Class IX

SCIENCE
I.I.T.Foundation & Olympiad
Study Package
 MOTION
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
This science deals with the properties and Behaviour of nonliving things.
(a) Physics (in Greek Nature):
It is the branch of science which deals with the study of the natural laws and their manifestation in the
natural phenomenon.
Mechanics (oldest branch) :
If deals with the conditions of rest or motion of the material objects around us.
Statics :
It deals with the study of object at rest or in equilibrium, even when they are under the action of several
forces (measurement of time is not essential).
Kinematics :If deals with the study of motion of objects without considering the cause of motion

measurement of time is essential). Greek

Kinematics Kinema → motion
Word
Dynamics : It deal with the study of objects taking into consideration the cause of their motion. Greek

Dnamics Dynamis → power

Work
Rest :An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position w.r.t. its surroundings with the passage of time.
Motion :A body is said to be in motion if its position changes continuously w.r.t. the surroundings (or with
respect to an observer) with the passage of time.
REST AND MOTION ARE RELATIVE TERMS
Eg. : 1 A, B and C are three persons. B and C are sitting in the car and A is standing outside it. When car starts to
move, B and C are changing their position with respect to A so B and C are in motion with respect to A but B
is not changing its position with time with respect to C, so B is at rest with respect to C (same for C).
Therefore motion depends on the position of the observer , hence motion is relative.

1
Eg. :2 We know that the earth is rotating about its axis and revolving around the sun. The stationary objects like your
classroom, a tree and the lamp posts etc., do not change their position with respect to each other i.e. they are
at rest. Although earth is in motion. To an observer situated outside the earth, say in a space ship, our
classroom, trees etc. would appear to be in motion. Therefore, all motions are relative. There is nothing like
absolute motion.
(a) Concept of a Point Object :
In mechanics while studying the motion of an object, sometimes it dimension are of no importance and the
object may be treated as point object without much error. When the size of the object is much less in
comparison to the distance covered by the object then the object is considered as a point object.
Eg. : 1 If one travels by a car from one place to another far away place, then length of the car is ignored as compared
to distance traveled.
Eg. : 2 Earth can be regarded as a point object for studying its motion around the sun.
(b) Frame of Reference :
To locate the position of object we need a frame of reference. A convenient way to set up a frame of
reference is to choose three mutually perpendicular axis and name them x-y-z axis. The coordinates (x, y, z)
of the particle then specify the position of object w.r.t. that frame. If any one o more coordinates change with
time, then we say that the object is moving w.r.t. this frame.

MOTIONS IN ONE, TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS (TYPE OF MOTION)

As position of the object may change with time due to change in one or two or all the three coordinates, so
we have classified motion as follows :
(a) Motion in 1-D:
If only one of the three co-ordinates specifying the position of object changes w.r.t. time. In such a case the
object moves along a straight line and the motion therefore is also known as rectilinear or linear motion.

Eg. : (i) Motion of train along straight railway track.

An object falling freely under gravity.
When a particle moves from P1 to P2 along a straight line path only the x-co-ordinate changes.

(b) Motion in 2-D:

If two of the three co-ordinates specifying the position of object changes w.r.t. time, then the motion of
object is called two dimensional. In such a motion the object moves in a plane.
Eg. : (i) Motion of queen on carom board.
An insect crawling on the floor of the room.
Motion of object in horizontal and vertical circles etc.
Motion of planets around the sun.
A car moving along a zigzag path on a level road.
(c) Motion is 3-D:

2
 If all the three co-ordinates specifying the position of object changes w.r.t. time, then the motion of object is
called 3-D. In such a motion the object moves in a space.
Eg.: (i) A bird flying in the sky (also kite).
Random motion of gas molecules.
Motion of an aeroplane in space.

TYPES OF MOTION

Linear motion (or translatory motion) : The motion of a moving car, a person running, a stone
being dropped.
Rotational motion : The motion of an electric fan, motion of earth about its own axis.

Oscillatory motion : The motion of a simple pendulum, a body suspended from a spring (also called
to and fro motion).

SCLALER AND VECTOR QUNTITY

Physically quantities (i.e. quantities of physics) can be divided into two types :

Scalar quantity : Any physical quantity, which can be completely specified by its magnitude alone, is a
scalar quantity or a scalar.

Eg.: Charge, distance, area, speed, time temperature, density, volume, work, power, energy, pressure, potential
etc.

Vector quantity : Any physical quantity, which requires direction in addition to its magnitude is known as a
vector.
Eg. : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, weight and electric field etc.
(a) Representation of a vector :
A vector is represented a directed line segment drawn in the given direction on a certain scale.
Tail head (symbolic representation)
Eg.: To represent a displacement of 50 m towards east. Take 10 m = 1 cm (Scale)

3
 0
Eg.: To represent a velocity of 20 k m/h towards 30 east of south. (Scale 5 km/h = 1 cm.)

0
Eg. : 6 m displacement, 60 north - east (north of east) (Scale 1 m = 1 cm)

(b) Difference between Scalar and Vector :

Scalar Vector
1. They have a magnitude only. 1. They have magnitude as well as
direction.
2. They are added or subtracted 2. They are added or subtracted by the
arithmetically like 3 kg + 5 kg = 8 kg process of vector addition.

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

(a) Distance :
Consider a body traveling from A to B along any path between A & B. The actual length of the path that a
body travels between A and B is known as the distance. The distance traveled is different for different path
between A and B. It is a scalar quantity. According to figure distance at path APB is AP + PB and at path AB
is AB.

4
(b) Displacement :
The distance traveled in a given direction is the displacement. Thus displacement is the shortest
distance between the given points. It is a vector quantity. S.I. unit of distance or displacement is metre.

NOTE : If a body travels in such a way that it comes back to its starting position, then the displacement
is zero. However, distance traveled is never zero.
Eg. :
(i) When an object moves towards right from origin to in time t 1 to t2, its displacement is positive.

(ii) When an object moves towards left in time t1 to t2, its displacement is negative.

When an object remains stationary or it moves first towards right and then an equal distance towards left,
its displacement is zero.
Shifting origin causes no change in displacement.
Difference between Distance and Displacement :

Distance Displacement
1. Distance is the length of the path actually traveled by 1. Displacement is the shortest distance between the
a body in any direction. initial and the final positions of a body in the direction
of the point of the final position.
2. Distance between two given points depends upon the 2. Displacement between two points is measured by the
path chosen. straight path between the points.
3. Distance is always positive. 3. Displacement may be positive as well as negative and
even zero.
4. Distance is scalar quantity. 4. Displacement is a vector quantity
5. Distance will never decrease 5. Displacement may decrease.

5
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 1.1

A body whose position with respect to surrounding does not change, is said to be in a state of :
(A) Rest (B) Motion (C) Vibration (D) Oscillation
2. In case of a moving body :
(A) Displacement > Distance (B) Displacement < Distance
(C) Displacement  Distance (D) Displacement  Distance
Vector quantities are those which have :
(A) Only direction (B) Only Magnitude
(C) Magnitude and direction both (D) None of these
4. What is true about scalar quantities ?
(A) Scalars quantities have direction also. (B) Scalars can be added arithmetically.
(C) There are special law to add scalars. (D) Scalars have special method to represent.
A body is said to be in motion if :

Neither (A) nor (B)

A distance is always :
(A) shortest length between two points (B) path covered by an object between two points
(C) product of length and time (D) none of the above
7. A displacement :
(A) is always positive (B) is always negative
(C) may be positive as well as negative (D) is neither positive nor negative
Examples of vector quantities are :
(A) velocity, length and mass (B) speed, length and mass

(C) time, displacement and mass (D) velocity, displacement and force
Which of the following is not characteristic of displacement ?
It is always positive.
Is has both magnitude and direction.
It can be zero.
Its magnitude is less than or equal the actual path length of the object.

6
 S.I. unit of displacement is :
-1 -2
(A) m (B) ms (C) ms (D) None of these
Which of the following is not a vector ?

(A) Speed (B) Velocity (C) Weight (D) Acceleration

Time is an example of :

(A) Scalar (B) Vector

(C) Scalar or vector (D) Neither scalar nor vector

In five minutes distance between a pole and a car changes progressively. What is true about the car ?

(A) Car is at rest (B) Car is in motion

(C) Nothing can be said with this information (D) None of the above

14. A distance :

(A) Is always positive (B) Is always negative

(C) May be positive as well as negative (D) Is neither positive nor negative

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 1.2

Is absolute rest possible ?

Are distance and displacement equal in magnitude ?

Is distance a vector quantity ?

Define scalar quantity and give two examples.

Define rest and motion and give two examples of each.

A runner running along a circle, runs the circle completely. What is his displacement ? What distance has
be run ?

Distinguish between rest and motion.

Write difference between distance and displacement.

Can a body be at rest and motion at the same time ? Explain.

When do we say that body is at rest and when do we say that it is moving ? Explain.

Give two examples to explain that motion is relative.

7
 MOTION

PL - 2

UNIFORM AND NON UNOFORM MOTION

(a) Uniform Motion :

A body has a uniform motion if it travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, no matter how small these
time intervals may be. For example, a car running at a constant speed of say, 10 meters per second, will
cover equal distances of 10 metres every second, so its motion will be uniform. Please note that the distance-
time graph for uniform motion is a straight line (as shown in the figure).

(b) Non-Uniform Motion :

body has a non-uniform if it travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time. For example, if we drop a
ball from the roof of a building, we will find that it covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time. It covers
:
4.9 metres in the 1st second,
14.7 metres in the 2nd second,
24.5 metres in the 3rd second, and so on.
Thus, a freely falling ball covers smaller distance in the initial „1 second‟ interval and larger distance in the
later „1 second‟ interval. From this discussion we conclude that the motion of a freely falling body is an
example of non-uniform motion. The motions of a train starting from the railway station is also an example of
non-uniform motion. This is because when the train starts from a s station, if moves a very small distance in
the „first‟ second. The train moves a little more distance in the „2nd‟ second and so on. And when the train
approaches the next station, the distance traveled by it per second decreases.

8
 Please note that the distance-time graph for a body having non-uniform motion is curved line (as shown in the
figure). Thus, in order to find out whether a body has uniform motion or non-uniform motion, we should draw
the distance-time graph for it. If the distance time graph is straight line, the motion will be uniform and if the
distance -time graph is a curved line, the motion will be non-uniform. It should be noted that non-uniform
motion is also called accelerated motion.

SPEED
The distance traveled by a body in unit time is called its peed. Therefore,
Dis tan ce d
speed = or s = . S.I. unit of speed or average speed is m/sec. It is a scalar quantity,
Time t
(a) Average Speed :
For an object moving with variable speed, it is the total distance traveled by the object divided by the total
time taken to cover that distance.

Average speed = total dis tan ce travelled

total time taken
(b) Uniform Speed (or Constant Speed):
When an object covers equal distance in equal intervals of time, it is said to move with uniform speed.
Eg. A car moves 10 m is every one second so it motion is uniform.
(c) Variable Speed (Non-Uniform Speed) :
If a body covers unequal distance in equal intervals of time, its motion is said to be non-uniform.
Eg. Falling of a apple from a tree, a cyclist moving on a rough road, an athlete running a race, vehicle starting
from rest, the motion of freely falling body etc.
(d) Instantaneous Speed :
The speed of an object at any particular instant of time or at particular point of its path is called
the instantaneous speed of the object. it is measure red by speedometer in an automobile.
VELOCITY
It is the rate of change of displacement.
displacement
Therefore, velocity = or it is the distance traveled in unit time in a given direction.
t
i
velocity =
me
dis tan ce travelled in a given direction
time taken
S.I. unit of velocity is m/s. If is a vector quantity.
(Magnitude of the velocity is known as speed) 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s.
9
 Speed Velocity
1. It is a scalar quantity. 1. It is a vector quanity.
2. Speed = dis tan ce travelled 2. Velocity = displacement
time time
3. It is rate of change of position of 3. It is rate of change of position of
an object. an object in specific direction.

(a) Uniform Velocity (Constant Velocity) :

If a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time in a given direction then it is said to be moving with
constant velocity.
(b) Non-Uniform Velocity :

When a body does not cover not cover equal distances in equal intervals of time, in a given direction (in this
case speed is not constant), then it is known as non uniform velocity. If speed is constant then also body can

have a non-uniform velocity.

Eg : A car moving on a circular road with constant speed.
(c) Average Velocity :
If initial velocity of body is u and final velocity is v then the arithmetic means of velocity is called average
u+v
velocity and is given as v2v = . Where, u = initial velocity and v = final velocity. Also for an object
2
moving with variable velocity it is defined as the ratio of its total displacement to the total time interval in
Total displacement
which the displacement occurs. Average velocity = . If x1 & x2 are the positions
of an Total time

x2−x1 x
object at times t 1 & t 2 then, v av =
= t=t 2−t 1
t t
(d) Instantaneous Velocity :

The velocity of an object at any given instant of time at particular point of its path is called its instantaneous
velocity.
x dx
V= =
lim t→0 Χt dt
Ex. When is the average speed of an object equal to the magnitude of its average velocity ? Give reason also.

Sol. As average speed = total pathlength also, average velocity = Displacement . When an object moves along
time int erval time int erval

a straight line and in the same direction its total path length is equal to the magnitude of its displacement.
Hence average speed is equal to the magnitude of its average velocity.

10
FEATURE OF UNIFORM MOTION
The velocity in uniform motion does not depend on the choice of origin.
The velocity in uniform motion does not depend on the choice of the time interval (t 2 – t1).

For uniform motion along a straight line in the same direction, the magnitude of the displacement is
equal to the actual distance covered by the object.

The velocity is positive if the object is moving towards the right of the origin and negative if the object
is moving towards the left of the origin.
For an object is uniform motion no force is required to maintain its motion.

In uniform motion, the instantaneous velocity is equal to the average velocity at all time because
velocity remains constant at each instant, at each point of the path.

ILLUSTRATIONS

A car is moving along x-axis. As shown in figure it moves from O to P in 18 s and returns from P to Q in 6
second. What is the average velocity and average speed of the car in going from (i) O to P and (ii) from O to
P and back to Q.

−1
Sol. (i) Average velocity = path lenght 360m  20 ms
time int erval 18
−1
Average speed = path length  360m  20 ms
time int erval 18

(ii) From O to P and back to Q

−1
Average velocity = OQ  240m  10 ms
18  6 24
−1
Average speed = path length  OP  PQ 360  120  20 ms
time int erval 18  6 24
-1
A car covers the 1st half of the distance between two places at a speed of 40 km h and the 2nd half at
-1
60 km h . What is the average speed of the car ?
Sol. Suppose the total distance covered is 2S.
Then time taken to cover first distance with speed 40 km/h,
S
t h
1 40

11
 Time taken to cover second S distance with speed 60 km/h,

t2 = S h
60

V total dis tan ce S+S

av = total time = SS
+
40 60

V = 2S = 2S × 120
av 3S + 2S 5S
120

⇒ Vav = 48km /h

3. A non-stop bus goes from one station to another station with a speed of 54 km/h, the same bus returns

from the second station to the first station with a speed of 36 km/h. Find the average speed of the bus for

the entire journey.

Sol. Suppose the distance between the stations is S. Time taken in reaching from one station to another station.
S
t= h
1 54
Time taken in returning back,
S
t= h
2 36
Total t = t1 + t2

t = S + S = 2S + 3S = 5S h
54 36 108 108

Total dis tan ce

Average speed Vav =
Total time
2S
V = av
× 108
5S
216
Vav = = 43.2 km /h

12
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 2.1

When a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time, its motion is said to be :
(A) Non-uniform (B) Uniform (C) Accelerated (D) Back and forth
The motion along a straight line is called :
(A) Vibratory (B) Stationary (C) Circular (D) Linear
A particle is traveling with a constant speed. This means :
Its position remains constant as time passes.
It covers equal distance in equal interval of time
Its acceleration is zero
It does not change its direction of motion
The rate of change of displacement is :
(A) Speed (B) Velocity (C) Acceleration (D) Retardation
Speed is never :
(A) zero (B) Fraction (C) Negative (D) Positive
The motion of a body covering different distances in same intervals of time is said to be :
(A) Zig - Zag (B) Fast (C) Slow (D) Variable
Unit of velocity is :
-1 2
(A) ms (B) ms (C) ms (D) none of these
8. A speed :
(A) is always positive (B) is always negative
(C) may be positive as well as negative (D) is neither zero nor negative
A particle moves with a uniform velocity :
(A) The particle must be at rest (B) The particle moves along a curved path
(C) The particle moves along a circle (D) The particle moves along a straight line
-1
A quantity has value of -6.0 ms . It may be the :
(A) Speed of a particle (B) Velocity of a particle
(C) Position of a particle (D) Displacement of a particle
-1
In 10 minutes, a car with speed of 60 kmh travels a distance of :
(A) 6 km (B) 600 km (C) 10 km (D) 7 km
A particle covers equal distances in equal intervals of times, it is said to be moving with uniform :
(A) Speed (B) Velocity (C) Acceleration (D) Retardation

13
 The SI unit of the average velocity is :
(A) m/s (B) km/s (C) cm/s (D) mm/s

Mere per second is not the unit of :

(A) Speed (B) Velocity (C) Displacement (D) None of them

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 2.2

What is the S.I. unit of velocity ?

Which is vector, speed or velocity ?

Give the name of the physical quantity that corresponds to the rate of change of displacement ?

Apart from velocity name two other quantities which are vector ?

When is a body said to have uniform velocity ?

A particle is moving with uniform velocity. it is necessary moving with uniform speed ? Is it necessary that it is
moving along a straight line ?

Write difference between sped and velocity.

-1 -1 -1
A train covers 80 km in 2 hours. Find its average speed in kmh , m min and ms .
Which one of the following have maximum and the least average speed ?
-1
Sanjeev moving with 12 kmh
-1
Rajeev running with 5 ms
-1
Kabir moving with 150 m min .
10. (a) Uniform motion (b) Non uniform motion

11. (a) Average speed (b) Velocity

14
 MOTION

PL - 3
ACCELERATION

Mostly the velocity of a moving object changes either in magnitude or in direction or in both when the object moves.
The body is then said to have acceleration. So it is the rate of change of velocity i.e. change in velocity in unit time
2 2
to the acceleration (it is a vector quantity). Its S.I. unit is m/sec and c.g.s unit is c m/sec.

Acceleration = change in velocity = v − u = final velocity − initial velocity

time t time
(a) Uniform Acceleration (Uniformly Accelerated Motion):
If a body travels in a straight line and its velocity increases in equal amounts in equal intervals of time. Its
motion is known as uniformly accelerated motion.

Eg.1 Motion of a freely falling body is an example of uniformly accelerated motion (or motion of a body under the
gravitational pull of the earth).

Eg.2 Motion of a bicycle going down the slope of a road when the rider is not pedaling and wind resistance is
negligible.
(b) None-Uniform Acceleration :
If during motion of a body its velocity increases by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time, then its motion
is known as non uniform accelerated motion.
Eg.1 Car moving in a crowded street.
Eg.2 Motion of a train leaving or entering the platform.

TYPES OF ACCELERATIO
Positive acceleration : If the velocity of an object increases in the same direction, the object has a positive
acceleration.
Negative acceleration (retardation): If the velocity of a body decreases in the same direction, the body
has negative acceleration or it is said to be retarding.
Eg. A train slows down.

15
EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATION MOTION

(a) 1st Equation of Motion :

Consider a body having initial velocity „u‟. Suppose it is subjected to a uniform acceleration „a‟ so that
after time „t‟ its final velocity becomes „v‟. Now we now,

Acceleration = change in velcity

time

a=v−u
t
or v = u + at or v = at + u …..(i)

nd
(b) 2 Equation of Motion :
Suppose a body has an initial velocity „u‟ and uniform acceleration „a‟ for time „t‟ so that its final velocity
becomes „v‟. The distance traveled by moving body in time „t‟ is „s‟ then the average velocity = (v + u)/2.
Distance traveled = Average velocity × time
u+v u + u + at
s= t ⇒ s= t (as u = v + at)
2 2
2
2u + at 2ut + at
s= t ⇒ s=
2 2
1
s = ut + at 2
2

(c) 3rd Equation of Motion

Distance traveled = Average velocity × time
u+v
s= t ……(ii)
2
v−u
from equation (i) t =

v − uv + u
Substituting the value of t in equation (iii), we get s = a 2

2 2
s=v −u ⇒
2 2 2 2
2as = v – u or v = u + 2as ….(iv)
2a

th
(d) Distance covered in n second :
1 2
S = ut + at is the distance covered by a body in t s.
2

16
 S − un + 1 an 2
n 2 ........(v) [distance covered by a body along a straight line in n second.
S
n−1 1 2
= u(n − 1) + a(n − 1) .......(vi) [distance covered by a body along a straight line in (n-1) sec.]
2
∴ The distance covered by the body in nth second will be -
Snth = Sn – Sn-1
1 2 1 2
∴ Snth = un + an − {u(n − 1) + a(n − 1) }
2 2
S 1
2 1
2
nth = un + an − {nu − u + a(n + 1 − 2n)}
2 2
S 2 2
nth
= un + 1 an − {un − u + an +a − an}
2 2 2
S nth 2 2
= un +
1 an
− un + u − an − a + an
2 2 2
1
nth = u + a n −
2
2n − 1
nth =u+a
2
nth a
=u+ (2n − 1) …………(vii)
2

TO SOLVE NUMERIAL PROBLEMS

If a body is dropped from a height then its initial velocity u = 0 but has acceleration (acting). If a
body starts from rest its initial velocity u = 0.

If a body comes to rest, its final velocity v = 0 or, if a body reached the highest point after being thrown
upwards its final velocity v = 0 but has acceleration (acting).
if a body moves with uniform velocity, its acceleration is zero i.e. a = 0.
Motion of body is called free fall if only force acting on it is gravity (i.e. earth‟s attraction).
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY (UNIFORM ACCELERATED MOTION)

The acceleration with which a body travels under gravity is called acceleration due to gravity „g‟. Its value is
2 2 2
9.8 m/s (or ≈ 10 m/s ). If you have to take g = 10 m/s then it must be mentioned in the question otherwise
2
take g = 9.8 m/s .
If a body moves upwards (or thrown up) g is taken negative (i.e. motion is against gravitation of earth).
So we can form the equation of motion like.
1 2 2 2
v = u - gt, s = ut - gt , v - u = - 2 gh.
2
(ii) If a body travels
1 2
downwards
2 2
(towards earth) then g is taken + ve. So equations of motion becomes v = u

gt, s = ut + gt , v - u = 2gh.

17
 if a body is projected vertically upwards with certain velocity then it returns to the same point of
projection with the same velocity in the opposite direction.

The time for upward motion is the same as for the downward motion.

ILLUSTRATION

A car is moving at a speed of 50 km/h. Two seconds there after it is moving at 60 km/h. Calculate
the acceleration of the car.

Sol. Here u = 50 km/h = 50 × 5 m/s = 250 m/s

18 18

and v = 60 km/h = 60 × 5 = 300 m/s

18 18

300 − 250 50
2
Since a = v − u = 1818 = 18 = 50 = 1.39 m /s
t 2 2 36

A car attains 54 km/h in 20 s after it starts. Find the acceleration of the car.
Sol. u = 0 (as car starts from rest)
5
v = 54 km/h = 54 × = 15 m/s
v−u 2
As, a = ∴a = 15 − 0 = 0.75m /s
20
2
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m/s. How high did the ball go ? (take g = 9.8 m/s ).

Sol. u = 20 m/s, a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2 (moving against gravity)

s = ? v = 0 (at highest point)

2 2

400 = 2 (-9.8) s

400 = - 19.6 s

= s ⇒ s = 20.4 m.
19.6

18
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP 3.1

A car accelerated uniformly from 18 km/h to 36 km/h in 5 s. The accelerating is ms -2 is :

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Out of energy and acceleration which is vector ?

(A) Acceleration (B) Energy (C) Both (D) None of these

C.G.S. unit of acceleration is :

-2 -2 2 2
(A) ms (B) cm s (C) ms (D) cm s
-1
A train starting from a railway station and moving with inform acceleration, attains a speed of 40 kmh in
10 minutes, Is acceleration is :
-2 -2 -2 -2
(A) 18.5 ms (B) 1.85 cm s (C) 18.5 cms (D) 1.85 m s
-2
The brakes applied to a cap produce a negative acceleration of 6ms . If the car stops after 2 seconds, the
initial velocity of the car is :
-1 -1 -1
(A) 6 ms (B) 12 ms (C) 24 ms (D) zero
-1
A body is moving with uniform velocity of 10 ms . The velocity of the body after 10 s is :
(A) 100 ms-1 (B) 50 ms-1 (C) 10 ms-1 (D) 5 ms-1

In 12 minutes a car whose speed is 35 kmh-1 travels of distance of :

(A) 7 km (B) 3.5 km (C) 14 km (D) 28 km

Ȁ Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā
body is moving along a straight line at 20 ms-1 undergoes an acceleration of 4 ms-2. After 2 s, its speed

will be:

(A) 8 ms-2 (B) 12 ms-1 (C) 16 ms-2 (D) 28 ms-2

A car increase its speed from 20 kmh-1 to 50 kmh-1 is 10 sec., its acceleration is :

(A) 30 ms-1 (B) 3 ms-1 (C) 18 ms-1 (D) 0.83 ms-1

When the distance travelled by an object is directly proportional to the time, it is said to travel with :

(A) zero velocity (B) constant speed (C) constant acceleration (D) uniform velocity

A body freely failing from rest has a velocity V after it falls through a height h. The distance it has to fall further
for its velocity to be come double is :

(A) 3 h (B) 6 h (C) 8 h (D) 10 h

The velocity of bullet is reduced from 200m/s to 100 m/s while traveling through a wooden block of thickness
10 cm. The retardation, assuming it to be uniform will be :
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
(A) 10 × 10 m/s (B) 1.2 × 10 m/s (C) 13.5 × 10 m/s (D) 15 × 10 m/s

19
 A body starts falling from height „h‟ and travels distance h/2 during the last second of motion. The find

of travel (in sec.) is :

(A) 2 − 1 (B) 2 + 2 (C) 2 + 3 (D) 3+2

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 3.2

th
Find the formula for the distance covered by a body in n s.
How is the position of a moving particle along a straight line described by a number ? How is the direction

of motion specified by the number describing position ?

