EN 1436 Road marking materials - Road marking perform-
ance for road users

E1710 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Retrore-

flective PavementMarking Materials with CEN-Prescribed
Geometry Using a Portable Retroreflectometer

E2302 Standard Test Method for Measurement of the Lu-

minance Coefficient Under Diffuse Illumination of Pave-
ment Marking Materials with CEN-Prescribed Geometry
Using a Portable Reflectometer

D4061 Standard Test Method for Retroreflectance of Hori-

zontal Coatings

D6628 Standard Specification for Color of Pavement Mark-

ing Materials

WK358- Test Method for Measurement of Nighttime

Chromaticity of Pavement Marking Materials Using a Port-
able Retrocolorimeter

Page 7 of 7