-1

A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity 39.2 ms . Calculate :

the time taken by the ball to reach the highest point.

-
A body standing near the edge of a cliff 125 m above a river throws a stone downward with a speed of 10 ms
1
Find :
with what speed will the stone hit water and

how long will it take to descend ?

A stone is dropped from the top of a building 200 m high and at the same time another stone is projected
-1
vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 50 ms . Find where and when the two stone will meet.

A ball thrown vertically upward reached a height of 80 m. Calculate :

the time to reach the highest point

the spend of the ball upon arrival on the ground.

20
 MOTION
PL - 4

DISTANCE (DISPLACEMENT) FROM SPEED (VELOCITY) TIME GRAPH

A distance (displacement = speed (velocity) x time, so the distance (displacement) can be calculated
(computed) with speed (velocity) - time graph.
Case (i) : When speed (velocity) is uniform (constant):
-1
Figure shows the speed - time graph of a car (taxi) moving with a uniform speed of 50 km h . It is a straight
line parallel to X - axis (time axis). Distance covered by this taxi from time t 1 = 4h at P to time t2 = 8 h at S, is
given by distance = 50 × (t2 - t1)
50 (8 - 4)
50 × 4 = 200 km

In figure, PQ = 50, SP = (t1 - t1)

Hence distance = PQ × SP = Area of rectangle PSRQ
Case (ii) : When speed (velocity) as well as acceleration is non-uniform (variable)
Figure shows the speed- time graph of a body moving with variable speed and acceleration. Over a small
interval of time t , the speed can be taken as constant. For this small time interval, distance S = v t = Area of
the blackened strip.

For whole time-interval between t1 and t2

distance = sum of area of all the strips between t 1 and t2 = Area of shaded figure PQRS.

21
GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS OF
MOTION First Equations :
v = u + at
It can be derived from v - t graph, as shown is figure
From line PQ, the slope of the line = acceleration a

a = QR = SP
RP RP
∴ SP = v - u
v−u
So a=
t
or v u + at
(b) Second Equation :
1 2
s = ut + at
2
It can also be derived from v - t graph as shown in figure.
From relation,
Distance covered = Area under v -
graph s = Area of trapezium OPQS
Area of rectangle OPRS + Area of triangle PQR
RQ × PR
OP × PR +
2
Putting values,
1
= u× t + (v − u)× t 2

(∴RQ = v − u & PR = OS = t)
1
= u× t + at × t (∴v − u = at)
2
1 2
Pr s = ut + at
2

(c) Third Equation :

2 2
v = u + 2as
From above graph OP = um SQ = v, OP + SQ = u + v

a = QR or PR = QR = v − u
PR a a
OP + SQ
S = Area of trapezium OPQS = ×
PR 2
On putting the values,
2 2
u+v v−u v −u 2 2
S= × = or v = u + 2as
2 a 2a

22
 EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP 4.1

Area between speed - time graph and time axis gives :

(A) Distance (B) Velocity (C) Speed (D) None of these
-2
An object undergoes an acceleration of 8 ms starting from rest. Distance traveled is 1 s is :
(A) 2 m (B) 4m (C) 6m (D) 8 m
The velocity-time graph of a body moving in a straight line is shown in figure. The displacement and
distance travelled by the body is 6 seconds are respectively.

For the velocity time graph shown in figure, the distance covered by the body in the last two seconds of its
motion is what fraction is of the total distance covered in all the seven seconds ?

(A) 1/2 (B) 1/4 (C) 1/3 (D) 2/3

Velocity-time graph AB (Figure) shows that the body has :

A uniform acceleration
A non-uniform retardation
Uniform speed
Initial velocity OA and is moving with uniform retardation

23
 In figure BC represents a body moving :
Backward with uniform velocity
Forward with uniform velocity
Backward with non-uniform velocity
Forward with non-uniform velocity

Speedometer measures ................ speeds.

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 4.2

A stone is thrown vertically upward which takes time „t‟ to reach to maximum height „h‟. After next „t‟ seconds
it reached the ground from the maximum height. Draw (i) distance-time graph and (ii) displacement time
graph for the motion of the stone.
Draw V-t graphs in the following cases : (i) uniform retardation (ii) non uniform acceleration
From the following (V-t) graph find :

Distance and displacement in 10 second.

Distance and displacement in 15 second.

24
 MOTION
PL - 5

CIRCULAR MOTION

(a) Definition :
Motion of a particle (small body) along a circle (circular path), is called a circular motion. If the body covers
equal distances along the circumference of the circle in equal intervals of time, the motion is said to be a
uniform circular motion. A uniform circular motion is a motion in which speed remains constant but direction of
velocity changes.
(b) Explanation :
Consider a boy running along a regular hexagonal track (path) as shown in figure. As the boy runs along the
side of the hexagon at a uniform speed, he has to take turn at each corner changing direction but keeping the
sped same. In one round he has to take six turns at regular intervals. If the same boy runs along the side of a
regular octagonal track with same uniform speed, he will have to take eight turns in one round at regular
intervals but the interval will become smaller.

By increasing the number of sides of the regular polygon, we find the number of turns per round becomes
more and the interval between two turns become still shorter. A circle is a limiting case of polygon with an
infinite number of sides. On the circular track, the turning becomes a continuous process without any gap in
between. The boy running along the sides of such a track will be performing a circular motion. Hence, circular
motion is the motion of a body along the sides of polygon of infinite number of sides with uniform speed, the
direction changing continuously.

Eg. Example of uniform circular motion are :

Motion of moon around the earth.
Motion of satellite around its planet.
(c) Nature of Circular of Motion :
Circular motion is an acceleration motion. Since, in a circular motion, velocity changes though in direction
only, the motion is said to be accelerated.

25
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION AND A UNIFOR CIRCULAR MOTION

Uniform linear motion Uniform circular motion

1. The direction of motion does not changes 1. The direction of motion changes continuously.
2. The motion is non-accelerated. 2. The motion is accelerated.

RADIAN - (A UNIT FOR PLANE ANGLE)

It is a convenient unit for measuring angle in physics.
(a) Definition :
One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an arc equal in length to its radius.

Eg. In figure, the arc AB of the circle has length and subtends an angle θ at the centre C.
If ∠ACB = θ radians.

Then, θ = radians.

[For = 1, θ = 1 radian]
Angle subtended by the circumference at the centre,
2πr c
= = 2π radians {or 2π
c
}r 0

[ ] is symbol for radian, just as ( ) is symbol for degree.

For complete circle at centre

c 0
2π = 360
c 360 0
Or 1 = = 57.3
2π
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND ANGULAR VELOCITY
(a) Definitions :
(i) Angular displacement : In a circular motion, the angular displacement of a body is the angle subtended
by the body at the centre in a given interval of time. It is represented by the symbol θ (theta).
(ii) Angular velocity : The angular displacement per unit time is called the angular velocity. it is
represented by the symbol ω (omega).
Eg. Let a body move along a circle of radius r and perform a uniform circular motion. Let the body be at point P
to start with and reach point Q after time t. Then, angular displacement = ∠PCQ = θ and angular velocity

= ω = θ (i.e. θ = ωt)
t
If the time period of the body is T (time taken in one complete round), the angular displacement = 2π
c 2 π
Hence ω = T
1
But = N (frequency)
T
There ω = 2πN

26
 (b) Units for θ and ω :
The unit for angular displacement is radian (a supplementary quantity). The radian is defined at the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to its radius. The unit from angular velocity radian
per second (rad/s).

Relation between Linear and Angular Quantities :

For an arc of length
Linear displacement =
Angular displacement , θ =
r
Hence,
For a time interval t,

Linear velocity, v =
t
Angular velocity ω = θ = =v
t rt r
Hence v = rω

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP 5.1

1c is equal to :
0 0 0 0
(A) 57.3 (B) 573 (C) 180 (D) 360
An athlete complete one round of a circular track of diameter 200 m in 40 s. What will be the displacement
at the end of 2 minutes 40 s.?
(A) 2200 m (B) 220 m (C) 22 m (D) Zero
What will be the distance in the above equation ?
(A) 2512 m (B) 2500 m (C) 2200 m (D) Zero
The distance traveled by a body is directly proportional to the time, then the body is said to have :
(A) Zero speed (B) Zero velocity (C) Constant speed (D) None of these
An athlete runs along a circular track of diameter 28m. The displacement of the athlete after he completes
one circle is :
(A) 28 m (B) 88 m (C) 44 m (D) Zero
A boy is running along a circular track of radius 7 m. He completes one circle in 10 second. The average
velocity of the boy is :
(A) 4.4 m-1 (B) 0.7 ms-1 (C) Zero (D) 70 ms-1
A body is moving with a uniform speed of 5 ms-1 in a circular path of radius 5 m. The acceleration of the
body is :
(A) 25 ms-2 (B) 15 ms-2 (C) 5 ms-2 (D) 1 ms-2
Unit of angular velocity is :
2
(A) red (B) m/s (C) rad/s (D) rad/s

27
 The bodies in circular paths of radii 1 : 2 take same time to compete their circles. The ratio of their
linear speeds is :
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 1 : 3 (D) 3 : 1
-1
In a circular path of radius 1m, a mass of 2kg moves with a constant speed 10 ms . The angular speed
in radian/sec. is :
(A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 20
The relation among v, ω and r is :

(A) ω = v (B) v = ω (C) ω = r (D) None of these

r r v
Uniform circular motion is an example of :
(A) Variable acceleration (B) Constant acceleration
(C) A and B both (D) None of these
Rate of change of angular velocity refer to :
(A) angular speed (B) angular displacement
(C) angular acceleration (D) None of these
1 th
14. A car travels of a circle with radius r. The ratio of the distance to its displacement is :
4

(A) 1; π (B) π :1 (C) 2 2 : π (D) π2 2 : 1

2 2 22

SUBJECTIVE DPP 5.2

-1
The wheel of a cycle of radius 50 cm is moving with a speed 14 ms . Calculate the angular velocity of
the wheel.
-1
An air craft completes a horizontal loop of radius 1 km with a uniform speed of 900 kmh . Find the
angular velocity of the air craft.
A artificial satellite takes 90 minutes to complete its revolution around the earth. Calculate the angular velocity
of the satellite.
A particle moves along a circle of radius R as shown in figure. It starts from A and moves in anticlock-
wise direction.

Calculate the distance traveled and displacement :

(i) From A to B (ii) From A to C (iii) From A to D
Name a physical quantity that (i) varies (ii) remains same in a circular motion.
Define angular speed write its S.I. unit.
Define the time period and find the relation between v and ω .

28
 ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 1.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. A D C B B B C D A A A A B A

(Objective DPP # 2.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. B D B B C D B A D B C A A C

(Subjective DPP # 2.2)

-1 -1 -1
40 kmh , 666.7 m min , 11.1 ms
(Objective DPP # 3.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Ans. A A B B B C A D D B A D B

(Subjective DPP # 3.2 )

-1
3. (i) 78.4 m (ii) 4 s 4. (i) 5.5 ms (ii) 4.13 s
After 4 second, it will be at a height of 121.6 m from the ground.

-1
(i) 4.04s (ii) 39.59 ms
(Objective DPP # 4.1)
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ans. A B A B D A

⠀ ⤀Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā
nstantaneous speed
(Subjective DPP # 4.2)
3. (i) 100 m, 100 m (ii) 112.5 m, 87.5 m

(Objective DPP # 5.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. A D A C D C C D A B A B C B

(Subjective Dpp # 5.2)

π
1. 28 rad/s 2. 0.25 rad/s 3. 2700rad/d

29
 FORCE AND
LAWS OF MOTION
PL-6

FORCE
Consider a ball kept on a table, we can move it by pulling or pushing. We can increase its speed by pushing it
in the direction of motion. If we push it opposite to the direction of motion its speed will decrease. If the ball is
in motion towards east, we push it towards north, the direction of will change.

Take a soft rubber ball between your palms and push the ball from both sides, the shape of the ball is
distorted. In all the above cases we have applied the force on the ball.

So force in a push or pull which can move the object. It can change the speed of the object, it can change the
direction of motion, it can change the shape of the object. In all the above cases we have applied the force on
the ball and the ball is accelerated so we can define force as follows :
“Force is the cause which can produce acceleration in the body on which is acts”.
(a) Effects of Force :
The force or a set of forces acting on a body, can do three things :
A force or a set of forces can change the speed of the body.
A force or a set of forces can change the direction of motion.
A force can change the shape of the body.
GALILEO‟S EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1 :

It was observed by Galileo that when a ball is rolled down on an inclined plane it speed increases, whereas if
it is rolled up an inclined plane its speed decreases. If it is rolled on a horizontal plane the result must be
between the cases describe above i.e. the speed should remain constant. If can be explain as -

moving down : speed increase moving up : speed decreases moving horizontal : speed remains constant

30
 Experiments 2 :
When a ball sin released on the inner surface of a smooth hemisphere, it will move to the other side and
reach the same height before coming to rest momentarily. If the hemisphere is replaced by a surface shown
in figure (b) in order to reach the same height ht ball will have to move a larger distance.

(a) (b) (c)

if the other side is made horizontal, the ball will never stop because it will never be able to reach the same
height, it means its speeds will not decrease. It will have uniform velocity on the horizontal surface. Thus, if
unbalances forced do not act on a body, the body will either remain at rest or will move with a uniform
velocity. It will remain uncelebrated.
(a) Conclusion of Galileo‟s Experiments :
(i) A body is at rest and no unbalanced forced acts on it, remains at rest.
(ii) A body is moving and no unbalance force acts on it, it will continue to move at constant speed in a fixed
direction.
If unbalance forces act on a body the body will accelerated. The idea was suggested by Galileo and was later
formulated into laws by Newton.

NOWTON‟S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

We have learnt so far that :

If a body is at rest and no unbalanced force acts on it, it remains at rest.
If a body is moving and no unbalanced force acts on it, it will continue to move at constant speed in
a fixed direction.
If an unbalanced force acts on a body, the body will accelerated.
These facts are taken together from Galileo‟s law of inertia on Newton‟s‟ first law of motion. The idea was
suggested by Galileo and was later formulated into a law by Newton. We can state Newton‟s first law motion
as follows :
(a) Statement of Newton‟s First law of Motion :
A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in uniform motion unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
This law also be stated as follows :
A body remain uncelebrated if and only if, the resultant force on it is zero.
In such a case the body is said to be in equilibrium.

31
INERTIA
Description :
If follows from first law of motion that is absence of any eternal force, a body continues to be in its state of rest
or of uniform motion along a straight line. In other words, the body cannot change by itself its position of rest
or of uniform motion.
The inability of the body to change by itself its states of rest or uniform motion is a straight line is called
inertia. Newton‟s‟ first law of motion is also called law of inertia.
(a) Inertia Depends upon Mass :L
We know that it is difficult to move a heavier body than the lighter one. Similarly it is difficult to stop a moving
heavier body that a lighter body moving with the same velocity. Thus, we conclude that mass of the body is
the measure of inertia, more the mass, more the inertia.

TYPES OF INERTIA
Inertia is of the three types :
(a) Inertia of Rest :
The tendency of the body to continue is state of rest even when some external unbalance force is applied on
it, is called the inertia of rest.
Description :
A person sitting in a bus falls backwards when the bus suddenly starts. The reason is the lower part of his
body begins to move along with the bus but the upper part of his body tends to remain at due to inertia of rest.

We beat a carpet with a stick to remove dust particles. When the carpet is beaten, it is suddenly set
into motion. The dust particles tend to remain at rest due to inertia of rest and hence fall off.
When a branch of tree is shaken the fruits get separated from the tree due to inertia of rest.
(b) Inertia of Motion :
The tendency of the body to continue in its state of motion even when some unbalance forces are applied
on it, is called in the inertia of motion.
Description :
A man carelessly getting down a moving bus falls forward, the reason being that his feet come to
rest suddenly, whereas the upper part of his body retains the forward motion.

32
 Man jumping carelessly from a
moving bus falls forward.

An athlete runs a certain distance before taking a leap so that the inertia of motion of his body at the
time of leaping may help him in his muscular efforts.
We remove snow or mud from our shoes by striking them against wall. On striking the wall, the feet
comes to rest whereas the snow which is still in motion separates from the shoes.
(c) Inertia of Direction :
The tendency of a body to oppose any change in its direction of motion is known as inertia of direction.
If a car takes a turn along a curved track, the passengers experience a force acting away from the centre
of the curved track. This is the result of tendency of the passenger to continue moving along a straight path.
Tie a stone to one end of a string and holding other end of the string in hand. rotate the stone in a
horizontal circle. if during rotation, the string breaks at certain stage, the stone is found to fly off tangentially at
that point of the circle.

The water drops sticking to cycles tyre are found to fly off tangentially.
The sparks produced during sharpening of a knife or a razor against a grinding wheel, leave the rim of the
wheel tangentially.
DEFINITION OF FORCE FROM FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Description :
A according to first law of motion, if there is no force, there is no change in state of rest or of uniform motion.
In other words, if a force is applied, it may change the state of rest or of uniform motion. If the force is not
sufficient, it may not produce a change but only try to do so.
Hence force is that which changes or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body
in straight line.

33
 EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 6.1

If A and B two objects with masses 10 kg and 30 kg respectively then :

(A) A has more inertia than B (B) B has more inertia than A
(C) A and B have the same inertia (D) none of the two have inertia
2. First law of motion defines :
(A) inertia (B) force
(C) both inertia and force (D) neither inertia nor force
Newton‟s first law of motion is :
(A) qualitative (B) quantitative
(C) both qualitative and quantitative (D) neither qualitative nor quantitative
4. Inertia depends upon :
(A) acceleration of the body (B) velocity of the body
(C) shape of the body (D) mass of the body
Which of the following has largest inertia ?
(A) A pin (B) An in pot

(C) Your physics book (D) Your body

When a bus starts suddenly the passengers standing on it, lean backwards in the bus. This is an example of
: (A) Newton‟s first law (B) Newton‟s second law

(C) Nekton‟s third law (D) none of Newton‟s law

The law which defines force is :

(A) Newton‟s third law (B) Newton‟s first law

(C) Newton‟s second law (D) none of these

Inertia of rest is the property by virtue of which the body is unable to change by itself :
the state of rest only
the state of uniform linear motion
the direction of motion only
the steady state of rest
An iron ball and aluminium ball has same mass :
(A) inertia of iron is greater than aluminium (B) both the ball have same inertia

(C) inertia of iron is less than that on Aluminium(D) none of these

Mass measure amount of ____ in a body :
(A) inertia (B) motion (C) velocity (D) acceleration

34
SUBEJCTIVE DPPT - 6.2

Name the property of the bodies to resist the change in their velocities.
With which law of motion, the same of Galileo is associated ?

A ball is moving on a frictionless horizontal surface and no force is applied on it. Will its speed
decrease, increase or remain same.
What causes motion ?
Define force.
Define inertia and name its three types.
State Newton‟s first law of motion.
Which of the following has more inertia ? Explain :
A rubber ball and stone of the same size.
A bicycle and a train.
A five rupee coin and a one rupee coin.

Why do you fall in forward direction when a moving bus brakes to stop and fall backward when it acceleration
from rest ?

35
 FORCE AND LAWS
OF MOTION

PL – 7

MOMENTUM
Description :
It is the combined effect of mass and velocity of the body. Mathematically, momentum of the body is defined
as the product of mass and the velocity of the body. If m is the mass of the body and v is its velocity then
momentum, p = mv
Momentum is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of velocity.
Unit of momentum :
(In C.G.S. system) → p = mv → gram × cm/s = dyne × s
(In M.K.S. system) → p = mv → kg × m/s = Newton × s

NEWTON‟S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied unbalanced forces i.e.
Rate of change of momentum ∝ Force applied
Let a body is moving with initial velocity u and after applying a force F on it, its velocity becomes v in time t.

Initial momentum of the body p1 = mu

Final momentum of the body p2 = mv

Change in momentum in time t is mv - mu
mv − mu
So rate of change of momentum =
mv − mu
But according to Newton‟s second law, ∝F
t

Or Fα m(v − u) Here, v − u = a (acceleration)

t t
So F α ma
or F = kma Here is proportionality constant.
2
if 1N force is applied on a body of mass 1 kg and the acceleration produced in the body is 1 ms/ , then 1 =
k × 1 × 1 or k = 1.
So the magnitude of the resultant force acting on body is equal to the product of mass of the body and
the acceleration produced. Direction of the force is same as that of the acceleration.

36
 UNITS OF FORCE
(a) In C.G.S. System :
2
∴ F = ma → gm × cm/s =
Dyne Definition of one dyne :
2
If m = 1 gm, a = 1 cm/s , then F = 1 dyne.
2
When a force is applied on a body of mass 1 gram and the acceleration produced in the body in 1 cm/s
then the force acting on the body will be one dyne.
(b) In S.I. System : 2

F = ma → kg × m/s = Newton
2
If m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s then by, F = ma

2
If a force is applied on a body of a mass 1 kg and acceleration produced in the body in 1 m/s , then the
force acting on the body will be one Newton.
Other units :
There are two other units of force called gravitational units.

Kilogram force (kf) or Kilogram weight (kg. wt.) is force with which a mass of 1 kg is attracted by the
earth towards its centre.
1 kgf = 9.8 N

Gram force or gram weight is the force with which a mass of 1 gram is attracted by the earth towards
its centre.
1 gf = 981 dyne
Relation between Newton and dyne.
We know :
-2
1 N = 1kg = 1 ms
or 1 N = 1000 g × 100 cms →
5 5
or 1 N = 10 g cms → = 10 dyne
5
∴ 1 N = 10 dyne
FIRST LAW OF MOTION BY SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Description :

According to first law of motion, if there is no force, there is no change in state of rest or of uniform motion. In
other words, if a force is applied, it may change the state of rest or of uniform motion. If the force is not
sufficient, if may not produce a change but only try to do so. Hence force is that which changes o tries to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in straight line.

37
 Hence we get the definition of force from Newton‟s first law of motion.
Newton‟s first law of motion can be deduced from Newton‟s‟ second law of motion.
According to second law of motion,
F = ma
if F = 0, then a = 0
Since m ≠ 0

So a=v−u =0
t
or mv = mu
or v - u = 0 or v = u
or v=u [after more time]
Which means that the velocity of the body cannot change in absence of external force. If the body is initially at
-1 -1
rest i.e., if u = 0, v = 0 and if u = 5 ms , v = 5ms .
Thus, it follows that a body will continue to be in the state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line if
no external force acts on it and this is the first law. thus, first law can be deduced from second law of motion.

ILLUSTRATIONS
2
A force F1 acting on a body of 2 kg produces an acceleration of 2.5 ms . An other force F2 acting on the
2 F2
another body of mass 5 kg produces an acceleration of 2 m/sec . Find the ratio .
F
1
Sol. For fist body F = ma
F1 = 2 × 2.5 = 5N
For second body F2 = 5 × 2 = 10N
F 10
So 2
= = 2.
F1 5
-2
A force of 20N acting on amass m1 produces an acceleration of 4 ms . The same force is applied on mass m2
-2
then the acceleration produced is 0.5 ms . What acceleration would the same force produce, when
both masses are tied together ?
-2
Sol. For mass m : F = 20N, a = 4 ms
1

then m1 = F = 20 = 5 kg
a 4
2

then m 2 = F = 20 = 40 kg
a 0.5

F 20 = 0.44 ms− 2
then a = =
(m1 + m 2 ) 45

38
IMPULSES OF FORCE
(a) Introduction :
In previous article, we leant that a moving body has momentum and that on effect (a force) is needed to stop
it. It is our common experience that a smaller force takes more time to stop the body whereas a bigger force
does the same in lesser time. This observation gives concept of a new quantity, force × time, which is named
a impulse.
(b) Definition :
The product of the magnitude of a force applied on a body and the time for which it is applied, is
called impulse of the force. It is represented by the symbol (I). i.e., Impulse = Force × Time

or I = F. t
The S.I. unit of impulse is Newton-second (N-s) and the C.G.S unit is dyne - second (dyne -s)
(c) Impulse and Momentum :
From Newton‟s second law of motion
p
2 − p1
Force, F = or F.t = p2 − p1
t
i.e., Impulse = Change in momentum
This relation is called impulse equation or momentum-impulse theorem. It has an important application in our
everyday life.

APPLICATIONS OF IMPULSE EQUATION IN DAILY LIFE

(i) Catching the ball by a cricketer :
While catching a fast moving cricket ball, the player moves his hands backward after catching the ball. By
moving his hands, the cricketer increases the time. As a result he has to apply a small force on the ball. In
reaction, the ball also applies lesser force and the hands of the player are not injured.

(ii) Jumping on heap of sand :

If someone jumps from a height on a heap of sand below, his feet move inside the sand very slowly. His
momentum changes slowly requiring a lesser force of action from the sand. The man is not injured.

39
 (iii) Jumping down of a passenger from a moving train or bus :
A passenger sitting in a moving train or bus has momentum, When the jumps down and stands on platform or
road, his momentum becomes zero.
If he jumps down suddenly from the moving train or bus and tries to stand on his feet, his body will fall forward
due to inertia of motion. He will be injured.
He is advised to run over some distance on the platform or road along with (in direction f) the train or bus.
This will slow down his rate of change of momentum and lesser force will be involved.
(vi) Springs in vehicles :
The vehicles are fitted with springs to reduce the hardness of the shock. When vehicles more over an uneven
road, they experience impulses exerted by the road. The springs increase the duration of impulse and hence
reduce the force.
(v) Springs in seats :
The seats are also fitted with springs to reduce their hardness. When we sit on them all of a sudden, the
seats are compressed. The compression increases duration of our coming to rest of the seat. They reaction

force of seats become negligible.

(vi) Soft material packing :
China and glass wares are packed with soft material when transported. They collide during transportation but
soft packing material slows down their rate of change of momentum. The force of impact is reduced and the
items are not broken.
(vii) Atheists :
Athletes are advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast race. In general, all changes of momentum
must be brought slowly to involve lesser force of action and reaction to avoid injury.

IMPULSE DURING AN IMPACT OR COLLISION

The impulsive force acting on the body produces a change in momentum of the body on which it acts. We
know, Ft = mv - mu, therefore maximum force needed to produce a given impulse depends upon time. If time
is short, the force required in a given impulse or the change in momentum is large and vice - versa.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 7.1

Newton‟s second law of motion :

(A) defines force (B) defines inertia
(C) gives measure of force (D) none of these
2. Newton‟s second law of motion is :
(A) qualitative (B) quantitative
(C) both qualitative and quantitative (D) neither qualitative nor quantitative

40
Momentum measures amount of _______ in a body :

(A) inertia (B) motion (C) velocity (D) acceleration

Force measures rate of change of ____ of a body :

(A) mass (B) inertia (C) velocity (C) momentum

C.G.S. unit of force is :

(A) m/s (B) s/ m (C) dyne (D) Newton

Momentum has same unit as :

(A) impulse (B) torque (C) moment of force (D) couple

When force of 1N acts on mass of 1kg. which is able to move freely, the object moves with a /an:
-1 -1
(A) speed of 1 ms (B) speed of 1 kms
-2 -2
(C) acceleration of 10 ms (D) acceleration of 1ms
-1
The net force acting on a body of mass of 1 kg moving with a uniform velocity of 5 ms is :
(A) 5N (B) 0.2 N (C) 0 N (D) None of these
-2
A body of mass 20 kg moves with an acceleration of 2ms . The rate of change of momentum is S.I. unit is :
(A) 40 (B) 10 (C) 4 (D) 1

A body of mass M strikes against wall with a velocity v and rebounds with the same velocity. Its change in
momentum is :

(A) zero (B) Mv (C) -Mv (D) -2 Mv

Gram weight is a unit of :

(A) mass (B) weight (C) A and B both (D) neither A nor B

9.8 N is equal to :

(A) 1 kgf (B) 1 kgwt (C) A and B both (D) Neither A nor B

A body of mass 5 kg undergoes a change in speed from 20 m/s to 0.20 m/s. The momentum :

(A) increases by 99 kgm/s (B) decreases by 99 kgm/s (C) increases by 101

kgm/s (D) decreases by 101 kgm/s

The combined effect of mass and velocity is taken into account by a physical quantity called :

A) torque (B) moment of force (C) momentum (D) all of them

How many dynes are equal to 1N ?

8 4 5 3
(A) 10 (B) 10 (C) 10 (D) 10
Choose correct relation :

F
(A) a  (B) aF = m (C) m = F × a (D) none of these
m

41
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 7.2

Name of quantities on which momentum of a body depends.

What is S.I. unit of momentum ?
Is momentum vector or scalar ?

Two similar trucks are moving with same velocities on a road. One of them is loaded while another one is
empty. Which of the two ill require a larger force to stop it in same time ?
Explain meaning of the following equation F = ma. Symbol have their usual meaning.

Explain how Newton‟s second law of motion can be explained to define the unit of force and also name the unit.
-1
A 1000 kg vehicle moving with a speed of 20 ms is brought to rest in a distance of 50 metre by applying brakes
:
Find the acceleration.
Calculate the unbalanced force acting on the vehicle.
The actual force applied by the brakes will be slightly less than that calculated in, why ? Give reasons.
Write the expression for impulse.
Name a quantity which has same unit as that of impulse.
Derive relation between impulse and momentum.
-1
A 5 quintal car is moving with a velocity of 54 kmh . What is its impulse if it is stopped within 0.5s by
application of backward force ? Also determine the force applied.

42
 FORCE AND
LAWS OF MOTION
PL – 8

NEWTON‟S THIRD LAW

(a) Introduction :
When a force is applied to stop a moving body, we ourselves experience some force from the body being
stopped. When a cricketer used his hands to stop a moving ball, his hands also experience some force from
the ball and sometimes the force is unbearable. When we jump on a cemented road from some height, our
feet get injured by the impact of the road.
From above examples we find that whenever one body exerts a force on another body, the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body. The force exerted by the first body on the second body is
called „action‟ and the force exerted by the second body on the first body is called „reaction‟/
(b) Statement :
The law states the “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. Moreover, action and reaction
act on different bodies.
(c) Demonstration :
Two similar spring balances A and B joined by hook as shown in the figure, The other of the spring balance B
is attached to a hook rigidly fixed in a rigid wall.

Demonstration - Newton‟s third law of motion.

The other end of the spring balance A is pulled out to the left. Both the balances show the same reading (20
N) for the force.
The pulled balance A exerts a force of 20N on the balance B. It acts as action, B pulls the balance A in
opposite direction with a force of 20 N. This force is known as reaction.
We conclude that action-reaction forces are equal and opposite and act on two different bodies.
(b) Explanation :
If may be noted that action and reaction occur simultaneously. Action and reaction never act on same body.
Had this been the case, there would have been no (accelerated) motion, Since action and reaction occur in
pairs and act on two different bodies, it is impossible to have single isolated force.

43
 (e) Examples :
Swimming of a man : The man swims because he pushes water behind (action), water pushes
man forward (reaction).
Walking of man : man pushes the earth behind from right foot (action). Earth pushes the man
forward (reaction). Then the man walks.

Walking man

Flight of jet or rocket :The burnt gases are exhausted from behind with high speed giving the gases
backward momentum (action). The exhausted gages impart the jet or rocket a forward momentum (reaction).
Then jet or rocket moves.
Gun and bullet : A loaded gun has a bullet inside it. When the gun‟s trigger is pressed, the powder inside
cartridge explodes. A force of action acts on the bullet and makes the light bullet come out of the barrel with a
high velocity. The heavy gun moves behind (recoils) with a small velocity due to force of reaction.

This is also an example of law of conservation of linear momentum.

Man and boat : A man is boat near river bank is at rest. To reach the bank, the man pushes the boat
behind (action), the boat pushes the man forward (reaction). The man lands on the bank.
Hose pipe : Water rushes out of the hose pipe with a large velocity due to force of action of the
compressor from behind. The rushing out jet of water pushes the hose pipe behind due to force of
reaction. Then pipe has to be held tightly.
NO ACTION IS POSSIBLE WITHOUT REACTION
Examples :
A nail cannot be fixed on a suspended wooden ball.
A paper cannot be cut by scissors of single blade.
A hanging piece of paper cannot be cut by blade.
Writing on a hanging page is impossible.
Hitting on a piece of sponge does not produce reaction. You do not enjoy hitting.
ACTION AND REACTION ARE NOT BALANCED
Action and reaction, through equal and opposite are not balanced because they act on two different bodies.
If case when they act on two different bodies forming a single system, they become balanced.

44
INTERACTION BETWEEN BODOIS AT A DISTANCE

We have uptill now considered examples where the two bodies are in direct contact with each other but. But
interaction takes place even when the two bodies are not in actual contact with each other. For example, a
comb rubbed with dry hair can interact with a piece of paper from a distance. Similarly a magnet can interact
with an iron piece from a distance. Interaction between a falling stone and the earth also takes place although
these are not in actual contact with each other. Thus when one body influences another body by applying
force with or without contact, we say that the first body is interacting with the second body.

Earth attracts a body Magnet attracts iron

at a distance at a distance

ANY PAIR OF EQUAL AND OPPOSITE FORCES IN NOT AN ACTION - REACTION PAIR

Consider a book kept on a table. We have seen that the table pushes the book in the upward direction. They
why does not the book fly up ? It does not fly up because there is another force on the book pulling it down.
This is the force exerted by the earth of the book, which we call the weight of the book. So, there are two
forces on the book-the normal force, N acting upwards, applied by the table and the force, W acting
downwards, applied by the earth. As the book does not accelerate, we conclude that these two forces are
balanced. In other words, they have equal magnitudes but opposite direction.

Can call N the action and W the reaction ? We cannot. This is because, although they are equal and
opposite, they are not forces applied by two bodies on each other. The force N is applied by the table on the
book, its reaction will be the force applied by the book on the table. Weight W is the force applied by the earth
on the book, its reaction will be the force applied by the book on the earth.
So, although N and W are equal and opposite, they do not form an action - reaction pair.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

By Newton‟s second law, the rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied force.

Change in momentum  Force

time

45
 Change is momentum = F × t
If F = 0 then,
Change is momentum = 0
If the force applied on the body is zero then its momentum will be conserved, this law is also applicable on the
system. If in a system the momentum of the objects present in the system are P 1 , P2, P3 ........... and
external force on the system is zero, then -
P1 + P2 + P3 + .............. = Constant
NOTE : If only internal forces are acting on the system then its linear momentum will be conserved.
(a) The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum by Third Law of Motion :
Suppose A and B are two objects of masses m1 and m2 are moving in the same direction with velocity u 1
and u2 respectively (u 1 > u2). Object A collides with object B and after time t both move in their original
direction with velocity v1 and v2 respectively.
m1 m2
u1 u2
The change in momentum of object A = m1v1 - m1u1
before collision (u1 > u2 )
Change in momentum
The force on B by A is F1 =
time

m1 v1 − m1 u1
F1 = …….(1)
t
The change is momentum of object B = m2 v2 - m2u2
Change in momentum m2 v2 − m 2 v 2

The force on A by B is F2 = = …..(2)

time t
m2
m1
1 2
By Newton third law, F1 = - F2 after collision
m v −m u m v −m u
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
⇒ m 1 v1 − m1u1 = −m2 v2 + m2 u2
=−
t t
or m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
or Initial momentum = Final momentum

SOME ILLUSTRATION ON CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

(a) Recoil of Gun :
A loaded gun (rifle) having bullet inside it forming one system is initially at rest. The system has zero
initial momentum.

When the trigger (T) is pressed, the bullet is fired due to internal force of explosion of powder in
cartridge inside.
The bullet moves forward with a high velocity and the gun move behind (recoils) with a lesser velocity. Let the
bullet and the gun have masses m and M respectively. Let the bullet move forward with velocity v and the
gun recoils with velocity V.

46
 Then final momentum of the gun and bullet is MV + mv
By the law of conservation of momentum :
Initial momentum of the system = Final momentum of the system.
mv
0 = MV + mv or V −
M
mv
Hence the recoil velocity of gun =
M
mv
and the velocity of the gun is = -
M
(a) Flight of Jet Rocket :
Jet planes and rockets are provided with chemical fuels. Combustion of these fuels produces a high velocity
blast of hot gases. These gases move outward and escape through nozzle (a narrow opening) with very high
velocity and large momentum. (they escape horizontally backward in case of jet planes and vertically
downwards in case of rocket). The escaping gases impart their momentum to the jet plane and the rocket.
They move forward or upward with a high velocity.
In general, all cases involving action and reaction, are examples of law of conservation of momentum. Action
and reaction being equal and acting simultaneously for same duration, have equal and opposite impulses.
They produce equal and opposite changes of momentum in the pair of bodies involved. It keeps the total
momentum of the two body system constant (conserved).

ILLUSTRATIONS
A field gun a mass 1.5 t fires a shell of mass 15 kg with a velocity of 150 m/s. Calculate the velocity of the recoil
of the gun.
Sol. Mass of gun = 1.5 t = 1.5 × 1000 kg = 1500 kg
Mass of shell = 15 kg
Velocity of shell = 150 m/s.
Velocity of recoil of the gun = ?
Momentum of gun = Mass of gun × velocity of recoil of the gun = 1500 V kg m.s
Momentum of shell = Mass of shell × velocity of shell = 15 × 10 kg m/s.
By the law of conservation of momentum :
Momentum of gun = Momentum of shell
1500 V = 15 × 150 or V = 15× 150 = 1.5 m /s.
1500
The recoil velocity of gun = 1.5 m/sec.
-1
A hunter of 45 kg is standing on ice fires a bullet on 100 gram with a velocity of 500 ms by a gun of 5 kg.
Find the recoil velocity of the hunter.

Sol. The initial momentum of the system, P1 = Momentum of hunter + momentum of gun + momentum of bullet

or P1 + 45 × 0 + 5 × 0 + 0.1 × 0 = 0 ........... (1)

Final momentum of the system, P1 = Momentum of hunter + Momentum of gun + momentum of bullet
P2 = 45 V + 5 V + 0.1 × 500 (Here V is the recoil velocity of gun with hunter).
P2 = 50 V + 50 ......(2)

1
= P2
0 = 50 V + 50 or V = -1 m/s.
The recoil velocity of gun with hunter is 1 m/s.

47
 EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 8.1

If a moving ball A collides with another moving ball B, then :

momentum of A = momentum of B
(momentum + A + momentum of B) before collision = (momentum A + momentum of B) after
collision neither A nor B
A or B both are possible
When a bullet is fired from a gun. The gun recoils to :
conserve mass
conserve momentum
conserve K.E.
none of these
A bullet is motion hits and gets embedded in a solid resting on a frictionless table. What is conserved ?
(A) Momentum and K.E. (B) Momentum alone (C) K.E. alone (D) None of these A bullet of mass 0.01 kg is
fired from a gun weighing 5.0 kg. If the initial speed of the bullet is 250 m/s, calculate
the speed with which the gun recoils :
(A) -0.50 m/s (B) -0.25 m/s (C) + 0.05 m/s (D) + 0.25 m/s
Forces of action and reaction are :
equal and in same direction
equal and in opposite direction
unequal and in same direction
unequal and opposite.
Forces of action and reaction act :
one after the other on same body
simultaneously on same body
one after the other on different bodies
simultaneously on different bodies
A man is standing on a boat in still water. If he walks towards the shore the boat will :
(A) more away from the shore (B) remain stationary
(C) move towards the shore (D) sink

In the action and direction were to act on the same body :

(A) the resultant would be zero (B) the body would not move at all
(C) both A and B are correct (D) neither A nor B is correct

48
 Consider two spring balances hooked as shown in the figure. We pull them in opposite directions. If the
reading shown by A is 1.5 N, the reading shown by B will be :

(A) 1.5 N (B) 2.5 N (C) 3.0 N (D) Zero

Newton used, quantity of motion‟ for :
(A) momentum (B) force
(C) acceleration due to gravity (D) none of these
A cannon after firing recoils due to :
(A) conservation of energy (B) backward thrust of gases produced
(C) Newton‟s first law of motion (D) Newton‟s‟ third law of motion
-1
A Diwali rocket is ejecting 0.05 kg of gases per second at a velocity of 400 ms . The accelerating force on the
rocket is :
(A) 20 dyne (B) 20 Newton (C) 20 kg wt. (D) sufficient data not given
The forces of action and reaction have ____ magnitude but _____ direction :
(A) same, same (B) same, opposite (C) opposite, same (D) opposite, opposite
Choose correct statement :
Action and reaction forces act on same object.
Action and reaction forces act on different objects.
A and B both are possible.
Neither A nor B is correct.

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 8.2

What is total momentum of the gun and bullet just before firing ?
Explain of application of law of conservation of momentum.
State Newton‟s third law of motion.
Explain why it is difficult for a fireman to hold a hose, which ejects large amount of water at a high speed.
State third law of motion. Give two examples in support of this law.
If someone jumps to the shore from boat, the boat moves in the opposite direction. Explain why ?
(i) What is the physical principle involved in the working of a jet plane ?
Do the action and reaction act on the same body or direction bodies ? How are they related in
magnitude and direction ? Are they simultaneous or not ?
Two cars A and B are moving towards each other on a horizontal surface. The can A has mass 60 g and
-1
moves towards the right with speed of 60 cms The car B has a mass of 100 g and moves towards the left
-1
with a speed of 20 cms . The two cars collide and get stuck to each other. With what velocity will they move
after the collision ?

49
 ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 6.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. B C A D D A B D B A

(Objective DPP # 7.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B B D C A D C A D
Qus. 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. B C B C C A

(Subjective DPP # 7.2)

2
7. (i) - 4 m/s (ii) 4000 N (iii) Because friction also apply force in opposite direction of motion.
Impulse = 7500 N-second
Backward Force = 1500 N
(Objective DPP # 8.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. B B B A B D A C A A D B B B

(Subjective DPP # 8.2)

-1
10 cms

50
 GRAVITATION
AND FLUID

PL - 9

INTRODUCTION
Besides developing the three laws of motion, Sir lssac Newton also examined the motion of the heavenly
bodes - the planets and the moon. Newton recognized that a force of some kind must be acting on the planets
to keep them in nearly circular orbits, otherwise their paths would be straight lines. A falling apple is attracted
by the earth by the apple attracts the earth as well (Newton‟s third law of motion). Extending this idea, Newton
proposed that every body in this universe attracts every other body. This led to the discovery of the famous
law of universal gravitation i.e. each object in this universe attracts every other object. Note that gravitational
force is attractive. Newton concluded that it was the gravitational force that acted between the sun and each
of the planets to keep them in their orbits. In this chapter, we shall discuss the role of gravitational force of the
earth of the objects, on or nor the surface of the earth.
(a) Gravitation or Gravitational Force :
It was Newton, who said that every object in this universe attracts every other object with a certain force. The
force with which two objects attract each other is called the force of gravitation. The force of gravitation acts
even if the two objects are not connected by the any means. If, however, the masses of the objects are small,
the force of gravitation between them is small and cannot be detected easily.
The force of attraction between any two particles in the universe is called gravitation or gravitational force.

NEWTON‟S LAW OF GRAVITATION

The magnitudes and the direction of the gravitational force between two particles are given by the universal
law of gravitation, which was formulated by Newton.
Universal law of gravitation :
The gravitational force of attraction between two particles is directly proportional to the product of the masses
of the particles and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particles. The direction
of the force is along the line joining the two particles.
Mathematical derivation :
Let A and B be two particles of mass m1 and m2 respectively. Let the distance AB = r. By the law of

gravitation, the particle A attracts the particle B with a force F such that,

51
F ∝ m1 m2 (for a given pair of particles)

and F ∝ 1 (for given separation between the particles)

2
r

So F ∝ m1 2

r2
1 2
or F G
2
r

(a) Universal Gravitational Constant :

(i) Introduction :

Force of gravitation between two bodies of mass m 1 and m2 kept with distance r between their centres,
is given by :

Gm m
1
2
2r
where constant of proportionality G is called universal gravitational constant (U.G.C.).

(ii) Definition :

Gm 1m 2
In relation F 
2
r
If m1 = m2 = 1, r = 1, then F = G Hence, universal gravitational constant may be defined as the force

of attraction between two bodies of unit mass each, when kept with their centres a unit distance apart.

(iii) Units of G:
Gm m
 12

r2
2
Fr
We have, G 
m1m2
2
Nm 2 −2
In S.I. G kgkg  Nm kg
2
dyne cm 2 −2
In C.G.S. G  g.g.  dyne cm g

(iv) Values of G :
-11 2 2
In S.I. G = 6.67 × 10 Nm kg
-8 2 -2
In C.G.S. G = 6.67 × 10 dyne cm g

52
 (b) Important Characteristics of Gravitational Force :
Gravitational force between two bodies form an action and reaction pair i.e., the forces are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Gravitational force is a central force i.e., it acts along the line joining the centres of the two
interacting bodies.
Gravitational force between two bodies is independent of the nature of the intervening medium.
Gravitational force between two bodies does not depend upon the presence of other bodies.
Gravitational force is negligible in case of light bodies but becomes appreciable in case of massive bodies
like starts and planets.
Gravitational force is a long range force i.e., gravitational force between two bodies is effective even if
their distance of separation is very large. For example, gravitational force between the sun and the earth is of
22 8
the order of 10 N, although distance between them is 1.5 × 10 km.
Gravitational force is a conservative force.
(c) Experimental Support for the Law of Gravitation :
All the planets including the earth, rotate around the sun due to gravitational force between the sun and
the planet.
Tides are formed in oceans due to gravitational force between the moon and the earth.
It is the gravitational force between the planet and its satellite which makes the satellite to move
around the planet.
The atmosphere of the earth is due to the gravitational force of the earth.

NEWTON‟S THRID LAW OF MOTION AND GRAVITATION

Newton‟s third law of motion says that : If an object exerts a force on another object, then the second object
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object. The Newton‟s third law of motion also holds good for
the force on the earth in the opposite direction. Thus, even a falling object attracts the earth towards itself.
When an object, say a stone, is dropped from a height, it gets accelerated and falls towards the earth and we
say that the stone comes down due to the gravitational force of attraction exerted by the earth. Now, the
stone also exerts and equal and opposite force on the earth, then why don‟t we see the earth rising up
towards the stone.
From Newton‟s second law of motion, we know that :
Force = Mass × Acceleration
Force
So, Acceleration =
F Mass

or a


It is clear from this formula that the acceleration produced in a body is inversely proportional to the mass of
the body. Now, the mass of a stone is very small, due to which the gravitational force produces a large
acceleration in it. Due to large acceleration of stone, we can seen the stone falling towards the earth. The
mass of earth it, however, very-very large. Due to the very large mass of the earth, the same gravitational
force produces very-very small acceleration in the earth. Actually, the acceleration produced in the earth is so
small that it cannot be observed. And hence we do not see the earth rising up towards the stone.

53
ILLUSTRATIONS
Two persons having mass 50kg each, are standing such that the centre of gravity are 1m apart. Calculate the
force of gravitation and also calculate the force of gravity on each. Given : m 1 = m2 = 50kg.
Sol.
-11 2 2
r = 1m. , G = 6.67 × 10 N. m /kg
Gm1m2
Force of gravitation F =
2
r
6.67 × 10−11 × 50× 50
= 2 = 1.67 × 10−7 N.

Force of gravity,
GMm
F‟ = Here r = R, radius of the earth
2
r
and m1 = M = mass of earth, m2 = m = mass of object
−11 24
6.67 × 10 × 6× 10 × 50
F'=
6.4× 1062 = 0.48× 10 N
…. (ii)
3

F‟ is much greater than F so the persons will not move towards each other but each of them moves
towards the earth.

ESTI MATION OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT OBJECTS

(a) Between Sun and Earth :
24
Mass of earth, m1 = 6 × 10 kg Mass
30
of the moon, m2 = 7.4 × 10 kg
11
Distance between the sun and the earth, r = 1.5 × 10 m
Gravitation force between the sun and the earth,
= Gm m
1
2
2r
−11 2 −2 24 30
= 6.67 × 10 Nm kg × 6× 10 kg × 2× 10 kg

1.5× 10 11
m  2
22
F = 3.6 × 10 N
22
The gravitational force between the sun and the earth is very large (i.e. 3.6 × 10 N). This force keeps
the earth bound to the sun.
(b) Between Moon and Earth : 24

Mass of the earth, m1 = 6 × 10 kg

8
Distance between the earth and the moon, r = 3.8 × 10 m
∴ Gravitational force between the earth and the moon,
F = Gm m
1 2
2
r

54
 −11 2 −2 24
= 6.67 × 10 Nm kg × 6× 10 kg × 7.4×
10
22

kg 3.8× 10 m
8
2
20
= 2.05 × 10 N
This large gravitational force keeps the moon to move around the earth. This large gravitational force is also
responsible fort the ocean tides.
Two bodies A and B having mass m and 2m respectively are kept at a distance d apart. Where should a small
particle be placed so that the net gravitational force on it due to the bodies A and B is zero ?
Sol. it is clear that the particle must be placed on the line AB, suppose it is at a distance x from A.
Let its mass is m‟.
The force on m‟ due to A,
F = Gmm' towards A
2
1 x
and that due to B is -
F = G2mm' towards B.
2 2
d − x
The net force will be zero if F1 = F2
Gmm' G2mm'
2 2
Thus, x = d − x
2 2
of (d - x) = 2x
d - x = ± 2 x.

d=(1± 2)x
d d

x = 1 + 2  or 1 − 2  
As x cannot be negative
d

So x= 1+ 2  
FORCE OF GRAVITATION OF THE EARTH (GRAVITY)
Gravitation and gravity :
Attraction between two bodies having mass of same order, is called gravitation and the force is called
gravitational force. Forces involved are very small and the attracting bodies do not move towards each other.

Attraction between a planet (earth) or its satellite and a body, having masses of widely different order is called
gravity and the force is called force of gravity. Forces involved are large and body moves towards the planet.

Thus, gravity becomes a special case of gravitation in which small bodies move towards huge planets. Then
force of gravity

F = GMm 2

55
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 9.1

1. When an apple falls from a tree :

(A) only earth attracts the apple (B) only apple attracts the earth
(C) both the earth and the apple attract each other (D) none attracts each other
Force of attraction between two bodies does not depend upon :
(A) the shape of bodies (B) the distance between their centres
(C) the magnitude of their masses (D) the gravitational constant
When the medium between two bodies changes, force of gravitation between them :
(A) will increase (B) will decrease
(C) will change according to the environment (D) remains same
4. S.I. unit of G is :
2 -2 -2 2 -2 -2
(A) Nm kg (B) Nm kg (C) N kg m (D) Nkg m
The value of universal gravitational constant :
(A) changes with change of place (B) does not change from place to place
(C) becomes more at night (D) becomes more during the day
6. The value of G in S.I. unit is :
-9 -10 -11 -12 (A) 6.67 × 10 (B) 6.67 × 10 (C) 6.67 × 10 (D) 6.67 × 10

1 1
2
(A) r (B) r2 (C) r (D) r
-11 2 -2
The value of G in year 1900 was 6.673 × 10 Nm kg . They value of G in the year 2007 will be :
-9 2 -2
-10 2 2
(A)-26.673 × 10 2
Nm kg -2 (B) 6.673 × 10 N m kg
-11 2 -2
6.673 × 10 Nm kg (D) 6.673 × 10 Nm kg
-11 2 -2
Value of G on surface of earth is 6.673 × 10 Nm kg , then value of G on surface of Jupiter is :
6.673
-11 2 -2 × 10-10 Nm2 kg-2
12 × 6.673 × 10 Nm kg 12
6.673
-11 2 -2 × 10-11 N m2 kg-2
6.673 × 10 Nm kg 6

20
The earth attracts the moon with a gravitational force of 10 N. Then the moon attracts the earth with
a gravitational force of :
-20 2 20 10
(A) 10 N (B) 10 N (C) 10 N (D) 10 N

56
 The orbits of planets around the sun are :
(A) circular (B) parabolic (C) elliptical (D) straight
Law of gravitation is applicable for :
(A) heavy bodies only (B) medium sized bodies only
(C) small sized bodies only (D) bodies of any size
The universal law of gravitation was proposed by :
(A) Copemicus (B) Newton (C) Galileo (D) Archimedes
14. Choose the correct statement :
(A) All bodies repel each other in the universe. (B) Our earth does not behave like a magnet.
-2
(C) Acceleration due to gravity is 8.9 ms . (D) All bodies fall at the same rate in vacuum.

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 9.2

What is the unit of gravitational constant ?

Which force is responsible for the earth revolving round the sun ?
What type of force is involved in the formation of tides in the sea ?

Write mathematical expression for gravitational force between two bodies of masses m 1 and m2 separated by

a distance r. All quantities are in S.I. units.

State the universal law of gravitation.
2
Two masses 50 kg and 100 kg are separated by a distance of 10 m. What is the gravitational force of Nm
-11
attraction between them ? G = 6.67 × 10 kg 2
State two applications of universal law of gravitation.
What happens to the forces between two objects, it :
The mass of the one object is doubled ?
The distance between the objects is doubled ?
The masses of both objects are doubled ?
(i) Name the scientist who gave the universal law of
gravitation. Define universal Gravitational constant.
What is the value of G in S.I. unit ?

Newton‟s law of gravitation states that every object exerts a gravitational force of attraction on every other object.
If this is true, then why don‟t we notice such forces, when the two objects in a room move towards each other
due to the force ?

57
 GRAVITATION
AND FLUID

PL - 10

BODIES FALLING NER THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH

(a) Galileo‟s Observations on Falling Bodies :
The speed of falling body increases as it comes down. This means that the body accelerates, when i t falls
freely. Suppose we drop a coin and a feather from the same height simultaneously. Which will reach the
ground first ? The answer is obvious, the coin will reach earlier than lighter feather or we can say that the
heavier objects comes down more faster than lighter ones but such a generalization is not correct. If we take
two slid balls of different masses, say, one of 1 kg and the other of 2kg, and drop them from the same height,
we will find that they reach the ground almost simultaneously.
It is said that Galileo dropped two stones of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (in Italy) and founded
that they reached the ground simultaneously. Galileo argued that the air resist on object traveling through it. If the
material is dense and its surface area is small, the resistance due to air is quite small compared to the force of
gravity. Thus one can neglect the effect of air resistance while studying falling stones, metallic blocks, coins etc. But
the effect of air resistance is very important for small pieces of paper, feather, leaves etc. each of which ahs a large
surface area and low density. When a coin and a feather fall through air, air offers greater resistance to the motion
of the feather and les resistance to the motion of the coin, According to Galileo‟s argument, if air is totally removed,
the coin and the feather will fall simultaneously.

Newton was born in the year Galileo died. Galileo died not have access to the equations for gravitational
attraction and the acceleration resulting from a force. Still, he correctly predicted something from his
observations that was contrary to everyday experience.
Galileo‟s prediction was tested by the British scientist Robert Boyle. He kept a coin and a feather in a long
glass tube and evacuated the air from inside the tube by using a vacuum pump. When the tube was inverted,
the coin and the feather fell together.
(b) Acceleration due to Gravity :
if we drop a ball from a height, its speed increases as time passes. If we throw a ball upwards, its speed
decreases till it reached the highest point. If we throw the ball at an angle to the vertical, its direction of motion
changes. In all these cases, the velocity of the ball changes, i.e., the all is accelerated, whenever an object
moves near the surface of the earth with no other object pushing or pulling it, it is accelerated. This
acceleration is caused due to the force of gravity and is called the acceleration due to gravity. Consider an
object of mass m moving freely near the earth‟s surface. Neglecting air resistance, the only force on it, is due
to gravity. The force has magnitude :
GM6 m
F  ........(i)

2
Re
where M = mass of the earth, m = mass of the object, and Re = radius of the earth.

58
As the earth‟s radius Rs (6400 km) is large as compared to distance of the object from the earth‟s surface.
We use Re in Equation (i) to denote the distance of the object from the centre of the earth. As the force given
by equation (i), is the resultant force on the object, its acceleration is

a = F = GMe
2
m Re
Note that this acceleration does not depends on the mass of the object. Thus we have the following :
if gravity is the only acting force (meaning that air resistance is neglected), all objects move with the same
acceleration near the earth‟s surface. This acceleration is called the acceleration due to gravity, whose
magnitude „g‟ is given by

g = GM e2
Re
2
6.67 × 10 −11 Nm 
× 6× 10
24

kg
kg
2 −2

g= = 9.8 ms
6.4× 10 m
6 2

The direction of this acceleration is towards the centre of the earth, i.e., in the vertically downward direction.
2
The acceleration has the same value, both in magnitude (9.8 m/s ) and direction (towards centre of earth),
whether the particle falls, moves up or moves at some angle with the vertical. In all these cases, we say that
the particle moves freely under gravity.

(c) Value of „g‟ on the Surface of the Moon :

GM
g= where M is the mass of a heavenly body like earth and R is its radius. As all heavenly bodies (like R
2

planets, the sun and the moon) are of different masses and different radii, so the value of g is different
on different heavenly bodies.
g = GMm
We know, moon Rm
2 .....(i)
22
Mm (mass of the moon) = 7.4 × 10 kg
6
Rm (radius of the moon) = 1.75 × 10 m
-11 2 -2
G = 6.673 × 10 Nm kg
−11 2 −2 22
g = 6.673× 10 Nm kg × 7.47 × 10 kg

1.75× 10
Then, from equation (i), moon 6 2
m
−2
g moon = 1.63 ms
g −2
moon 1.663 ms 1
Now, = =
g −2
earth 9.8 ms 6
g =1g
or moon 6 earth

Thus acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1 times the acceleration due to gravity on the
6
surface of the earth.

59
MASS OF EARTH AND MEAN DENSITY OF EARTH

(a) Mass of the Earth :

The mass of the earth can be calculated by using Newton‟s law of gravitation. Consider a body of mass
m lying on the surface of the earth, then force of gravity acting on the body is given by
GMm
F= .....(i)
2
R
where, M = mass of the earth
R = radius of the earth
Also, F = mg ....(ii)
2
GMm gR
From (i) and (ii), we have mg = or M=
R2 G
5
Now g= 9.8 ms-2, R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 10 m
G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
9.8× 6.4× 10
=  
6 2= 5.98×
−11
1024 kg 6.67× 10
Thus, the order of the mass of earth is 1025 kg

(b) Mean Density of Earth :

GM
We know, g =
2
R
Let ρ be the means density of the earth. Since earth is assumed to be a homogeneous sphere of radius R,
therefore, mass of the earth is given by
4 3
M = Volume × density = πR ρ
3
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
G 4 πR 3 ρ = 4
g= 2× πGRρ
R 3 3
3g
∴ρ =
4πGR
-2 -11 N m2 kg-2, R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m
Since, g = 9.8 ms , G = 6.67 × 10
−3
∴ ρ= 3× 9.8 or ρ = 5478.4 kgm
−11
4× 3.142× 6.67 × 10 × 6.4× 10 6
−3
Density of earth = 5478.4 kg m ~ 5.5
−3
Density of water 1000 kg m −
Thus, density of earth is about 5.5 times the density of water.

60
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR FREELY FALLING OBJECT

Since the freely falling bodies fall with uniformly accelerated motion, the three equations of motioning derived
earlier for bodies under uniform acceleration can be applied to the motion of freely falling bodies. For freely
falling bodies, the acceleration due to gravity is „g‟ so we replace the acceleration „a‟ of the equations by „g‟
and since the vertical distance of the freely falling bodies is known as height ‟h‟, we replace the distance „s‟
in our equations by the height „h‟. This gives us the following modified equations for the motion of freely
falling bodies.

General equations Equations of motion for

of motion freely falling bodies
(i) v = u + at changes to v = u + gt
2 2
(ii) s = ut + 1 at changes to h = ut + 1 gt
2 2
2 2 2 2
(iii) v = u + 2as changes to v = u + 2gh

We shall use these modified equations to solve numerical problems. Before we do that, we should
remember the following important points for the motion of freely falling bodies.
When a body is dropped freely from a height, its initial velocity „u‟ becomes zero.
When a body is thrown vertically upwards, its final velocity „v‟ becomes zero.

The time taken by a body to rise to the highest point is equal to the time it takes to fall from the
same height.
The distance traveled by a freely falling body is directly proportional to the square of time of fall.
(a) Sign Conventions :

g is taken as positive when it is acting in the same direction as that of motion and g is taken as
negative when it is opposing the motion.

Distance measured upward from the point of projection is taken as positive, while distance measured
downward from the point of projection is taken as negative.

Velocity measured away from the surface of earth (i.e. in upward direction) is taken as positive,
while velocity measured towards the surface of the earth is taken as negative.

61
 EXERCISE
OBJECTICE DPP - 10.1

The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) on earth‟s surface is :

(A) 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 (B) 8.9 m/s2 2

2. The acceleration due to gravity :

(A) has he same value everywhere is space (B) has the same value everywhere on the earth
(C) varies with the latitude on the earth (D) is greater on moon because it has smaller diameter
When a space ship is at a distance of two earths radius from the centre of the earth, the gravitational acceleration
is :
-2 -2 2 2
(A) 19.6 ms (B) 9.8 ms (C) 4.9 m/s (D) 2.45 ms
If planet existed whose mass and radius were both half of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity at the surface
would be :
2 2 2
(A) 19.6 m/s (B) 9.8 m/s (C) 4.9 ms-1 (C) 2.45 m/s
A stone is dropped from the top a tower. Its velocity after it has fallen 20 m is [Take g = 10 ms-2]
-1 -1
(A) 5 ms (B) 10 ms
(C) 15 ms-1 (D) 20 ms-1

is the direction opposite to the direction of its motion

is in the same direction as the direction of its motion
increases as it comes down
become zero at the higher point.
The acceleration due to gravity on the moon‟s surface is :
approximately equal to that near the earth‟s surface
approximately six times that near the earth‟s surface
approximately one-sixth of that near the earth‟s surface
slightly greater than that near the earth‟s surface
The force acting on a ball due to earth has a magnitude F b and that acting on the earth due to the ball has a
magnitude Fe Then :
(A) Fb = Fe (B) Fb > Fe (C) Fb < Fe (D) Fe = 0
Force of gravitation between two bodies of mass 1 kg each kept at a distance of 1m is :
(A) 6.67 N (B) 6.67 × 10-9 N (C) 6.67 × 10-11 N (D) 6.67 × 10-7 N
The force of gravitation between the bodies does not depend on :
their separation
the product of their masses
the sum of their masses
the gravitational constant

62
 The ratio of the value of g on the surface of moon to that on the earth‟s surface is :
(A) 6 (B) 6 (C) 1 (D) 1
6 6
Order of magnitude of G is S.I. unit is :

(A) 10-11 (B) 1011 (C) 10-7 (D) 107

The S.I. unit of g is :

2 2 2
(A) m /s (B) m/s (C) s/m (D) m/s
If the distance between two masses be doubled then the force between them will become :

(A) 1 times (B) 4 times (C) 1 times (D) 2 times

4 2

The type of force which exists between charged bodies is :

only gravitational

neither gravitational nor electrical

only electrical

both electrical and gravitational

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 10.2

What is the value of g on the surface on moon ?

What is average density of the earth ?

What is mass of he earth ?

What is unit of g is C.G.S. and S.I. system ?

The earth‟s gravitational force causes and acceleration of 5 ms -2 on a 1 kg mass somewhere in the space. How

much will be the acceleration of 3 kg mass at that place ?

In what sense does the moon fall towards the earth ? Why does not it actually fall on earth‟s surface ?
R
What is the acceleration due to gravity at height from the surface of earth (radius R) ?
5

Using Newton‟s universal law of gravitation and second law of motion, find the mathematical expression for

acceleration due to gravity on the surface on any planet.

Derive a relation for acceleration due to gravity. How its value vary with :

(i) mass of the planet (ii) Size of the planet ?

63
 GRAVITATION
AND FLUID

PL - 11

MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass :
Definition :
Quantity of matter possessed by a body, is called the mass of the body. It is represented by the symbol m. It
is a clear quantity.
Nature :
A body with more mass, needs a greater effort (force) to move it from rest or stopping it from motion. The
body exhibits inertia. Thus, mass offers inertia. This mass is called inertial mass (m 1). A body never has a
zero mass.
Measurement of mass :
Mass of a body is measured by a beam balance by comparing the mass with bodies of known mass. At one
place, bodies of same mass have same pull of gravity on them.
A beam balance works on the principle of moments (Bodies of equal masses, having equal weights, have
equal and opposite moments about fulcrum of the balance, when suspended at equal distances from the
fulcrum, and made the beam horizontal).
Weight :
Definition :
The force with which a body is attracted towards the centre of the earth, is called the weight of the body. It
is represented by the symbol W.
It is a vector quantity having direction towards the centre of the earth.
Expression for weight :
If mass of a body = m
Acceleration due to gravity of the earth = g
Then from relation ,
Force = Mass × Acceleration i.e., W = mg
This is the required expression. Nature :

As W = mg, the weight of a body will vary from place to place due to variation in value of g. A body has zero
weight at the centre of the earth (where g = 0).
Measurement of weight :
Weight of a body is measured by a spring balance.

64
(C) Difference between Mass and Weight :

Mass Weight
1. Mass is quantity of matter possessed by a 1. Weight is the force with which a body is attracted
body? towards the centre of the earth.
2. It is a scalar quantity. 2. It is a vector quantity.
3. Its S.I. units is kilogram (kg.) 3. Its S.I. unit is Newton (N).
4. Mass of a body remains constant at all places 4. Weight of the body changes from place to place.
5. Mass of a body is never zero. 5. Weight of a body becomes zero at the centre of the
earth.
6. Mass of measured by a beam balance. 6. Weight is measured by a spring balance.

(d) Weight to object on Moon :

A body of mass m has weight, W = mg
For calculation
-2
For earth ge = 9.8 ms
-2
For moon gm = 1.7 ms
Hence,

For earth, We = mge

For moon Wm = mgm
W
Ratio m mgm gm  1.7  1
W mge ge 9.8 6
e1

i.e. Weight ton moon = th weight on earth.

kg. wt. is a unit of force:

From relation, W = mg
If m = 1kg W = 9.8 N
Hence a 1 kg body has weight of 9.8 N
It means that 9.8 N becomes equal to a force of 1 kilogram weight (kg. wt.)
(e) Variation in the weight of a body :
Weight of the body is given by,
W = mg
So the weight of a body depends upon (i) the mass of the body and (ii) value of acceleration due to
gravity (g)at a place.
The mass of a body remains the same throughout the universe, but as the value of „g‟ is different at
different places. Hence, he weight of a body is different at different planes.
The value of „g‟ is more at poles and less at the equator. Therefore, weight of a body is more at the
poles and less at the equator. In other words, a body weighs more at the poles and less at the equator.
The value of „g‟ on the surfaces of different planet of the solar system is different, therefore, the weight
of a body is different on different planet‟s
The value of „g‟ decreases with height from the surface of the earth. Therefore, the weight of a body also
decreases with height from the surface of the earth. That is why, the weight of a man is less on the peak of
Mount Everest that the weight of the man at Delhi.

65
 The value of „g‟ decreases with depth from the surface of the earth. Therefore, the weight of a
body decreases with depth from the surface of the earth.
The value of „g‟ at the centre of the earth is zero hence weight (=mg) of the body is zero at the centre of
the earth.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN „g‟ AND „G‟

Acceleration due to gravity (g) Universal gravitational constant (G)

1. The acceleration produced in a body falling 1. The gravitational force between two bodies of unit
freely under the action of gravitational pull masses separated by a unit distance is known as
of the earth is known as acceleration due to universal gravitational constant.
gravity.
2. The value of „g‟ is different at different 2. The value of „G‟ is same at every point on the earth.
points on the earth.
3. The value of „g‟ decreases as we go higher3. The value of „G‟ does not change with height and
from the surface of the earth or as we go depth from the surface of the earth.
deep into the earth.
4. The value of „g‟ at the centre of the earth is4. The value of „G‟ is not zero at the centre of the earth or
zero. anywhere else.
5. The value of „g‟ is different on the surface of 5. The value of „G‟ is same throughout the universe.
different heavenly bodies like the sun, moon,
and the planets.
6. The value of „g‟ on the surface of the earth is 6. The value of G = 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 throughout the
9.8 ms-2. universe.

WEIGHTLESNESS
(a) Introduction :
When a man stands on weighing machine at rest, his weight compressed its spring downwards. Due to
upward reaction, the pointer of the machine moves over the scale and the machine records the weight of the
man.

But when the same machine starts falling down freely, there is no reaction and the pointer stays at zero
recording a zero weight.
The man falling freely under the action of gravity has become weightless.
Definition :
Weightlessness may be defined as the state in which a body its weight due to free fall.
(d) Demonstration :

Let a stone piece be suspended from a spring balance suspended by a hand finger. The balance shows the
actual weight of the stone.

When the balance is released from h and finger, the balance falls freely with the hanging stone piece. The
balance shows a zero reading. This proves that the freely falling stone is weightless.
The spring balance shows the weight of the stone.
Freely falling spring balance with the stone showing a zero reading.

66
 (c) Weightlessness of an Astronaut in a Satellite (Space Ship):
A satellite is a freely falling body orbiting round the earth. It tries to reach the earth but its path being parallel
to earth‟s surface. It does not reach the earth. Hence the satellite and all the bodies inside it become
weightless.
It is due to this situation of weightlessness of astronauts that they are shown floating in spaceship in films on
television.

EXERCISE

OBJECIVE DPP - 11.1

2
The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s :
(A) Much above the earth‟s surface (B) Near the earth‟s surface
(C) Deep inside the earth (D) At the centre of the earth
A particle is taken to a height R above the earth‟s surface, where R is the radius of the earth. The acceleration
due to gravity there is :
2 2 2 2

When a body is thrown up, the force of gravity is :

(A) in upward direction (B) in downward direction
(C) zero (D) in horizontal direction
4. Mass of an object is :
(A) amount of matter present in the object (B) same as weight of an object
(C) measure of gravitational pull (D) none of these
The weight of an object is :
the quantity of matter it contains
refers to its inertia
same as its mass but is expressed in different units
the force with which it is attracted towards the earth

67
Weight of an object depends on:
temperature of the place

atmosphere of the place

mass of an object

none of these
The mass of body is measured to be 12 kg on the earth. Its mass on moon will be :

(A) 12 kg (B) 6 kg (C) 2 kg A heavy stone falls : (D) 72 kg

faster than a light stone slower than a light stone

with same acceleration as light stone none of these

A stone is dropped from the roof of a building takes 4s to reach ground. The height of the
building is :

(A) 19.6 m (B) 39.2 m (C) 156.8 m (D) 78.4 m

A ball is thrown up and attains a maximum height of 19.6 m. Its initial speed was :

(A) 9.8 ms-1 (B) 44.3 ms-1 (C) 19.6 ms-1 (D) 98 ms-1

The value of g at pole is :

greater than the value at the equator

less than the value at the equator

equal to the value of the equator

none of these

Two bodies A and B of mass 500 g and 200 g respectively are dropped near the earth‟s surface. Let the
acceleration of A and B be aA and aB respectively, then :

(A) aA = aB (B) aA > aB (C) aA < aB (D) aA  aB

A body is thrown up with a velocity of 20 m/s. The maximum height attained by it is approximately :

(A) 80 m (B) 60 m (C) 40 m (D) 20 m

The weight of a body is 120 N on the earth. If it is taken to the moon, its weight will be about :

(A) 120 N (B) 60 N (C) 20 N (D) 720 N

Two iron and wooden balls identical in size are released from the same height in vacuum. The time taken by

them to reach the ground are :

(A) not equal (B) exactly equal (C) regularly equal (D) zero

68
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 11.2

How does the acceleration due to gravity depends on the mass of planet ?
Is g vector or scalar ? Write is SI unit.
What is acceleration under free fall ?
What is the S.I. unit of mass ?
What is S.I. unit of weight ?
How many Newton‟s make 1 kg. wt. ?
Name of device to measure weight :

Which is greater : The force of attraction of earth for 1 kg of tin or the force of attraction of earth for 1 kg of lead. The

mass of the mass on the surface of earth is 100 kg. Does the weight on the surface of moon increase or

decrease ? Explain.
A ball thrown up vertically returns to the thrower after 12 second. Find (Take g = 10 m/s) :
velocity with which it was thrown up.
the maximum height it reaches.
its position after 4s

69
 GRAVITATION
AND FLUID
PL - 12

FLUID
Fluid is a substance that flows under the action of an applied force and does not have a shape of its own.
For example, liquids and gases. They take the shape of container in which they are stored.
The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatic or fluid static‟s. The study of fluids in motion is termed as

hydrodynamics. In this chapter, we will discuss the study of liquids only.

PRESSURE IN A FLUID
In case of solids, the force can be applied in any direction with respect to the surface, but in liquids, the force
must be applied at right angles to the liquids surface. This is because fluids (liquids and gases) at rest cannot
sustain a tangential force. Therefore, we state the pressure acting on the fluid instead of force.
The pressure (P) is defined at the magnitude of the normal force acting on a unit surface area of the fluid. It a
constant force of magnitude F acts normally on a surface area A, then pressure acting on the surface is given
F
by P  . The pressure is a scalar quantity. This is because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted
A
equally in all directions when force is applied, which shows that a definite direction is not associated with
pressure.

THRUST
The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called thrust of the liquid.
Thrust = Pressure × Area of surface

UNITS OF PRESSURE
2
In C.G.S. system, unit of pressure is dyne/cm . S.I. unit of pressure is Nm-2 or Pascal (PA). The unit of
pressure, Pascal (Pa) has been named in the honour of great French scientist and philosopher Blasie Pascal.
Another unit of pressure is atmosphere (atm).

5
1 atm = 1.013 × 10 Nm-2 (or Pa)
1 atm. or one atmosphere is the pressure exerted by our atmosphere on earth surface due to the weight of
atmosphere.

70
 (a) Pressure is a Scalar Quantity :
Scalar quantities are those which do not have any direction. The physical quantities which have both
magnitude and direction are called vector quantities. Pressure is a scalar quantity because at one level inside
the liquid, the pressure is exerted equally in all direction, which shows that a direction is not associated with
hydrostatics pressure or pressure due to a static fluid.

(b) Pressure Exerted by a Liquid Column :

Consider a liquid of density ρ contained in a cylindrical vessel of cross sectional area a. Let h be the height of
liquid column and g be the acceleration due to gravity. The weight of liquid will exert a downward thrust on
the bottom surface of the vessel. Therefore, pressure due to liquid acts on that surface. Weight of liquid
inside the vessel = volume × density of liquid × acceleration due to gravity

Thrust of liquid on area a = weight of liquid = a h ρ g

Liquid pressure on the base of vessel is

P = thrust = ahρg = hρg …..(i)

area a

NOTE :
The liquid at rest exerts equal pressure in all direction s at a point inside the liquid.
The liquid at rest exerts equal pressure at all those points which are in one level inside the liquid.
Liquid pressure is independent of shape of the liquid surface, but depends upon the height of liquid
column.
Total pressure at a depth h below the liquid surface = P0 + hρg where P0 = atmospheric pressure.
Pressure is a scalar quantity.
Mean pressure on the walls of a beaker containing liquid upto height is (= hρg /2 ), where ρ is the
density of liquid.
Thrust exerted by liquid on the walls of the vessel in contact with liquid is normal to the surface of vessel.

71
 Some Facts Involving Thrust and Pressure :
(i) Nails have a flat top but pointed end:

A small pressure applied on the flat to through falling hammer becomes a large thrust. The same thrust acts
on the wooden board through the pointed end of the nail. It result in a large pressure. The nail can easily be
fixed in the wooden board.
Sewing needle have pointed tips :
A small force of fingers makes the needle pierce into the cloth easily and sewing becomes quicker.
(iii) Cutting items (knives and blades) have sharp edge. Cutting becomes easier.
(d) Reducing Pressure :
Vehicle brakes have flat surface :
This reduces pressure on the vehicle tyres and avoid their tearing.
(ii) Broad sole shoed :
Broad sole shoes make walking easier on a soft land.

(iii) Wide steel belt on army tank : Wide steel belt over the wheels of an army taken, makes
its movement easier over marshy land.
Tractor tyres are broad : Tractors do not sink in the soft land of the field while operating them.
Camel foot are broad and soft : They walk swiftly on sand.
Hanging bags have wide straps : They reduce pressure on the shoulders.

BUOYANCY AND FORCE OF BUOYANCY (BUOANT FORCE)

Introduction :

When a body is immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas), it displaced the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume
of the body immersed in the fluid. This displaced fluid exerts an upward force on the body.
Definition :

This tendency of the displaced fluid (exerting an upward force) is called buoyancy. The upward applied force,

is called the force of buoyancy or up thrust. It is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Examples :

When a bucket is pulled out of a well, it is felt lighter so long as it remains immersed in water, inside the
well. It acquires its actual weight when out of water.

Ladies carrying water in a pitcher from a village pond, enter the pond, fill the pitcher and lift it on to
their shoulder keeping it immersed in water.

72
Factors on which up thrust or buoyant force depends :
Let us perform the following two activates :

Take two wooden blocks of different sizes. Push the small block inside the water in a tub and release it.
You will find that the wooden block rises up and come to the surface of water. It rises up because upthrust or
buoyant force acting on it is more than its weight.

Now push the large wooden block inside the water and release it. You will find that the large block rises up
faster than the small block. It means, the upthurst or buoyant force acting on the large block is more than on
the small block.

Now add some salt in water so that the density of solution (water + salt) increases. Push a wooden block
inside the solution and release it. You will find that the block rises up faster in a solution than in pure water. It
means, the upthrust or buoyant force acting on a body is more in a liquid having more density
than in a liquid having less density.
Conclusion :
From the above mentioned actives, we conclude that upthrust or buoyant force depends on :
The size or volume of the body immersed in a liquid.
The density of the liquid in which the body is immersed.
Buoyancy :
The tendency of an object to float in a liquid or the power of liquid to make an object float is called buoyancy.

Remember these points :

An object whose weight (i.e., downward gravitational force) is greater than the upthrust of the liquid (say
water) on the object, sinks in the liquid. This is possible if density of object is more than the density of liquid.

An object whose weight (i.e. downward gravitational force) is less than the upthurst of the liquid on
the object, floats on the liquid. This is possible if density of object is less than the density of liquid.

73
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 12.1

Pressure varies with force as :

1 2 1
2
(A) F (B) F (C) F (D) F
Pressure exerted by a sharp needle on a surface is :

more than the pressure exerted by blunt needle

less than the pressure exerted by a blunt needle

equal to the pressure exerted by a blunt needle

none of these

If a force of 10N acts on two surfaces (area in the ratio 1 : 2), then the ratio of thrusts will be :

(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 3 : 1 (D) 1 : 1

The height of mercury which exerts the same pressure as 20 cm of water column, is equal to :

(A) 1.48 cm (B) 14.8 cm (C) 148 cm (D) None of these

Pressure varies with area (A) as :

1 1
2
(A) A (B) (C) A (D)
A 2
A
A force of 50 N is applied on a nail of area 0.001 sq. cm. Then the thrust is :

(A) 50 N (B) 100 N (C) 0.05 N The S.I. unit of pressure is : (D) 10 N

2 (D) mm of Hg
(A) atmosphere (B) dyne/cm (C) Pascal
The pressure exerted by a liquid at depth h is given by :

(A) h (B) hdg (C) h (D) hg

dg d

The S.I. unit of thrust :

2 -2
(A) N (B) dyne (C) Nm (D) Nm
Pressure cannot be measured in :

(A) Nm-2 (B) bar (C) Pa (D) kg. wt.

74
 The total force exerted by the body perpendicular to the surface is called :

(A) pressure (B) thrust (C) impulse (D) none of these

Pressure is a :

(A) scalar quantity (B) normal force (C) vector quantity 2 (D) all the above are wrong

(A) 1 Pa (B) 0.1 Pa (C) 0.01 Pa (D) 10 Pa

The atmosphere exerts a pressure of P on the surface of earth, then P equal :

5
(A) 1.01 × 10 Nm-2 (B) 1.01 × 10-5 Nm-2 (C) 1.01 × 107 Nm-2 (D) 1.01 × 10-7 Nm-2

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 12.2

Write mathematical relation between pressure and thrust ?

Give S.I. unit of pressure.

Is pressure scalar or vector ?

Define pressure of fluid.

Define „thrust‟. What is the S.I. unit of thrust ?

What is difference between thrust and pressure ?

A camel can walk easily in Sandy desert than a man although the weight of the camel is mush more than that
of the man. Comment.
2
A person weight 60 kg. The area under his feel of the person is 180 cm . Find the pressure exerted on

the ground by the person.

What is meant by pressure ? Give some applications of pressure.

75
 GRAVITATION
AND FLUID

PL - 13

ARCHEMED PRINCIPLE
A Greek scientist Archimedes conducted many experiments and concluded that when a body or an object is
immersed partially or completely in a liquid or gas (i.e. fluid), it experiences an upthrust or buoyant force. The
upthrust or buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. It is known as Archimedes
principle.
Statement of Archimedes principle :
When a body is immersed partially or completely in a fluid (liquid or gas), it experiences an upthrust or
buoyant force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
(a) Proof of Archimedes Principe :
Consider a cylindrical body of cross-sectional area „a‟ submerged in a liquid of density ρ . Let the upper face
of the body is at a depth h1 below the surface of the liquid and the lower face is at a depth h 2 below the

surface of the liquid. The pressure exerted by the liquid on the upper surface of the body is given by p 1 = h1
ρg .
Downward thrust on the upper surface of the body is ,
F1 = p1 × a = h1 ρg × a
Pressure exerted by the liquid at the lower surface of the
body, P2 = h2 ρg
Upward thrust on the lower surface of the body is,
F2 = P2 × a = h2 ρg × a
The horizontal thrusts acting on the vertical sides of the body being equal and opposite from all the sides
cancels out.
∴ Resultant upthrust or buoyant force acting on the body is, F
= F2 - F1 = h2 ρg a - h1 ρg a = (h2 - h1) ρg a
Since volume of the body, V = (h2 -
h1)a ∴ F = V ρg

Which implies that products of the volume of the body, the density of the liquid and the acceleration due to
gravity gives the weight of the liquid displaced.
Thus, when a body is submerged in a liquid, it experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of the
liquid displaced by the body.

76
 (b) Verification of Archimedes Principle :
To verify the Archimedes Principles we take following steps :

Take a small piece of stone and suspend it with a spring balance. Let the weight of the stone indicated by
the spring balance be W 1.

Now take an empty beaker and measure its weight by suspending it with the spring balance with the help
of a thread of negligible mass. Let the weight of the empty beaker be W 2.
Take a Cane having a side tube known as spout. Fill Cane with water upto the level of
spout.
Lower the stone suspended with a spring balance inside the water. The stone displaces the water which
comes out of the Cane through the spout. The water coming out of the Cane is collected in the beaker. When
the water stops coming out of the spout, note the reading of the spring balance. This reading shows the weight
of the stone inside the water. Let the weight of the stone inside the water be W 3. It is seen that W 3 is less

than W 1.

Now measure the weight of the beaker along with the water collected in it. Let this weight be W 4. Now
find (W 1 - W3). This difference in weight is equal to the loss of weight of the stone immersed in
water (i.e. upthrust or buoyant
force).
(vii) Also find (W 4 - W 2). This difference in weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the stone.

It is found that (W 1 - W 3) = (W4 - W 2). That is upthrust or buoyant force is equal to the weight of
the water displaced. Thus, Archimedes principle is verified.

DEN
SITY
The ratio of mass and volume of the body is known as the density of the material of the body.
m
Den ass
sity =
Mvolume
=
V

3
IF V = 1 m , then, ρ = M

or the mass per unit volume is known as the density of the material of the object.

7
7
 Unit of density :
M 3
∴ρ = → g /cm (in C.G.S.)
V
3
→ kg/m (in S.I. system)

RELATIVE DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY)

0
The ratio of density of the substance to the density of water at 4 C is known as the relative density of
the substance.
Relative density of substance = density of subs tan ce
0
density of water at 4 C
It is pure number having no unit.

ILLUSTRATION
3 3
The relative density of silver is 10.5. The density of water is 10 kg/m . What is the density of silver in
S.I. unit ? 3 3

Sol. Density of water dw = 10 kg/m

Density of silver dAg = ?

∴ R.D.= density of silver
density of water
d
Ag
10.5 =
3
10
3 3
dAg = 10.5 × 10 kg/ m .

USES OF ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

Relative density for solids and liquids can also be determined with the help of Archimedes principle.
(i) For solids :
By definition, we have

Relative density = Density of substnce = Weight of certain volume of subs tan ce

Density of water Weight of sme volume of water
Weight of a body
Relative density =
loss in weight when fully immersed in water

Relative density of a solid can be measured by weighing it first in air and then when fully immersed in water.

Let weight of the body in air = W 1

Weight of solid body in water = W 2

∴ Loss in weight = W 1 - W 2
W1
∴ R.D. = Weight of solid body in air =
Loss in weight in water W1 − W2

78
 (ii) For liquids :
To measure relative density of a liquid, choose a body which can be fully immersed in water as well as in the
given liquid. The body is weighed first in air, then fully immersed in water and then fully immersed in that
particular liquid.

R.D. = Density of liquid = Weight of certain volume of

liquid DensityWeightofwaterofwater displaced by the
same body

R.D. =
weight of liquid displace by a body
weight of waterdisplaced by the same body

R.D. = loss of weight inliquid

loss of weight in water

Weight of the body fully immersed in liquid = W‟‟

Then loss of weight in liquid = W - W‟‟
and loss of weight in water = W - W‟
W − W"
∴ Relative density of the liquid = W
− W'
Archimedes principle is used to design :
(A) the ships and submarines.
(B) the hydrometers to find the densities of liquids.
(C) the lactometers to test the purity of milk.
Tale of densities and relative densities of some substances :

S.No. Name of Substance Density at S.T.P. in Relative Density

(kg m-3)

1 Air 1.29 1.29 × 10-3

2 Wood 800 0.80
3 Ice 920 0.917
4 Water 1000 1.00
5 Glycerin 1260 1.26
6 Glass 2500 2.50
7 Aluminium 2700 2.70
8 Iron 7900 7.90
9 Silver 10500 10.50
10 Mercury 13600 13.60
11 Gold 19320 19.32

PHYSICAL MEANING OF RELATIVE DENSITY

Relative density of a substance is a number of times the given substance is heavier than the equal volume of
water. When we say that the relative density of silver = 10.5, it means, silver is 10.5 times heavier than equal
volume of water.

79
LAW OF FLOATATION

Law of floatation is an extension of Archimedes principles.

When a body is immersed partially or wholly in a fluid, then the various forces acting on the body are (i)
upward thrust (B) acting at the centre of buoyancy and whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced and (ii) the weight of the body (W) which acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity.

When W > B, the body will sink in the liquid.

When W = B, then the body will remain in equilibrium inside the liquid.
When W < B, then the body will come upto the surface of the liquid in such a way that the weight of
the liquid displaced due to it balance the weight of body immersed inside the liquid.
Thus law of floatation is defined as follows :
Definition :
A body floats is a liquid if weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed portion of the body is equal to
the weight of the body.

(a) Relation between Density of Solid and Liquid :

Let ρ 1 be the density of the solid whose volume if V1. Let ρ 2 be the density of the liquid and the volume
of the portion of the solid immersed in the liquid be V2.
Now, weight of the floating solid = weight of the liquid displaced.
i.e. V ρ g = V ρg ∴ ρ 1 = V2
11 22
ρ 2 V1
Density of solid Volume of the immersed portion of the solid
or =
Density of liquid Total volume of the solid
Fraction of volume of body immersed in liquid

Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

From law of floatation, we know that a body will float in a liquid when its weight W is equal to the weight w of
the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body. But this does to necessarily indicate that the body will
be in equilibrium. A body will be in equilibrium only if the resultant of all the forces and couples acting on the
body is zero. Thus, a floating body can be in equilibrium if no couple acts on it. It will be so if the line of action
of W and w is along the same vertical straight line. Thus, there will be equilibrium of floating bodies if the
following conditions are fulfilled:

80
 A body can float if the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of body must be equal to
the weight of the body.
A body can be in equilibrium in the centre of gravity of the body and centre of buoyancy must be along
the same vertical line.
The body will be in stable equilibrium if centre of gravity lies vertically above the centre of buoyancy.

NOTE :
When an ice block is floating in water in a vessel, then the level of water in the vessel will not change when
the whole ice melts into water.
When an ice block is floating in a liquid in a vessel and ice completely melts, then the following cases
may arise for the level of liquid in the vessel.

If density of liquid is grater than that of water i.e., ρ L > ρ w the level of liquid plus water will rise.

(ii) If density of liquid is less than the density of water i.e., ρ L < ρ w the level of liquid plus water will decrease

If density of liquid is equal to the density of water i.e., ρ L = ρ w , the level of liquid plus water will

remain unchanged.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 13.1

A piece of wood is held under water. The upthrust on it is :

(A) equal to the weight of the wood (B) less than the weight of the wood (C) more
than the weight of wood (D) zero
Archimedes principle states that when a body is totally or partially immersed in a fluid the upthrust is equal to :

(A) the weight of the fluid displaced. (B) the weight of the body.
(C) volume of the fluid displaced (D) volume of the body.
3. S.I. unit of density is :
(A) kgm-2 (B) kgm-3 (C) m2 kg-1 (D) N kg-1
Unit of relative density is :
(A) kgm-3 (B) gcm-3 (C) g litre -1 (D) It does not have a unit
Relative density of a solid is 0.6. It floats in water with :
(A) whole of its volume inside water (B) 60% volume inside water
(C) 60% volume outside water (D) 40% volume inside water.
Buoyant force acting on a body due to different fluids is :
(A) same (B) different (C) zero (D) none of these

81
 The relative density of silver is 10.5, if the density of water is 1000 kgm -3, then density of silver will be :
(A) 10.5 kgm-3 (B) 1050 kgm-3 (C) 10.5 kgm-3 (D) 10.500 kgm-3
1 3
A body floats with rd of its volume outside water and th of its volume outside liquid, then the density
3 4
of liquid is :
3 3 3 3
(A) 3 g /cm (B) 8 g /cm (C) 9 g /cm (D) 4 g /cm
8 3 4 9
A boat full of iron nail is floating on water in a take. When the iron nails are removed, the water level :
(A) rises (B) remains same

(C) fails (D) nothing can be said

A cylinder of wood floats vertically in water with one-fourth of its length out of water. The density of wood is :

3 3 (A) 0.5 g/cm (B) 0.5 g/cm 3 3

(C) 0.75 g/cm (D) 1 g/cm

(A)R.D.  Density of subs tan ce (B) R.D.  Weight of certain volume of subs tan ce
Density of water Weight of same volume of water

(C) R.D.  Weight of subs tan ce (D) All of the above

Density of water
12. Archimedes principle is used to :
(A) design ships (B) design Submarines
(C) design Lactometers (D) all of them
Two solids X and Y float on water, X floats with half of its volume submerged while Y float s with one -
third of its volume out of water. The densities of X and Y are in the ratio of
(A) 4 : 3 (B) 3 : 4 (C) 2 : 3 (D) 1 : 3
The balloon stops rising up beyond a particular height when the density of gas inside the balloon :
(A) exceeds the density of air outside (B) equal the density of air

(C) becomes less than the density of air (D) none of these above

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 13.2

Give S.I. unit of relative density.

When a stone in immersed in water it displaces water of weight 5N, Calculate the upthrust acting on the
stone. If a solid of the same density as that of a liquid is placed in it, what will happen to the solid ?
Explain, why a ship sinks to a great depth in river water than in sea water ?

82
 3
You are provided with a hollow iron ball of volume 20 cm and of mass 15g and a solid iron ball of mass 20g.
both are placed on the surface of water containing in a large tube. Which will float ? Give reasons for your
answer ?

A solid weights 200 g in air, 160 g in water and 170g in a liquid. Calculate the relative density of the solid and
that of the liquid.
Explain briefly why a balloon filled with helium gas rises in air ? What
are the laws of floatation in a liquid ? Give some illustrations.

ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 9.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. C A D A B C B D C C C D B D

(Subjective DPP # 9.2)

-9
3.33 × 10 N
(Objective DPP # 10.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ans. C C D A D A C A C C C A B A D

(Subjective Dpp # 10.2)

-2 -2
5. 5 ms 7. 6.785 ms

(Objective DPP # 11.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ans. B A B A D C A C D C A A D C B

(Subjective DPP # 11.2)

10. (i) 60 ms-1 (ii) 180 m (iii) 160 m above the thrower

83
 (Objective DPP # 12.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. A A D A B A C B A D B A A A

(Subjective DPP # 12.2)

105
Nm− 2

(Objective DPP # 13.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. C A B D B B D B C C D D B B

(Subjective DPP # 13.2)

2. 5N 6. 0.5, 0.75

84
 WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER

PL - 14

INTRODUCTION
In everyday language, the word work is used to describe any activity in which muscular or mental effort is
exerted. In physical, the word work has a special meaning. Work in one done when the force acting on body
produced motion in it in the direction of force (or in the direction of component of force). Thus a boy pushing
the wall is doing no work from physics‟ point of view. If is because the force exerted by the body is not
producing motion of the wall. The speed at which work can be done is an indication of the power of the body
doing work. For example, a boy may carry a suitcase upstairs in 3 minutes while a man may do it in 1 minute.
Obviously, the power of the man is more than the power of the boy. Thus, time factor is important for power. A
body which has the capacity to do work is said to posses energy. The greater the capacity of a body to do
work, the greater the energy it has. Thus work, energy and the power are related to each other. In this topic
we shall deal with these three important concepts of physics.

WORK
In our day to day life, the word work means any kind of mental and physical activity. For example, we say that
we are doing work while,
reading a book,
cooking the food,
walking on a level road with a box on our head,
pushing a wall of a house but fails to do so.
In all these cases, either mental or physical activity is involved.
But is physics, the term work has entirely a different meaning. In physics work is done if a force applied on a
body displaced the body in its own direction. In other words, the condition which must be satisfied for the work
done are : (i) a force must act on the body and (ii) the body must be displaced from one position to another
position. Thus, no work is done in all cases mentioned above. Definition :

Work is said to be done by a force on a body o an object if the force applied causes a displacement in the
body or object.
Eg. : Work is done, when a box is dragged on the floor from one position to another. In this case, force is on
box to drag it one the floor and the box moves through a certain distance between one position to another
position.

85
(a) Measurement of Work :
Work is measured by the product of force and the displacement in the direction of force. Work is a
scalar quantity.
Work = Force × displacement in the direction of force
W = F(d cos θ ) ...... (i)

or work done = displacement × force in the direction of displacement.

W = d(F cos θ ) ......(ii)

Special cases :
0
Case -I : If θ = 0 , then -
d

From equation (i)

0
W = Fd cos θ = Fd cos0
So, W = Fd (maximum)
When force and displacement are in same direction then work done will be maximum.
0
0
From equation (i) ∴ cos 0 1
0
W = Fd cos90
So, W = 0

When force and displacement are perpendicular to each other then work done will be zero.
Eg. : If a body is moving in horizontal direction then work done by the force of gravity will be zero.

86
Eg. : if a body is moving on a circular path then work done by the centripetal force will be zero, because the
direction of centripetal force is towards the center of the circle and displacement will be along the tangent.

Case III :
0

then from equation (i)

W = Fd cos 1800 ∴ cos 1800 = -1
then W = - Fd
When the force and displacement are in opposite direction then work done will be negative.
Eg.: When a spring is compressed then the force applied by the spring and the displacement will be in
opposite direction to each other, so work done by the spring will be negative. When the spring is
stretched then the work done will also be negative.

Eg.: When a body of mass m in lifted upward a fore F = mg has to be applied upward
Work done by the force of gravity will be negative
Work done, W = - mgh

(b) Units of Work done :

Work done, W = Fd
In C.G.S. system the unit of work done is dyne x cm =
erg. Definition of 1 etg :
If F = 1 dyne and d = 1 cm.
then W = 1 × 1 = 1 erg.
If one dyne force is applied on a body and displacement in the body in 1 cm in the direction of force,
then work done will be one erg.
S.I. unit of work done is Newton × metre = joule.

87
 Definition of 1 joule :
if F = 1N and d = 1m.
then, W = 1 × 1 = 1 joule (J)
If a force of 1 Newton is applied on a body and displacement in the body is 1m in the direction of force then
work done will be 1 joule.
Relation between joule and erg :
7
1 joule = 10 erg

NOTE :
(i) If F = 0 then work done, W = 0
Eg. A student revising his notes by memory without moving his limbs is doing no physical work.
A meditating saint is doing no physical work though he keeps sitting for hours.
(ii) If displacement, d = 0 then work done, W = 0.
Eg. A foolish labour trying to displace a building has done no work though he may spend the whole day.
Erg and joule are the absolute units of work done.
Gravitational unit of work :
Work is said to have gravitational unit of work if unit gravitational force displaces the body through
unit distance in the direction of force.
(i) In C.G.S. system, gravitational unit of work is gram-weight-centimeter ( g wt
cm). Since W = FS
∴ 1g wt cm = 1 g wt × 1 cm = 981 dyne × 1 cm
1g wt cm = 981 erg.
Thus 1g-wt-cm of work is done when a force of 1g-wt displaces a body through 1 cm in its own direction.
In S.I. system, gravitational unit of work is kilogram weight meter (kg wt m)
1kg wt m = 1kg wt × 1m = 9.81 N × 1 m
1 kg wt m = 9.81 J
Thus, 1 kg wt m of work is done when a force of 1 kg-wt displaces a body through 1 m in its own direction.
(c) Positive Work done :
0
When the angle between force and the displacement is acute ( θ < 90 ), then work done will be positive
because one component of force (F cos θ ) is in the direction of displacement so work done by this
component will be positive (Fd cosθ ). Work done by the vertical component (i.e. F sin θ ) will be zero ( the
0
angle between F sin θ and displacement is 90 ) so net work done will be positive.

In lifting a weight upward by applying an upward force, the work done by the applied force will be positive.

In stretching a spring, the work done by the eternal force will be positive.

88
 (d) Negative Work done :
0
When the angle between the force and the displacement is obtuse, ( θ > 90 ), then work done will be
negative because work done by the horizontal component of force (i.e. F cos θ ) is negative (-Fd cos θ ) and
the work done by the vertical component (F sin θ ) will be zero, so net work done will be negative.

ILLUSTRATIONS

A porter lifts a luggage of 15 kg from the ground and put it on his head, 1.5 m above the ground. Calculate
2
the work done by him on the luggage. (take g = 10 m/s .)
Sol. Mass of luggage, m = 15 kg
displacement, d = 1.5 m
2
acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m/s
work done, W = Fd = mgd
W = 15 × 10 × 1.5 = 225 J
0
A force of 10 N displaces a body by 5m, the angle between force and displacement i 60 , then find the
work done.
Sol. Force, F = 10 N,
displacement, d = 5m,
0
angle between force and displacement, θ = 60 ,
0 0 1
work done, W = Fd cos θ = 10 × 5 × cos60 , ∴ cos 60 =

2
then, W = 10 × 5 × 1 ⇒ W = 25 J
2
ENERGY
When a man does a work, he feels tired. he feels that he has lost something which he must regain to work
more. A weak man gets exhausted after doing only a small amount of work. A strong man can continue to
work for longer duration.
Something that a working man loses is called energy.
Definition :
Capacity of doing work or total work done by a man or by an agent, is called the energy of the man or the
agent.
(a) Units of energy :
C.G.S. unit of energy is erg and S.I. unit of energy is joule.
NOTE :
(i) kilo Watt × hour (kWh) is commercial unit of energy.
1 kWh = 1000 watt × 60 × 60 s.
6
= 3.6 × 10 watt × s
6
1 kWh = 3.6 × 10 J.

89
 (ii) Electron volt (eV) is also the unit of energy. The energy of an electron, when it is accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, is known as one eV
1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J.

DIFFERENCE FORMS OF ENERGY

(i) Heat energy :
When we burn coal, wood or gas, heat energy is released. Steam possess heat energy that is why is a steam
engine, the heat energy of steam is used to get the work done. Sun also radiates hat energy.
(ii) Light energy :
It is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of vision. Natural source of light is the sun. An electric bulb
also emits light energy.
(iii) Sound energy :
The energy emitted by a vibrating wire, tuning fork, vibrating membrane etc., that can be sensed by human
ears is called sound energy.
Eg. whistle, flute, sitar, all emits sound energy when they are made to vibrate.
(iv) Magnetic energy :
A magnet also possess energy known as magnetic energy. When a current is passed through a coil, it stores
magnetic energy.
(v) Electrical energy :
An electric cell stores electrical energy. Two changes placed at some distance experience a force. They also
possess electrical energy.
Eg. A charged body possess electrical energy.
(vi) Solar energy :
The energy radiated by the sun is solar energy. Sun is the natural source of energy.
(viii) Nuclear energy :
Sometimes, a heavy nucleus breaks into two or more lighter nuclei with the release of some energy. This
energy is called nuclear energy and the process is called nuclear fission. On the other hand, when two lighter
nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus, the process is called nuclear fusion.
KINETIC ENERGY
Energy of a body due to its motion is known as the kinetic energy of the body. If a body of mass m is
1 2
moving with velocity v, then its kinetic energy = mv .
2

90
(a) Dedication of Formula for K.E. :
The kinetic energy of a moving body can be find by calculating the work done in bringing the body in
motion from rest.
A body of mass m is moving with initial velocity u. A force F is applied in the direction of motion then
after some distance s, its final velocity becomes v.
Work done W = Fs .....(i)
By Newton‟s second law of motion
F = ma
So, W = mas ....(ii)
On applying third equation of motion between points A and B
2 2
v = u + 2as
2 2 2 2
2as = v - u or as = v − u
2
On putting the value of as in equation (ii)

v
2
−u2 =
m 2 2
W=m (v −u)
2 2

2 2
W = 1 mv − 1 mu .....(iii)
2 2

By the definition, if u = 0, then work done W = Kinetic energy

So from equation (iii)

1 2 1 2
Kinetic energy = mv − m(o)
2 2
1 2

or, Kinetic energy = mv

What is the work to be done to increase the velocity of a car from 30 km/h to 60 km/h. If mass of the car
is 1500 kg.
Sol. Mass of car, m = 1500 kg.
Initial velocity, u = 30 km/h = 8.33 m/s.
Final velocity, v = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s.
2
1 1 2
Work done, W = mv − mu

2 2
1 2 2
W = × 1500[(16.67) - (8.33) ]

2
= 750(277.9 - 69.4)
W = 750 × 208.5 = 156375 J.
5
W = 1.56 × 10 J.

91
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 14.1

Work done upon a body is :

(A) a vector quantity (B) a scalar quantity
(C) (A) and (B) both are correct (D) none of these
2. Work done :
(A) is always positive (B) is always negative
(C) can be positive, negative or zero (D) none of these
No work is done when :
a nail is plugged in a wooden board
a box is pushed along a horizontal floor
there is no component of force parallel to the direction of motion
there is no component of force perpendicular to the direction of motion
A body at rest can have :
(A) speed (B) velocity (C) momentum (D) energy
Types of mechanical energy are :
kinetic energy only
potential energy only
kinetic energy and potential energy both
neither kinetic energy nor potential energy
Work means :
(A) effort (B) interview (C) achievement (D) get-together
Work is done on a body when :
force acts on the body but the body is not displaced
force does not act on the body but it is displaced
force acts on the body in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the displacement of the body force
acts on the body and they body is either displaced in the direction of force or opposite to the

direction of force.

92
 Force F acts on a body such that force F makes an angle θ with the horizontal direction and the body is also

displaced through a distance S in the horizontal direction, then the work done by the force is :

(A) FS (B) FS cos θ (C) FS Sin θ (D) Zero In tug of war work done by winning team is :

(A) zero (B) positive (C) negative (D) none of these

In tug of war work done by loosing team is :

(A) zero (B) positive (C) negative (D) none of these

Work done by the force of gravity, when a body is lifted to height h above the ground is :

(A) zero (B) positive (C) negative (D) none of these

When work is done on a body :

(A) it gains energy (B) it looses energy

(C) its energy remains constant (D) none of these

13. Choose correct relation :

5 7 3
(A) 1 J = 10 erg (B) 1 J = 10 erg (C) 1 J = 10 erg (D) none of these
The kinetic energy of an object is K. If its velocity is doubled than its kinetic energy will be :

(A) K (B) 2K (C) K (D) 4K

2

Two bodies of mass 1 kg and 4 kg possess equal momentum. The ratio of their K.E. :

(A) 4 : 1 (B) 1 : 4 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 2

Which of is not the unit of energy ?

(A) kilocalorie (B) kWh (C) erg (D) watt

1 kg mass has K.E. of 1 J when its speed is :

(A) 0.45 ms-1 (B) 1 ms-1 (C) 1.4 ms-1 (D) 4.4 ms-1

When you compress a spring you do work on it. The elastic potential energy of the spring :

(A) increases (B) decreases (C) disappears (D) remains constant

93
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 14.2

Is work a scalar or a vector quantity?

What work is done when a mass m is raised vertically against gravity by a vertical upward distance h

? What is work done by a body moving along a circular path ? Explain.

A work of 4900 J is done on a load of mass 50 kg to lift it to a certain height. Calculate the height through
which the load is lifted ?

How many ergs are equivalent to 1 J ?

Is potential energy scalar or vector quantity ?

What happens to the kinetic energy of an object if its velocity is bobbled ? Explain.

Give three examples when work done is zero.

Answer the following :

What are different types of energy ?

Give the type of mechanical energy.

Give some examples of kinetic energy.

Define joule. Is it unit of work or energy ? Justify your answer. A freely falling body stops on reaching the
ground. What happened to its kinetic energy ?

94
 WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER

PL - 15

POTENTIAL ENERGY
When a child lifts a football from the ground and place it on the top of a table, some work is done on the ball.
Now, if this football falls down from the top of the table and hits another football lying on the ground, then the
football lying on the ground in displaced from its position. This simple activity shows that a falling football is

able to do work.
“We know, anything capable of doing work possess energy.” Therefore a football placed on the table also
possess energy. This energy of the football lying on the top of the table is known as potential energy. Now the
question arises from where this potential energy came in the football lying on the top of the table. Infect, the
work done by the child to rises it to the top of table from the ground the stored as energy. This stored energy
is known as potential energy.
(a) Definition of Potential Energy :
The energy possessed by a body virtue of its positions or shape or configuration is known as potential
energy.
(b) Examples :
Water stored in dam has potential energy due to its position.
A stone lying on the top of all hill or a mountain has potential energy due to its position.
A stretched or compressed spring has potential energy due to this shape. When spring is stretched or
compressed, work is done on it. This work done is stored as potential energy of the stretched or compressed
spring.
A wound spring of a watch has potential energy due to its shape.
A stretched bow and arrow has potential energy due to its shape.
(c) Gravitational and Elastic Potential Energy :
(i) Gravitational potential energy :
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position (i.e., height above the surface of the earth) is
known as gravitational potential energy.
(ii) Elastic potential energy :
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its deformed shape (i.e. either stretched or compressed)
is known as elastic potential energy.

95
 (d) Expression for Potential Energy of A body at a Certain Height :

The energy possessed by a body due to its position in the gravitational field of the earth is called gravitational
potential energy.

Consider a block of mass m which is to be raised to a height „h‟. The force required to lift the block must be

equal to the gravitational force (i.e. weight of the block). Thus, Fg = mg. Let the applied force on the block be
F = mg and the block is raised to the height h as shown in the figure.
Work done by the applied force F is given by
0 0
W = F.h = Fh cos 0 [∴cos 0 = 1]
or W = Fh = mgh

Now, work done by the gravitational force on the block,

0
W = F .h = F h cos 180 0 [∴θ = 180 between F and h]
g g g

or Wg = −Fg h = −mgh [∴Fg = mg]

Work done against the gravitational force on the block is known as gravitational potential energy.
Ug= -(mgh) = mgh
IMPORTANT INFORMATION :
Gravitational potential energy of a body on the surface of the earth (i.e. h = 0) is zero. Gravitational
potential energy of a body increases if the body moves upward (i.e. h increases). Gravitational potential
energy of a body deceases if the body moves downward (i.e. decreases). Gravitational potential energy
depends only on the initial and final position of the body and not on the
path followed by the body to go form initial position to final position. It means, the gravitational potential
energy of body at height h will be same if it is either taken straight upward to height h or it is taken along a
curved path to height h.

INTERCOVERSION OF POTENTIAL AND KINEIC ENERGY

For a freely falling body, potential energy changes into kinetic energy.
Let a body of mass m be at rest at a point at height h from the ground.
At highest point :

Potential energy of the body U1 = mgh

Kinetic energy of the body K1 = 0 [∴ u = 0]

As the body falls freely, it gains velocity and reduces height. Let the body have velocity v when it reaches
the ground.

96
At lowest point :

Potential energy of the body, U2 0 [∴ h = 0]

2
Kinetic energy of the body, K = 1 mv
2 2

2 2
From third equation of motion, v = u + 2gh
2
We have, v = 2gh [ u = 0]
2
Hence, final kinetic energy  1 mv 1 m(2gh)
2 2

mgh = Initial potential energy

For an upward projected body, kinetic energy changes into potential energy.

Let a body of mass m be projected upwards with a velocity u from a point on the ground.

At lowest point :
2
Kinetic energy of the body, K1  1 mu
2

Potential energy of the body, U2 = 0

As the body rises upward, it gains height and loses velocity.

Let the body reach highest point height h where velocity becomes zero.

At highest point :

Kinetic energy of the body, K2 = 0

Potential energy of the body U2 = mgh

2 2
From third equation of v = u + 2gh

motion, We have
(∴ v = 0 and g is negative for upward motion)

2
or u = 2gh
u2
Hence, final P.E. = mgh = m
2
1 2
P.E. = mu = Initial K.E.
2

97
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to this principle, the total sum of energy of all kinds in an isolated system remains constant at all
times. This means that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. Energy can only be changed from
one form to another form of energy. The amount of energy appearing in one form is always equal to the
amount of energy disappearing in some other form. The total energy thus remains constant, always provided,
at all point, we measure the amount of energy present in each from (including mass which too is a form of
energy).
(a) Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy :

If conservation forces are acting on a body or on a system, then the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy (mechanical energy) of the body or of the system will be conserved. If the presence of conservative
forces, if the kinetic energy is increased by an amount of K, then the potential energy of the body will
decrease by the same amount i.e. U .

So, K=− U ∴ = 2 − 1and U = U2 − U1

So, K2 - K1 = - (U2 - U1)

K2 - K1 = - U2 + U1

K2 + U2 = K1 + U1

Final mechanical energy = Initial mechanical energy.

So in the presence of conservative forces the sum of Kinetic energy and the potential energy of a body will
be conserved.
(b) Mechanical Energy of a Freely Falling Body:

Let a body of mass m is at rest at a height h from the earth‟s surface, when it starts falling, after a distance
x (point B) its velocity becomes v and at earth‟s surface its velocity is v‟/
At point A :
EA= Kinetic energy + Potential energy
2
EA = m(o) + mgh
EA = mgh .... (i)
At point B :
1 2
EB = mv + mg(h − x) ….(ii)
2
From third equation of motion at points A and B
2 2
v = u + 2gx ∴u=0
2
v = 2gx
2
On putting the value of v in equation (ii)
EB m(2gx) + mgh - mgx
EB = mgx + mgh - mgx
EB mgh ..... (iii)

98
 At point C :
2
C  1 m (v‟) + mg × o.
2
2
E 1 m(v')
C 2 ……(iv)
From third equation of motion at points A and C.
2 2
(v‟) = u + 2gh ∴u=0
2
2

On putting the value of (v‟) in equation (iv)

2
or EC = mgh ....(v)
From equation (i), (ii) and (v)
EA = EB = EC
Hence, the mechanical energy of a freely falling body will be constant.
i.e. Total energy of the body during free fall, remains constant at all positions. The form of energy, however
keeps on changing. AT point A, energy is entirely potential energy and at point C, it is entirely kinetic energy
In between A and C, energy is partially potential and practically kinetic. This variation of energy is
shown in figure. Total mechanical energy stays constant (mgh) throughout. Thus is an isolated system, where
only conservation forces cause energy changes, the kinetic energy and potential energy can change, but the
mechanical energy of the system (which is sum of kinetic energy and potential energy) cannot change. We
can, therefore, equate the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy at one instant to the sum of kinetic
energy and potential energy at another instant without considering intermediate state. This law has been
found to be valid in every situation. No violation, whatsoever, of this law has ever been observed.

ILLUSTRATION

A body of mass 10 kg is kept at a height 10 m from the ground, when it is released after sometime its kinetic
energy becomes 450 J. What will be the potential energy of the body at the instant ?
Sol. At a height of 10 m. The mechanical energy of the body,
E = Kinetic energy + potential energy
2

E = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 J.
After sometime the kinetic energy is 450 J. Suppose at that instant potential energy is U, then by the law
of conservation of mechanical energy.
E = 450 + U
1000 = 450 + U
or U = 1000 - 450 ⇒ U = 550 J.

99
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 15.1

When a ball is thrown upward, its total energy :

(A) increases (B) decreases (C) remains same (D) none of these

If a stone of mass „m‟ falls a vertical distance „d‟ the decrease in gravitational potential energy is :
2
(A) Mg (B) Mg (C) mgd (D) Mg
2
d 2 d
An object of mass 10 kg falls from height 10 m. Kinetic energy gained by the body will be approximately equal to :

(A) 1000 J (B) 500 J (C) 100 J (D) None of these

A spring is stretched. The potential energy in stretching the spring :

(A) remains the same (B) increases (C) decreases (D) becomes zero

The potential energy of a boy is maximum when he is :

(A) standing (B) sleeping on the ground

(C) sitting on the ground (D) sitting on chair

The potential energy of a freely falling object decreases continuously. What happens to the loss of potential

energy ?

(A) it is continuously converted into sound energy (B) it is continuously converted into kinetic energy

(C) It is continuously destroyed (D) None of these

A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is known as :

(A) electric motor (B) lever (C) generator (D) microphone

The value of g on moon 1/6th of the value of g on the earth. A man can jump 1.5 m high on the earth. On moon

he can jump up to a height of :

(A) 9 m (B) 7.5 m (C) 6 m (D) 4.5 m

A raised hummer possess :

(A) kinetic energy only (B) gravitational potential energy

(C) electrical energy (D) sound energy

100
 2
An object of mass 1 kg has a P.E. of 1 J relative to the ground when it is at a height of : (g = 9.8 m/s )
(A) 0.10 m (B) 10 m (C) 9.8 m (D) 32 m

To lift a 5 kg mass to a certain height, amount of energy spent is 245 J. The mass was raised to a height of :

(A) 15 m (B) 10 m (C) 7.5 m (D) 5 m

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 15.2

Is potential energy a vector quantity ?

Define potential energy.

What type of energy change taken place when a ball is thrown up ?

What is the unit of potential energy ?

What is the difference between “Gravitational potential energy” and “Elastic potential energy” ?

Define potential energy and show that potential energy of mass m at height is mgh.

Show that the mechanical energy of a freely falling body is conserved.

101
 WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER

PL - 16

SOME OTHER EXAMPLES OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

(i) Vibrations of a simple pendulum :

In the figure OA is normal position of rest of a simple pendulum. When the bob of the pendulum is displaced
to B, through a height h, it is given potential energy (mgh), where m is the mass of the bob. On releasing the
bob at B, it moves towards A. Potential energy has been converted into kinetic energy. The bob, therefore,
cannot stop at A. On account of inertia, it overshoots the position A and reaches C at the same height h
above A. The entire kinetic energy of the bob at A is converted into potential energy at C. The whole process
is repeated and the pendulum vibrates about the equilibrium position A. At extreme positions B and C, the bob
is momentarily at rest. Therefore its kinetic energy is zero. The entire energy at B and C is potential energy. At
A, there is no height and hence no potential energy. The entire energy at A is kinetic energy.

Motion of a small spherical ball over a watch glass :

Figure shows a watch glass of a large concave mirror embedded in clay. Consider a tiny spherical ball placed
at the edge B at a height h above the centre A. if m is mass of the ball, potential energy of the ball held at B is
mgh.

When the ball is released from point B, it starts rolling down the mirror. Potential energy of the ball is
being converted into kinetic energy. At the bottom A, velocity of the ball is maximum as the entire

102
 potential energy has been converted into kinetic energy. The ball cannot stop at A on account of inertia. It
goes over to the other edge C. The velocity of the ball goes on decreasing and so does its kinetic energy. AT
point C kinetic energy is zero and potential energy is maximum. The entire process is repeated at thus the
ball keeps on rolling over the mirror about A.
NOTE :
In all the above examples, we have neglected the loss of energy due to air resistance/friction etc. If we were
to take into account these opposing forces, kinetic energy would go on decreasing as it appears in the form of
heat energy. But total energy (including the heat energy) would remain constant.

POWER
Introduction:
We have learnt that when a force causes displacement, work is done. Work done is measured as the
product of the magnitude of the force and the displacement in its direction.

A certain amount of work done appears to be tiring if done quickly and in a very short time. Same amount
of work is done slowly in a larger interval of time gives no feeling of tiredness.
This fact has given rise to a new concept i.e. the rate at which work is done ant it defines power.
Definition :
Rate of doing work i.e. work done per unit time (second) by a man or machine, is called power of the man
or the machine. it is represented by the symbol P. It is a scalar quantity.
(a) Expression for Power :
S
Let a force F displaces a body by distance S in its own direction in time t, to give it a velocity, v = t

Then, by definition -
Work
Power =
Time
W F× S
Hence, P == or P=F×v
t t
i.e. Power = Force ×
Velocity Unit
S.I. unit of power is watt (W).
One watt is the power of a man or a machine capable of doing work at the rate of one joule per second
1 Joule
i.e. 1 Watt = or W=Js
1sec ond
Since watt is a smaller unit, higher units used are
0
6

Megawatt (MW) = 109 watt

Gigawatt (GW) = 10 W
commercial unit of power is horse power
1 horse power (1 H.P) = 746 watt (W)

103
 (b) Distinction with Energy :
Energy measures total work done.
Power measures work done per unit time (second).

Eg : An old man works slowly for eight hours and manufactures 24 items in a day. His younger son works

quickly for two hours and manufactures 16 items in a day. The old man has more energy but less power.

The young mas has less energy but more power.

ILLUSTRAION
A boy of mass 50 kg runs up a staircase of 45 steps in 9 s. If the height of each step is 15 cm. Find his
2
power. (g = 10 m/s )
Sol. Mass of man, m = 50 kg.
Height covered, h = 45 × 15 = 675 cm = 6.75 m

Power P =W = mg h = 50× 10× 6.75

t t 9
P = 375 watt.

ENERGY FROM THE SUN

The sun is the ultimate source of all forms of energy available on the earth. This can illustrated as follows :
(a) Wind Energy :

Solar energy heats up the surface of the earth and the air near it. The hot air rises up and the cool air from
above rushes to occupy its space. This makes the air to move. Moving air is known as wind and possesses
kinetic energy. Thus, solar energy + air → wind energy. Wind energy is converted into electrical energy in a
wind farm using wind mills.
(b) Green Plants make their food :

Green leaves of plants make their food using sunlight (i.e. sun energy) by the process of photosynthesis. The
cells of green leaves of plants contain chloroplasts. Each chloroplast contains chlorophyll (a green pigment)
which converts carbon dioxide into sugar in the presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis.
Process of photosynthesis is represented as follows :
chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water Sugar + Oxygen sunlight

The energy stored in the food is known as chemical energy. The food eaten by a man or an animal provides
him the muscular energy, is used to do work. In other words, muscular energy is converted into mechanical
energy. Thus,
Solarenergy + Green leaves → Food (chemical energy) → Muscular energy → Mechanical energy (work)

104
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 16.1

Chlorophyll in the plants convert the light energy into :

(A) heart energy (B) chemical energy

(C) mechanical energy Kilowatt is (D) electrical energy

the unit of :
(A) energy (B) power (C) force (D) momentum
Work is product of time and :
(A) energy (B) power (C) force (D) distance
A young son work quickly for two hours and prepares 16 items in a day. His old father works slowly for either
hours and prepare 24 items a day :
(A) son has more power (B) son has more energy
(C) both have equal power (D) both have equal energy
5. One horse power is :
(A) 746 W (B) 550 W (C) 980 W (D) 32 W
Power of a moving body is stored in the form of :
(A) work and distance (B) force and distance (C) force and velocity (D) force and time
A weight lifter lifts 240 kg from the ground to a height of 2.5 m in 3 second his average power is :
(A) 1960 W (B) 19.6 W (C) 1.96 W (D) 196 W
Which of the following is not the unit of power ?
(A) J/s (B) Watt (C) kJ/h (D) kWh

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 16.2

What is S.I. unit of power ?

When an arrow is shot from its bow, it has potential energy only, then from where does it get the kinetic energy
? A man whose mass is 50 kg climbs up 30 steps of the stair in 30s. If each step is 20 cm high, calculate the
power used in climbing the stairs. (Take g = 10 ms-2)

Define power. Give it units.

-2

(i) weight lifted (ii) work done by the lifter (iii) power developed by the lifter

105
 ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 14.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans. B C C D C C D B B C

Qus. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Ans. C A B D A D C A

(Subjective DPP # 14.2)

4. 10 m

(Objective DPP # 15.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Ans. C C A B A B C A B A D

(Objective DPP # 16.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Ans. B B B A A C A D

(Subjective DPP # 16.2)

100 W

5. (i) 2610 N (ii) 6003 J (iii) 1501 W

106
 WAVE MOTION
AND SOUND

PL - 17

NATUR OF SOUND
Sound is a form of energy which effects our sensation of hearing through the ear. The sensation is produced
by longitudinal waves in an elastic medium, where the vibrations (oscillations) of the particles are in the same
direction in which the wave propagates.

PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES

In laboratory sound is produced by a tuning fork by striking its one prong on a soft rubber pad. Sound can also
be produced by plucking a stretched string (violin), by blowing flute, by striking tabla and many other ways.

PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Take a tuning for (a source of standard frequency). It is set into vibrations and its prongs A and B are kept
vertical. The prongs move in and out from their means position and have a transverse vibratory motion. When
the prongs are in means position, the air in their surrounding has normal density. (It is shown in figure (a) with
equidistant lines).
As the right prong moves out onwards right, it pushes the air layers to the right. This produces a compression
(It is shown in figure (b) with closer lines).
The prong returns inwardly to mean position. The compression moves to the right. The air near the prong
again has normal density as shown in figure (c).
As the prong continues moving toward s extreme left, vacating the space, density of air falls in the region and
a rarefaction is produced (It is shown in figure (d) with spread lines).
As the prong moves back to right extreme, it competes one vibration. Also the motion of the prong produces a
new compression. This completes one wave.
Since on vibration of the prong has generated one wave in the medium (air), in one second and many waves
will be generated as the number of vibrations that the tuning fork will make in one second. This number is
called frequency of the tuning fork (This number is engraved on the tuning fork near the bend). Hence we
conclude that the wave frequency (the number of waves being generated per second) is equal to the
frequency of the tuning fork.

107
 TUNING FORK

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

108
SOUND NEEDS A MATERIAL MEDIUM FOR ITS PROPAGATION

An electric ell is enclosed inside an inverted bell jar by hanging from the rubber cork. The jar is closed at the
bottom by an airtight place with a hole in the centre. A pipe through the hole leads out to a vacuum pump
(pump which draw the air out a vessel).

The bell is connected to a battery through a key.

The bell is started by closing the key. Initially when jar has normal air inside it, sound waves produced by the
ringing bell heard outside the jar.

The vacuum pump is started and the air form inside the jar is gradually drawn out. With decreases air inside
the jar, sound heard becomes weaker and weaker. After sometime no sound is heard, though the bell
hammer is seen in vibration.
Conclusion :
In the absence of medium (air) around the source, sound is not being propagated.

A natural fact : Moon has no atmosphere. The space above the atmosphere is also vacuum. If some
explosion takes place on moon, sound of the explosion will not be propagated to the earth. So the sound
waves never reach the earth.
CHARACERISTICS OF SOUND WAVE
(i) Pitch :
Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an emitted sound.

Faster the vibration of the source, higher is the frequency and higher is the pitch. Similarly low pitch sound
corresponds to low frequency.
A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound (Eg : humming of a bee, sound of guitar etc.)
A low pitch sound is called a hoarse sound (Eg : roar of a lion, car horn etc.)

Shrill oundS (high frequency )

Hoarse oundS (Low frequency )

109
 (ii) Loudness or softness :
Loudness or softness of sound wave is the sensations that depends upon is amplitude. When we strike a
table to with more force, it vibrates and produces loud sound waves which have more amplitude. When struck
with smaller force, vibrating table top produces soft sound waves which have less amplitude. A loud sound
wave carries more energy and can be heard at large distance. Reduction in amplitude at large distance,
makes the sound soft.

(iii) Timbre or quality :

Quality or timbre is characteristic of a sound which enables us to distinguish between the sound of same
loudness and pitch. This characteristic of sound helps up to recognise our friend from his voice without
seeing him. The quality of two sounds of same loudness and pitch produced by two different sources are
distinguishable because of different wave form produced by them. Eg. : The violin and flute (Bansuri)

(iv) Intensity :
Intensity of a sound is defined at the sound energy transferred per unit area placed perpendicular to
the direction of the propagation of sound.
Sound energy
That is, intensity of sound =
Time× Area
Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It does not depend on the response of our ears.
-1 -2 -2 -1
The S.I. unit of intensity of sound is joule s m watt m (∴ Js = 1W)

Difference between loudness and intensity of sound :

S.No. Loudness Intensity of Sound

1 Loudness is a subjective quantity. If depends upon Intensity of sound is an objective physical
the sensitivity of the human ear. A sound may be quantity. It does not depend on the sensitivity
loud for a person but the same sound may be feeble of a human ear.
for another who is hard of hearing.

2 Loudness cannot be measured as a physical Intensity of a sound can be measured as a

quantity because it is just sensation which can be physical quantity.
felt only.

110
RANGE OF HEARING
The human ear is able to h ear sound in a frequency range of about 20Hz to 20kHz. We can not hear sounds
of frequencies less than 20Hz of more than 20kHz, these limits vary from persons to person and with age.
Children can her sounds of somewhat higher frequencies, say upto 30 kHz. With age, our ability to hear high
frequency sound diminishes. For the elder, the upper limit often falls to 10-12 kHz. We take 20Hz-20 kHz as
the audible range for a average person.
Even in the audible range the human ear is not equally sensitive for all frequency. it is mot sensitive to
frequencies around 2000-3000 Hz.
Sound of frequencies less than 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound or infrasound. Sound of frequency greater
than 20 kHz is known as ultrasonic or ultrasound.
Different animals have different ranges of audible frequencies. A dog can hear sound of frequencies upto
about 50 kHz and a bat upto about 100 kHz. Dolphins can hear sounds of even higher frequencies. Animals
such as elephants and whales can hear sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz. Some fishes can hear sounds
of frequencies as low as 1-25 Hz.
SONIC BOOM
When a body moves with a speed which is greater than the speed of sound in air, it is said to be traveling at
supersonic speed. Jet fighters, bullets, etc, often travel at supersonic speed. And when they so son, they
produce a sharp, loud sound called a sonic boom.

The source moves at a speed greater then that of sound waves traveling at the speed of sound, are left
behind. The high-pressure layers due to sound waves originating at different points bunch together as shown
in figure. Actually, these layers fall on the surface of an imaginary cone of which OA, OB is a part. The total
pressure on the surface of this cone is very high.
The source is at the apex of this cone. As the source moves ahead, It drags the cone together with it. When
the surface of the cone reaches a person, the ears experience a sudden increase in pressure. After the
surface crosses him, the pressure is suddenly reduced. This causes the person to hear a sharp, loud sound-
the sonic boom.
region consisting of a very-high-pressure layer followed by a lower-pressure layer travels through the
space together with the cone. This is called a shock wave. This shock wave give rise to the sonic boom when
it reaches a person.
The shock waves produced by supersonic aircraft have enough energy to shatter glass and even
damage weak buildings.

111
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 17.1

A sound wave travels from east to west, in which direction do the particles of air move ?

(A) East - west (B) North - south (C) Up and down (D) None of these In which medium sound travels

faster ?

(A) Solid (B) Liquid (C) Gas (D) None of these

What is the name of short duration wave ?

(A) Pulse (B) Frequency (C) Time period (D) Velocity

What is the velocity of sound in water at room temperature ?

(A) 1500 m/s (B) 330 m/s (C) 1500 km/s (D) 330 km/s

The unit of quantity on which pitch of the sound depends is :

(A) Hertz (B) metre (C) metre/second (D) second

The unit of quantity on which loudness of found depends is :

(A) metre (B) Hertz (C) metre/second (D) second

Nature of sound wave is :

(A) transverse (B) longitudinal (C) electromagnetic (D) seismve

Pitch of high frequency sound is :

(A) high (B) low (C) zero (D) infinite

Voice of a friend is recognised by its :

(A) pitch (B) quality (C) intensity (D) velocity

Sound waves in air are :

(A) Longitudinal waves (B) Radio waves

(C) Transverse waves (D) Electromagnetic waves

Sound waves can not pass through :

(A) A solid liquid mixture (B) A liquid gas mixture

(C) An ideal gas (D) A perfect vacuum

A periodic wave is characterized by :

(A) Phase only (B) Wavelength only

(C) Frequency only (D) All the above

112
 The spend of sound is maximum in :

(A) Air (B) Hydrogen (C) Water (D) Iron

When wound waves traveling in air enter into the medium of water, the quantity which remains unchanged is :

(A) Wavelength (B) Velocity (C) Frequency (D) None

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 17.2

In what form of waves, sound travel in air ?

Can sound waves travel in vacuum ?

Have you every wondered why we hear sound of a hom of an approaching can before the car reaches us

? Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound ?

Which characteristic of sound helps us to identify our friend by his voice while sitting in a dark - room ?

What is the loudness of sound ? What factors does it depend upon ?

Define the following related to sound waves :

Pitch

Loudness and softness

Intensity

Quality

A person has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz What are the typical wavelengths of sound waves in
-1
air corresponding to these two frequencies ? Take the speed of sound in air as 340 ms .

The wavelength and frequency of a sound wave in a certain medium are 20 cm and 1650 Hz respectively.

Keeping the medium same, if the wavelength is changed to 16 cm, calculate :

the velocity of sound (ii) the new frequency of the sound wave.

113
 WAVE MOTION
AND SOUND

PL - 18

REFLECTION FO SOUND
When sound waves strike a surface, hey return back into the same medium. This phenomenon is
called reflection.
The reflection of sound waves is similar to that of light rays. The only difference is that sound waves being
larger in length. require bigger surfaces for reflection
(a) Laws of Reflection :
Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal, all lie in the same plane.
(b) Verification of Law of Reflection :

Take a smooth polished large wooden board and mount it vertically on the table. At right angle to the board,
fix a wooden screen. One each side of the screen, place a long, narrow and highly polished tube 9inside).
Place a clock at the end of he tube A. Move the tube B slightly from left to right, till a distinct tick of clock is
heard. Measure the ∠PCN and ∠RCN between tubes and wooden screen. It is found ∠PCN  ∠RCN . This
experiment illustrates the law of reflection.

Applications of Reflection of Sound :

Mega phone or speaking tube :
When we have to call someone at a far off distance (say 100m), we cup our hands and call the persons with
maximum sound we can produce. The hands percent the sound energy from spreading in all directions. In the
same way, the people use horn shaped metal tubes, commonly called megaphones. The loud speakers have
horn shaped openings. In all these devises, the sound energy is prevented from spreading out by successive
reflections from the horn shaped tubes.

114
 (ii) Stethoscope :

It is an instrument used by the doctors for listening sound produced within the body, empirically in the heart
and lungs. In the stethoscope, the sound produced within the body of a patient to picked up by a sensitive
diaphragm and then reaches the doctors ears by multiple reflection.

(iii) Sound board :

The sound waves obey the laws of reflection on the place as well as curbed reflecting surfaces. In order to
spread sound evenly in big halls or auditoriums, the speaker (S) is fixed at the principle focus of the concave
reflector. This concave reflector is commonly called sounding board. The sound waves striking the sound
board get reflected parallel to the principal axis.

SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIUM

Sound travels with different speed in different media like solid, liquid and gas. This is because, sound travels
in a medium due to the transfer of energy from one particle to another particle of the medium.
Solid :

Since the particles of solid are close to each other, so transfer of energy from one particle to another takes
place in less time (i.e. faster). Hence speed of sound in solids is large.

115
 Liquid :
Speed of sound in liquids in less than in solids since the particles are away from each other as compared to
solids.
Gas :
Speed of sound in gases is less than the speed in liquids and solids as the particles are far always as
compare to slides and liquids.

Gas < Liquid < olidS

Speed of sound increases from left to right

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE SPEED OF SOUND

Sound travels faster as the temperature of the medium increases and vice-versa. This happens because as
temperate increases, the particles of the medium collide more frequently and hence the disturbance spreads

faster.
0
Speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s with every 1 C increases in temperature. For example if speed
0 0
of sound in air at 0 C is 330 m/s, then its speed at 25 C will be 345 m/s.
Speed of sound does not depend on the pressure of the medium if temperature of the medium remains.

ECHO
The sound heard after reflection from a rigid obstacle is called on echo.
It is of three types :
(a) Instantaneous echo (b) Syllabic echo (c) Successive echo
(a) Instantaneous Echo :
The echo of sound of short duration (like clap, pistol shot) is called instantaneous echo. It is found that
1 1
sensation of any sound persists for to seconds in our ear, after it, the existing sound dies off. This
10 20
time is called persistence of sound or persistence of hearing. It varies from persons to person and also with
1
frequency of sound. We will use second as a typical interval needed to distinguish two sounds. 15
(b) Syllabic Echo :
The echo of syllables of spoken words is called syllabic echo.
This echo is clear when the sound of last syllable of speech is reflected from an obstacle at least 22 m away
2
so that sound takes atleast second during which the last syllable is compactly spoken.
15
(c) Successive Echo :
This echo is head when sound is produced between two distant parallel rows of tall buildings or hills. A
number of echoes are heard successively due to the multiple reflection. This echo is heard only in vast open
field.

116
 RELATION BETWEEN SPEED OF SOUND, TIME OF HERING ECHOAND DISTNCE
OF REFLECTING BODY
If t is the time at which an echo is heard, d is the distance between the source of sound and the
reflecting body and v is the speed of sound. The total distance traveled by the sound is 2d.
2d

Speed of sound, v = vt
or d=

(a) Calculation of Minimum Distance of Hearing Echo :

1
d is minimum distance required for hearing an echo when persistence of hearing is second. The 15
velocity of sound (at room temperature) is 340 m/s.

So, d = vt = 340 × 1 = 22.67

2 2 15 2

11 metre is the minimum distance of hearing echo.

(b) Conditions for Formation of an Echo :
The minimum distance between the source of sound and the reflecting body should be 11 metres.
The wavelength of the sound should be less than the height of the reflecting body.
The intensity of sound should e sufficient so that it can be heard after reflection.

REVERBERATION
Persistence of sound after its production is stopped. is called reverberation.
When a sound is produced in a big hall, its wave reflect from the walls and travel back and forth. Due to
this, energy does not reduce and the sound persists.
Small amount of reverberation for lesser time helps in adding volume to the programmers. Too
much reverberation confuses the programmers and must be reduced.
To reduce reverberation, the rood and walls of the hall are covered with a sound absorbing materials
like rough plaster and thick curtains.

AUDIBLE, INFRASONIC AND ULTRSONIC WAVES

(a) Audible Range :
The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequency between 20Hz to 20 kHz. This range is known
as audible range.
Eg.: By vibrating sitar, guitar, organ pipes, flutes, shehnai etc.
(b) Infrasonic Wave :
A longitudinal elastic wave whose frequency is below the audible range i.e. 20 Hz, is called an
infrasonic wave.
it is generally generated by a large source.
Eg. : Earthquake.

117
 (c) Ultrasonic Wave :
A longitudinal wave whose frequency is above the upper limit of audible range i.e. 20 kHz, is called
ultrasonic wave. it is generated by very small sources. Eg. : Quarts crystal.

ULTRASOUND
Sound of very high frequency (greater than 20 kHz) is called ultrasound.
Production :
These are produced by electric oscillator using high frequency vibrations of quarts crystal.
Properties :
Sound wave of all frequencies carry energy with them, with increase in frequency, vibration becomes faster
and also energy consents and force increase. When ultrasound travels in solid, liquid and gas it subjects the
particles of matter to face large force and energy.
Applications of ultrasound :
Welding metal :
They are used for welding metals like tungsten which cannot be welded by conventional methods. One of the
two pieces of the tungsten is held firmly against the other piece and then vibrated with an ultrasonic vibrator.
The heat produced due to friction, sat the point of contact, melts the melts. On stopping the vibrator, the
melted ends of metals fuse to form a tight weld.
(ii) Medial purposes :
The ultrasonic vibrations can be reflected from the boundaries between the materials of nearly same density.
The technique is used in scanning the internal organs of human body. It is superior to the X-ray scanning, as
it does not cause any harm to human cells, unlike X-rays.
The instrument which used ultrasonic waves for getting the images of internal organs of human body is called
ultrasound scanner. In this technique, the ultrasound waves travel through the tissues of the body and get
reflected from the region where there is change in density. These reflected waves are then converted into
electrical signals. These signals are then displayed on T.V. monitor or can e printed on a film.

This technique is called ultrasonography and help doctors to deted abnormalities, such as stone in gall
bladder and kidney or tumours in different organs.
Ultrasound waves of high intensity are employed to break small stones in the kidney into find grains. The find
grains then get flushed out with urine.
(iii) Drilling holes or making cuts of desired shape :
We can use a hammer and a steel punch to make holes in metal plates, plastic sheets or other solid
materials. Such holes an also be made using ultrasonic vibrations produced in a metallic rod, called a horn.
The horn acts like a hammer, hammering the plate about hundred thousand times per second. The shape of
the hole is the same as the of the tip of the hom. The shape of the tip can be designed as per the requirement
of the application. ultrasonic cutting and drilling are very effective for fragile material like glass, for which
ordinary methods do not give good results.

118
(iv) Ultrasonic cleaning :
We normally clean dirty clothes, places or other large objects by applying detergent or organic solutions,
rubbing and washing. But for small parts such as those used in watches, electronic components, odd-shaped
parts such as a spiral tube and parts located in hard-to reach places, this method is inconvenient and
sometimes impossible. Such objects are placed in a cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into the
solution. Because of vibrations at high frequencies, all dirt and grease particles get detached from the surface
and object gets thoroughly cleaned.

(v) ultrasonic detection of defects in metals :

Metallic components are used in buildings, bridges, machines, scientific equipments and so on. If there are
cracks or holes inside the metal used, the strength of the structure or component is reduced and it can fail.
Such defects are not visible from the outside. ultrasonic waves can be used to detect such defects.

Ultrasonic waves are sent through the metallic object under study. if there is nor crack or cavity in its path, it
goes through the object. A detector placed on the other side detects the transmitted wave. A defect present in
the path of the wave reflects the wave. Thus, the intensity of the emerging waves falls in the region that is in
line with the defect. When this happens, we know that the object has defect inside. Ordinary sound is not
used for this application because ordinary sound will bend considerably round the corners of crakes or
cavities and will average of the other side at almost full intensity.
Bats fly in the darkness of night without colliding with other objects by the method of echolocation. Bats emit
high frequency ultrasonic squeaks while flying and listen to he echoes produced by the reflection of their
squeaks from the objects in their path. From the time taken by the echo to be heard, bats can judge the
distance of the object in their path and hence avoid it by changing the direction. Bats search their prey at night
by the method of echolocation.

119
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE - DPP - 18.1

For the echo of the last syllable of the speech to be heard the least distance of the reflector must
be (approximately):
(A) 22 metre (B) 32 metre (C) 110 metre (D) 340 metre
During summer, an echo is head :
(A) Sooner than during winter (B) Later than during winter
(C) After same time as in winter (D) Rarely
0
The velocity of sound in air at 30 C is approximately :
-1 -1 -1 -1
(A) 332 ms (B) 350 ms (D) 530 ms (D) 332 kms
With the rise of temperature, the velocity of sound :
(A) Decreases (B) Increases
(C) Remains the same (D) Is independent of temperature
Infrasonic frequency range is
(A) Below 20 Hz (B) 20 Hz to 20 kHz (C) Above 20 kHz (D) No limit
Ultrasonic frequency range is :
(A) Below 20 Hz (B) 20 Hz to 20 kHz (C) Above 20 kHz (D) No limit
The speed of sound in air at constant temperature :
Decreases with increases of pressure
Increases with increases of pressure
Remains the same with the increase in pressure
None of these
The frequency of sound waves in water is :
(A) Same at that of frequency of source (B) Less than frequency fo source
(C) More than frequency of source (D) None

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 18.2

Define reverberation.
Define a tone and a note.
What is the reflection of sound ? Write the laws of reflection and verify them with the help of experiment.
Describe the following with figure :
(i) Sound board (ii) Megaphone (ii) Stethoscope
Female voice is more sweet than male voice. Why ?
A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 500 m high into a pond of water at the base of the tower. When is
-2 -1
the splash heard at the top ? Given, g = 10 m s and speed of sound = 340 m s .
Two children are at opposite ends of an aluminium rod. One strikes the end of the rod with a stone. Find the
ratio of times by the sound wave in air and in aluminium to reach the second child.
0 -1 0 -1
(Take speed of sound in air at 25 C = 346 m s . Speed of sound in aluminium at 25 C = 6420 m s )

120
 WAVE MOTION
AND SOUND

PL - 19

SONAR
The word „SONAR‟ stands for „Sound Navigation and
Ranging‟/ (a) Principle of Sonar :
Sonar is an apparatus which is used to find the depth of a sea or to locate the under water things like shoals
of fish, enemy submarines etc. Sonar works by sending short bursts of ultrasonic sound from a ship down into
sea-water and then picking up the echo produced by the reflection of ultrasonic sound from under-water
objects like bottom of sea, shoal of fish, a submarine.
(b) Working of Sonar :

A sonar apparatus consists of two parts :

A transmitter (for emitting ultrasonic waves) and (ii) a receiver (for detecting ultrasonic waves). Now
suppose a sonar device is attached to the under-side of a ship and we wan to measure the depth of sea (blow
the ship). To do this, the transmitter of sonar is made to emit a pulse of ultrasonic sound with a very high
frequency of about 50,000 hertz. This pulse of ultrasonic sound travels down in the sea-water towards the
bottom of the sea . When the ultrasonic sound pulse strikes the bottom of the sea, it is reflected back to the
ship in the from of an echo. This echo produces an electrical signal in the receiver part of the sonar device.
The sonar device measures the time taken by the ultrasonic sound pulse to travel from the ship to the bottom
of the sea and back to the ship. Half of this time gives the time taken by the ultrasonic sound to travel from
the ship to the bottom of the sea.

121
 Depth of sea = Velocity of cound in sea water × time recorded by the recorder 2
v× t
2

ILLUSTRATION
The ultrasonic waves take 4 seconds to travel from the ship to the bottom of the sea and back to the
ship. What is the depth of the sea ? (Speed of sound in water = 1500 m/s.)
Sol. The time taken by the ultrasonic sound waves to travels from the ship to the sea-bed and back to the ship is 4
seconds. So, the time taken by the ultrasonic sound to travel from the ship to sea-bed with be half of this
4
time, which is = 2 seconds. This means that the sound takes 2 seconds to travel from the ship to the 2
bottom of the sea.
Dis tan ce
Now, Speed =
Time
So, 1500 = Dis tan ce
2
And, Distance = 1500 × 2 m = 3000 m

REASON FOR USING ULTASONIC WAVES IN SONAR

Ultrasonic waves have a very high frequency due to which they can penetrate deep is sea water
without being absorbed.
Ultrasonic waves cannot be confused with the noises, such as the voice of engines of ship. It is
because the ultrasonic waves are not perceived by human ear.

THE HUMAN EAR

The ears the sense organs which help us in hearing sound.
(a) Construction of Human Ear :
The ear consists of three compartments : outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The part of ear which we see outside the head is called outer ear. The outer ear consists of broad part called
pinna and about 2 to 3 centimeters long passage called ear canal. At the end of ear canal there is a thin,
elastic and circular membrane called ear-drum. The ear-drum is also called tympanum. The outer ear
contains air. The middle ear contains three small and delicate bones called hammer, anvil and stirrup. These
ear-bones are linked to one another. One end of the bone called hammer is touching the ear-drum and its
other end is connected to the second bone called anvil. The other end of anvil is connected to the third bone
called stirrup and the free and of stirrup is held against the membrane over the oval window of inner ear. The
middle ear also contains air. The lower part of middle ear has a narrow tube called „eustachian tube‟ going to
the throat. Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to throat and ensures that the air pressure inside the
middle ear is the same as that on the outside.

122
The inner ear has a coiled tube cochlea. One side of cochlea is connected to the middle ear through the
elastic membrane over the oval window. The cochlea is filled with a liquid. The liquid present in cochlea
contains never cells which are sensitive to sound. The other side of cochlea is connected to auditory nerve
which goes into the brain.
(b) Working of Human Ear :
The sound waves (coming from a sound producing body) are collected by the pinna of outer ear. These sound
waves pass through the ear canal and fall on the ear-drum. Sound waves consist of compressions (high
pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure regions). When the compression of sound wave strikes the
ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum increases and pushes the ere-drum inwards and when the
rarefaction of sound wave falls on the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum decreases and it
moves outward. Thus, when the sound waves fall on the ear-drum, the ear-drum starts vibrating back and
forth rapidly.
The vibrating ear-drum causes a small bone hammer to vibrate. From hammer, vibrations are passed on to
the second bone anvil and finally to the third bone stirrup. The vibrating stirrup strikes on the membrane of the
oval window and passes its vibrations to the liquid in the cochlea. Due to this, the liquid in the cochlea beings
to vibrate. The vibrating liquid of cochlea sets up electrical impulses in the nerve cells present in it. These
electrical impulses are carried by auditory nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these electrical impulses as
sound and w get the sensation of hearing.

123
 EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP - 19.1

The equipment (device) used for locating the position and distance of an inside sea, using ultrasound is called :
(A) Pukar (B) Upkar (C) Radar (D) Sonar
Human ear can hear :
(A) audible sound (B) infra sound (C) ultra sound (D) all the above
-1
A sonar echo takes 4.4s to return from a submarine. If the speed of sound in water is 1500 ms , then the
distance of submarine from the sonar is - :
(A) 1500 m (B) 3000 m (C) 3300 m (D) 3600 m
The eardrum is a :
(A) bone (B) coiled tube (C) stretched membrane (D) fluid
The par t of the ear, that is filled with a liquid is the :
(A) cochlea (B) ear canal (C) anril (D) hammer

A fishing boat using sonar detects a shoal of fish 190 m below it. How much time elapsed between sending the
ultra sonic signal which detected the fish and receiving the signal‟s echo ? (speed of sound in sea water
1
is 1519 ms- ) :
(A) 0.25 s (B) 0.50 s (C) 0.75 s (D) 1.0 s

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 19.2

Guive the reason for using ultra sonic waves in sonar.

What is full form of SONAR ?
What is the principle of SONAR ?
How can you measure the depth of the sea with the help of SONAR ?
Draw the well labelled diagram of human ear showing the different parts.
Describe the working of human hear.
A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 100 kHz in air. If this sound meets a water surface, what is the
-1
wavelength of (i) the reflected sound (ii) the transmitted sound ? Speed of sound in air = 340 m s , and
-1
in water = 1486 m s .
A sonar device on a submarine sends out a signal and receives an echo 5 s later. Calculate the speed of
sound in water if the distance of the object from the submarine is 3625 m.

124
 ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 17.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Ans. A A A A A A B A B A D D D C

(Subjective DPP # 17.2)

8. 17 m, 17 mm. 9. (a) 330 m/s. (b) 2062.5 Hz.

(Objective DPP # 18.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Ans. A A B B A C C A

(Subjective DPP # 18.2)

6. 11.47 s 7. 18.55 : 1

(Objective DPP # 19.1)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ans. D A C C A A

(Subjective DPP # 19.2)

-3 -2 -1
7. (i) 3.40 × 10 m (ii) 1.349 × 10 m 8. 1450 ms .
 



FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE




CELL


 All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”. A

 cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms. Study of
structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
 
Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He described
 about this in his book “Micrographic”.

 The word cell was derived from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
 First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek. The term protoplasm was
 coined by purkinje in 1839.

 Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode. It‟s

 consistency differs under different condition. It exists in sol-gel states.


Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other organic
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
CELL THEORY

Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann” gave the “Cell theory” which was later on
expanded by “Rudolf Virchow ”. Cell theory states that

All plants and animals are composed of cells.

Cell is the basic unit of life.


All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.

TYPES OF CELL & ORGANISM

(a) On the Basis of Number of Cells Organisms can be categorized as:

Unicellular organisms: These are organisms which made up of single cell only. This
single cell Performs all the vital body functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba



1
 Multicellular organisms: These are the organisms which made up of numerous cells. These cells
then combine to form an organ and group of organs performing different functions forms an
organ system which further forms an organism. e.g. plants and animals
(b) On the basis of type of organization, cells are two types :
Prokaryotic cells: these are primitive and incomplete cells. They have less
developed nucleus without nuclear membrane & nucleolus. e.g. Bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells: these are well developed cells. They have advanced nucleus with
unclear membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.
CELL SHAPE
Cells are of variable shapes and sizes. Their shape is according to the function. Generally cells
are spherical but they may be elongated (nerve cell), branched (pigmented), discoidal (RBC),
spindle shaped (muscle cell) etc.
CELL SIZE
Size of cell is variable depending upon the type of organism. Some are microscopic while
some are visible with naked eyes.
Their size may vary from 0.2 >m to18 cm.
Size of a typical cell in a Multicellular organism ranges from 20-30 mn.

The largest cell is ostrich egg(15 cm. in dia with shell & 8 cm. in dia without shell)

The longest cell is nerve cell.(upto 1m. or more)

Smallest cells so far known are PPLOs e.g. mycoplasma (0.1 >m in dia.)

Human egg is 0.1 mm. in dia.
COMPONENTS OF CELL
There is an occurrence of division of labour within a cell as they all got certain
specific components called “Cell organelles” each of them perform a specific function.
The three basic components of all the cells are
(i) 1M (Plasma Membrane) (ii) Nucleus (iii) Cytoplasm
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 1.1
The first person to observe a cell under microscope was
(D) A.V.Leeuwenhoek
(A) M. Schleiden (B) T. Schwann (C) Robert Hook Cell theory was
propounded by

(A) Morgan (B) Halden

(C) Schleiden and Schwann (D) Robert Hooke
The word cell was coined by
(A) Robert hooke (B) Weismann (C) Cuvier (D) Darwin
Nucleus discovered by
(A) Robert Hooke (B) Robert Brown (C) Dujardin (D) Purkinje
Smallest cells so far known are
(A) Bacteria (B) blue green algae (C) PPLOs (D) human egg
Which of the following is the longest cell of animal kingdom?
(A)Bacteria (B) Nerve cell (C) Virus (D) Muscle cell
Which one of the following is an example of prokaryotic cell?
(A)Typical plant cell (B) Typical animal cell (C) Bacteria (D) None of these
8. What is cytology? (A) Study of cytoplasm (B) Study of structure and composition of cell
(C) Study of animal cell only (D) Study of cell only
2
 Who coined term protoplasm?
(A)Leeuwenhoek (B) Purkinje (C) Robert hooke (D) Robert Brown
10. Cell is
(A) Functional unit of life (B) Structural unit of life
(C) Hereditary unit of life (D) all of the above
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 1.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Name the largest cell of living world.
Amoeba is a ………………… organism.
Who wrote the book”Micrographia”?

What is the composition of protoplasm?

Define cell.

Who gave the cell theory? What does it state? Which organism is an exception of cell theory?

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

CELL MEMBRANE
(a) Cell Membrane:
 Cell membrane is also called as plasma Membrane or Plasma lemma.

It is the limiting boundary of each cell which separates the cytoplasm from
 its surroundings.

 It is found in both plant as well as animal cells.

It is the outer most covering of a cell in case of animals and lies below the
cell wall in case of plants.

It is made up of proteins and lipids where proteins are sandwiched between
bilayer of lipids.

Plasma membrane name was given by Nageli.

Plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature. It allows or permits
the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell.

Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane

according to him it consists of a protein layer sandwiched between two layers of lipids. It is in
quasifluid state. It is 75A thick.





3
 It is flexible and can be folded, broken and reunited.

Function of plasma membrane:

It regulates the movement of molecules inside and outside the cell.
It helps in maintaining the distinct composition of the cell.
Transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane: This can be done by following
ways:
Diffusion: Movement of solutes or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration is called
as diffusion. It does not require energy therefore it is called as passive transport.
Osmosis: The movement of solvent or water from higher concentration (solvent) to lower concentration
(solvent) through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Or The movement of solvent or
water from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through a semipermeable
membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis can also be called as diffusion of solvents”.
Endosmosis: Movement of solvent into the cell is called as Endosmosis.
Endosmosis: Movement of solvent outside the cell is called as
Endosmosis. (iii) Types of solution on the basis of concentration:
(A)Isotonic solution: When the concent, ation of the solution outside the equal to
the Concentration of cytoplasm of the cell it is called as isotonic solution.
Hypertonic solution: When the of concentration of the solution outside the cell is more than
that inside the cell. Due to this cell looses water and becomes plasmolysed.
Hypotonic solution: When the of concentration of the solution outside the cell is lesser than that of
cytoplasm of cell. Due to this cell swells up and bursts.

(b) Cell Wall:


It is the outermost covering of the plant cells.

 It is absent in animal cells.


Cell wall is rigid, strong, thick, porous and non living structure. It is made up of cellulose and
hemicelluloses. Cell walls of two adjacent cells are joined by a layer called middle lamellae. It is
made up of calcium and magnesium pectate.

Functions of cell wall:

It provides definite shape to the cell.

It provides strength to the cell.

It is permeable and allows entry of molecules of different sizes.

It is antigen specific.

It has the characteristics of repair and regeneration.

4
 (c) Nucleus:

Figure: Nucleus
Nucleus is the most important cell organelle which directs and controls all its cellular activities.

It is called as “Headquarter of the cell”.

It was discovered by “Robert Brown in 1831”.

In eukaryotes a well defined nucleus is present while in prokaryotes a well defined nucleus is absent.

Prokaryotes contain a primitive nucleus.

It has double layered covering called as nuclear membrane.

Nuclear membrane has pores which regulate the movement of materials of materials in & out of the
cell.

Besides nuclear membrane nucleus also contains nucleolus and chromatin material and the
substance filled inside the nucleus is nucleolus or karyolymph.

Chromosomes or chromatin material consists of DNA which stores and transmits hereditary
information for the cell to function, grow and reproduce.

(i) Function of the nucleus:
It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell and regulates the cell cycle.
It helps in transmission of hereditary characters from parents to off springs

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 2.1

Plasma membrane is made up of

(A) Proteins and carbohydrates (B) Proteins and lipids
Proteins and nucleic acids
Proteins, some nucleic acids and lipids
Plant cell wall is mainly composed of
(A) Sugars (B) Cellulose (C) Proteins (D) lipids
Nucleus was discovered of
(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke (C) A.V. Leeuwenhoek (D) Schwann
A solution is said to be hypotonic when
Concentration of medium is higher than that of the cell
Concentration of medium is equal to that of the cell
Concentration of medium is lower than that of the cell
None of the above are correct.
Cell wall shows
(A) Complete permeability (B) semipermeability
(C) Differential permeability (D) impermeability

5
 6. Plasma membrane is –
(A) Impermeable (B) formed of cellulose
(C) selectively permeable (D) nonselective
Ribosome was named by –
(A) Palade (B) Porter (C) de Duve (D) Koliker
8. Ribosome consist of –
(A) DNA and protein (B) RNA and protein
(C) RNA and amino acids (D) RNA and DNA
The solution having concentration equal to the concentration of solution of inside the cell is called as
(A) Isotonic solution (B) hypotonic solution
(C) Hypertonic solution (D) all of the above
10. .If a cell will be placed in hypotonic solution what will happen to it ?
(A) The cell will swell and burst (B) The cell will become flaccid
(C) It will remain unchanged (D) None of the above
SUBJECTIVE QUESTION – 2.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Who gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane ?

Movement of solvent into the cell is called as…………………………….
Which cell organelle is called as the head quarter of cell?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?

Why plasma membrane is called as selectively permeable membrane ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE THE QUESTION

Draw a neat and labeled diagram of nucleus. State its main function.

6
 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

BL-3

CYTOPLASM

Cytoplasm was discovered by Kolliker in 1862.


It is the site of both biosynthetic and catabolic pathways.

It can be divided into two parts:
Cytosol: Aqueous soluble part contains various fibrous proteins forming cytoskeleton.
Cell organelles: Living part of the cells having definite shape, structure and function bounded By
Plasma membrane.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Figure: Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is the network of membranes present in the cytoplasm.

It was discovered by Porter, Claude and Fullam.

These are present in all cells except prokaryotes and mammalian erythrocytes.

They are made up of three components:
Cistemae: These are long, flattened, parallely arranged, unbranched tubules. These
from Successive layers of nucleus. These are found in cells which are active in protein synthesis
and are 40-50 >m in diameter.
Vesicles: These are around or spherical they are founded in synthetically active cells.
Types :
Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types

Smooth ER Rough ER
-Made of tubules mainly. -Made of clstemae and vesicles.
-Helps in sterold, lipids and. –helps in protein synthesis.
Polysaccharide synthesis. Contains ribosomes on its surface.
-Ribosomes are absent.
-Helps in membrane biogenesis.

7
 Function of ER:
It is the only organelle which can move within a cell so it serves as a channel for the
transport of materials between various regions of cytoplasm and between cytoplasm and nucleus.
It also function as a cytoplasmic framework to provide space for some of
the biochemical activities. It forms endoskeleton of cell.
It helps in synthesis of fats, steroids, cholesterol etc.
It contains secretory proteins.
SER plays a crucial role in detoxification of drugs and poisonous by-products.

GOLGI APPARATUS

Figure: Golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane bounded vesicles arranged parallel to each
other in stacks called Cisternae along with some large and spherical vacuoles.

It was discovered by Camilo Golgi.

In plants Golgi membrane bounded.

It is single membrane bounded.

It is absent in prokaryotes, mammalian RBC‟s & sieve cells.
(a) Functions:
It helps in formation of lipids
It helps in formation of middle lamellae
It is secretary in nature.
It helps in melanin synthesis
Lipids and proteins synthesized in endoplasmic reticulum are packed at Golgi
complex. They provide the site for assembly of new membrane material.

MITOCHONDRIA

Figure: Mitochondria

8
 It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
except mammalian RBC‟s.

These are also absent in prokaryotes.

It was first seen by Kolliker in insect cells.

Maximum mitochondria are found in metabolically active cells.

It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.

It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins


 While inner membrane is folded inside to from chambers called Cristae. ”Cristae” are the infoldings of
inner mitochondrial membrane that possess enzymes for respiratory cycles like Kreb 
Cycle. ATP synthesizing units are called Oxysomes or F1 particles.

Space between inner and outer mitochondrial membranes is called as
Perimitochondrial space. The fluid present in mitochondrial is called as matrix.

Functions:
Its main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
It is the site of Kreb cycle of respiration.
Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.

RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
All structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by the nuclear DNA, are synthesized upon
cytoplasmic ribosomes. The DNA codes are transcripted into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in
the chromosomes of the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the cytoplasm and each becomes
attached to several ribosomes which thus from a group called polyribosome or polyribosomes. In this
way each mRNA molecule brings about polymerization of specific protein molecules, with the help of
ribosomes from amino acid molecules found in the Cytosol.

Fig: Ribosome

9
 EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP- 3.1

What is more abundant in smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

( A) Cistemae and vesicle (B) Tubules
(B) Tubules and vesicles (C) Cistemae
Mitochondria are concerned with
(A) Kreb cycle (B) C, cycle (C) glycolysis (D) none of the above
Which of the following organelle is the site of Kreb cycle?
(A) Ribosome‟s (B) Lysosomes (C) eukaryotic cells (D) Nucleus
Mitochondria are absent in
(A) Prokaryotic cells (B) RBC of mammals (C) eukaryotic cells (D) (A) and (B) Both
Mitochondria stores energy in from of
(A) Heat energy (B) ATP (C) light energy (D) none of the above
Ȁ Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā
he ATP synthesizing units of Mitochondria are
(A) Oxysomes (B) peroxysomes (C) glyoxysomes (D) lysosomes
Lipid synthesis is performed by
(A) Rough ER (B) smooth ER (C) both of above (D) none of the above
Who observed Mitochondria at first?
(A) Porter (B) Palade (C) Koliker (D) Camilo Golgi
Detoxification of body is done by?
(A) Mitochondria (B) lysosomes
(C) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (D) rough endoplasmic reticulum
10. Golgi apparatus is made of
(A) Cisternae (B) vesicles (C) golgian vacuoles (D) all of the above

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS – 3.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Which cell organelle is called as „power house of cell‟?
Which cell organelle contains enzymes for ATP production?
In mitochondria which portion contains specific proteins?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Define Cristae.
State any two function of Golgi body.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
Describe the types of endoplasmic reticulum and draw necessary figure. Give it‟s main functions also.
Draw a neat and labeled diagram of mitochondria.

10
 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

BL – 4
PLASTID
It is double membranous discoidal structure, fond only in plant cells.

Term plastid was given by Haeckel.

Chloroplast was discount by A.V. Leeuwenhoek and named by Schimper.

Besides being discoidal of rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae they can 
be „U‟ shaped , spiral , coiled , ribbon shaped etc.
Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types.

Leucoplast Chromoplast Chloroplast

-Non pigments
-White in colour -Coloured pigments other -Green pigment chlorophyll is found
-Generally found in than green in them
-Underground parts Phaeoplast – Brown -Found in aerial parts of plant
-Important for food storage, Rhodoplast – Red which are green in colour
e.g. Aleuronoplast, Elaioplast

(a) Chloroplast have Following Two Parts :

(i) Grana: It constitutes the lamellar system. These are found layered on top of each
other, these stacks are called as Grana. Each granum of the chloroplast is formed by
superimposed closed compartments called Thylakoids.
Function: They are the sites of light reaction of photosynthesis as they contain

photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present which are called
as Photosynthetic units. Each quantansome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.
Stroma: It is a granular transparent substance also called as matrix. Grana are
embedded in it. Besides Grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains, ribosomes etc.

Function: This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. Also helps in protein
synthesis due to presence of ribosomes.

11
 VACUOLES

These are membrane bounded regions in the cytoplasm containing water and
other substances.

They are bounded by a single membrane called Tonoplast.

In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and numerous while in plant cells a
single large vacuole Is found which occupies about 90% of the volume of cell.

(a) Functions:
 It helps in maintaining osmotic pressure in a cell.

 It stores toxic metabolic products of plant cell.

 It contains various Coloured pigments like anthocyanins.

LYSOSMES

(Discovery: Christian de Duve) (Lyso = digestive, some = body)

These are tiny sac like granules containing
 enzymes of intracellular digestion.
 They are bounded by a single membrane.

 They

occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
 They do not have a definite shape or size.

They contain hydrolyzing enzymes called acid hydrolyses.

(a) FUNCTION :
 Their main function is phagy = digestion

 They are kind of waste disposal system.

 They help in digesting foreign materials and wom out cells.

 During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage lysosomes

burst and their enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own cell so they are

also called as “Suicidal Bags”.

PEROXISOMES

These structures were first described from liver and kidney cells by Rodhin(1954)

In plant cells, they were first observed in germinating seeds by Tolbert(1969)

The term „peroxysomes‟ was first used by de Duve and also called as uricosomes.

Peroxysomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited by a single unit
membrane and have a diameter of 0.5 to >m.

 In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxysomes carry out photorespiration.

In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.

They contain important enzymes as oxidases (peroxide producing enzyme),
peroxidases and catalases (which break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).

GLYOXYSOMES
A beaver (1961) was the first person to discover these organelles and were
described later by R.W. Briedenbach (1967).

They are about 0.5 to 1 Cm in size and are surrounded by a single unit membrane.





12
 They are found in plant cells, particularly, in germinating fatty seeds e.g.

Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where fat is being converted into carbohydrates by a process
called glyoxylate cycle.

Glyoxysomes contain important enzymes, isocitrate, lyase, maltase
and Synthelast along with several others.

Structure of glyoxysomes is similar to peroxisome.
DIFFERENCES BETWEENA PLANT CELL AND ANANIMAL CELL

Figure: Plant cell

Figure: Animal cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell wall is present Cell wall is absent
Plastids are found Plastids are absent
One large vacuole Numerous tiny vacuoles are found
Centriole is absent Centriole is present

ON THE BASIS OF TYPE ORGANIZATION CELLS CAN BEDIFFERENTIATED AS

Characters Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

1. Nuclear body Incipient nucleus, True nucleus,
No nuclear membrane Nucleolus membrane present
Nucleolus absent‟ No mitosis Nucleolus present
Single closed loop, (histones absent) Mitosis found
Multiple chromosomes, ( histones
present in chromosome)
2. Mitosis No mitosis Mitosis found

13
 Characters Prokaryotic cells Every tic cells
3.DNA arrangement Single closed loop,(histones absent) Multiple chromosomes,
(histones present in
chromosome)
4. Respirator system In plasma a membrane, In mitochondria
(mitochondria)
5. Photosynthetic apparatus In intemal membranes, In chloroplasts
(chloroplasts absent)
6. Golgi bodies, chloroplast, Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondria, Lysosomes
7. Ribosomes 70 S type 80 S type
8. Cell wall Generally present, complex Present in some types, simple
chemical composition Chemical composition

9. Flagella Submicroscopic, do not have Microscopic size have 9+2

9+2 fibrillar structure Fibrillar structure
10. Cytoplasmic movements Cytoplasmic streaming rare of Cytoplasmic streaming often
absent occurs
11. Vacuoles Absent Present
12. Lysosome Absent Present
13. Capsule May be present Always absent
14. Hereditary material DNA circular DNA (linear)
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
Centrosome :
It is found in animal cell.
It consists of two centrioles.
It is non membranous.
It is made up of microtubules.
It helps in cell division and spindle formation.
Cilia and flagella: These are thread like appendages used for locomotion and emerge from basa
body.
Chromosomes: These are thread like structures containing hereditary information in from
of genes.
There are four different types of membranes on the basis of permeability:
(A)Permeable: They allow diffusion of both solvent and solute molecules or icon through them.
e.g. Cell wall of plant cell.
Impermeable: They prohibit the diffusion of both solvent and solute particles through them.
e.g. Cutinized cell wall, Lignified cell wall.
Semipermeable: Allows diffusion of solvent molecules but do not allow the passage of
solute molecules.e.g. Parchment paper, Kidney membrane.
Differentially Permeable: It allow some solutes to pass through them along with the
solvent molecules. E.g. Plasmalemma, Tonoplast.
Cell organelles can be separated by the method of differential centrifugation.

14
 First cell that developed in laboratory by Sydney Fox and A.I. Oparin was called as Coacervate.
Smallest cell is Mycoplasma (PPLO)(0.1 > dia)
Largest cell is Ostrich egg (15 cm.dia.)
Longest Animal Cell is Nerve fibre (1m.)
Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism i.e. they occur in different forms.
Mitochondria, plastid and centrioles have their own DNA molecules so they
are called as “Semiautonomous Cell Organelles ”.
Connection through which cells communicate chemically with each other
through their thick walls are called as “Plasmodesmata”.
Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin instead of cellulose.
Protoplasm was called as “Physical Basis of Life” by Huxley
DNA is called as “Chemical Basis of life”.
Euglena is the connecting link between plants and animals as it lacks cell
wall but has plastids.
Mesosomes in bacteria are analogous to mitochondria as they both
help in cellular respiration.
Centre for cellular and molecular biology is situated at Hyderabad.
In animal cell the „Cell Coat‟ is present instead of cell wall which provides
them protection. It is made up to glycocalyx.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell i.e. energy
in cell is stored in from of ATP molecules.

EXERCISE

OBJECTIVE DPP – 4.1

Which of the following is called as „Suicidal bags‟ ?

(A) Centrosome (B) Lysosome (C) Microsome (D) Mesosomes

Eukaryotic ribosomes are

(A) 30s (B) 50s (C) 80s (D) 70s

Plastids that are white in colour (Pigment free)

(A)chloroplast (B) lysosome (C) leucoplast (D) Chromoplast

Striking difference between a plant cell and an animal cell is due to the presence
(A) mitochondria (B) plasma membrane (C) cell wall (D) ribosome

Tonoplast is the membrane surrounding the

(A) cytoplasm (B) vacuole (C) nucleus (D) mitochondria

Lysosomes are responsible for

(A) protein synthesis (B) digestion of organic molecules
(C)fat synthesis (D) fat emulsification

In prokaryotic cell
nucleus is developed
membrane bounded organelles are present
(C) double membrane bounded organelles are absent
(D) none of these

15
 A typical plant cell contains
(A) cell well (B) plastids (C) large vacuole (D) all of the above

The waste disposal system of cell is formed by

(A) lysosomes (B) peroxysomes (C) mitochondria (D) glyoxysomes

In which cell Centriole is absent ?

(A) plant cell (B) Animal cell (C) Both of above (D) None of above

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 4.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Which cell organelle is called as “digestive bag “ ?
Which organelle controls osmotic pressure in a cell ?
Plastids having Coloured pigments are called as …………………

Name various type of plastids present in a plant cell.

State the main function of lysosomes ?

Differentiate between plant and animal cell with suitable figures.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP # 1 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C C A B C B C B B D

(Objective DPP # 2 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B B A C A C A B A A

(Objective DPP # 3 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B A C D B A B C C D

(Objective DPP # 4 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B C C C B B C D A A

16
 TISSUE

BL-5

INTRODUCTION
In unicellular organisms a single cell performs all the vital activities for
example, digestion, respiration, excretion etc.

 In case of Multicellular organisms specialized functions are performed by a

different groups of cells. As blood flows for transportation of O 2, CO2, food hormones & waste
 material, muscle cells are involved in movement etc. 

In plants vascular tissue conduct food & water from one plant to another par
to the plant Thus Multicellular organisms possess well-developed division of provide highest
possible efficiency or particular function.
A tissue is defined as a group of cells with similar structure, organized to do
a common function.

Term tissue was coined by Bichat.

As plants are fixed or stationary, most of their tissues are of supportive type.

Animals move around in search of food, mate & shelter so they consume more energy as
 compared to plants.

 Plants have some localized regions with special tissue but there is no such

distinct regions in animals. Growth in animals remains uniform. Branch of biology deals with
the study of tissue is called Histology.

PLANT TISSUE

Mainly they are of two types : Meristematic, Permanent (a)

Meristematic Tissue :
These are simple living tissues having thin walled compactly arranged immature cells which are
capable of division and formation of new cells.

(i) Main features of Meristematic tissues are :

(A) G1 S G2 M cell cycle is switched on.

17
(A). Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).
(B). Intercellular spaces are absent (Compact tissue)
(C). Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & prominent nuclei arepresent.
(D). Large number of cell organelles are present.
(E). Active metabolic state, stored food is absent.
(F). Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions of plants e.g. root & shoo tips
Classification on the basis of origin :
(A). primary (Promeristem):
Derived directly from the Meristems of embryo.

They consist of cells derived from primary meristem.

They add to primary growth of plants.
(B). Secondary :
Formed by permanent tissues.

These are having cells derived from primary permanent

tissue. They usually add to the diameter of plants.
 Dedifferentiation

Permanent tissue Secondary meristem

Apical meristem: It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots. Cell
division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stem & root thus it is involved in primary growth of
the plant.
Intercalary meristem: It is present behind the apex. It is the part of apical
meristem which is left behind during growth period. These are present at the base of leaf & internode
region. These lead to the increase in the length of leaf (Primary) e.g. in grass stem, bamboo stem, mint
stem etc..
Lateral meristem: It is also called as secondary meristem. It occurs along the
sides of longitudinal axis of the plant. It gives rise to the vascular tissues. Causes growth in girth of
stem & root. They are responsible for secondary growth.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 5.1

A group of cells having common origin and performing similar function is called
(A) tissue (B) organ (C) organ system (D) cell aggregate

Meristems are cells that

(A) store food (B) help in excretion
(C) provide support (D) divide continuously to produce new cells

Plant length is increased by the activity of

(A) apical meristem (B) lateral meristem (C) cambium (D) all of the above
In plants, cell division is restricted to
(A) Meristematic cells (B) permanent cells (C) xylem (D) phloem

In grasses the length of increases by the activity of

(A) apical meristem (B) intercalary meristem (C) lateral meristem (D) secondary meristem

18
 6. Special feature of dividing cells is
(A) large lacuna (B) thick cell walls
(C) dense cytoplasm devoid of lacuna (D) large intercellular spaces

7. Totipotency is present in
(A) meristem (B) cambium (C) phloem (D) cork
Which of the following is a feature of Meristematic tissues ?
Thin cell wall
Compact tissue
Large no. of cell organelles are present in the cells of tissues.
All of the above
Which of the following plant tissue is formed by permanent tissue ?
(A) primary tissue (B) Secondary tissue (C) Both of above (D) None of above

Which of the following plant tissues causes growth in girth of stem and root ?

(A) Apical meristem (B) Intercalary meristem (C) Lateral meristem (D)
None of the above

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 5.2

VERY SHORT ANSVER TYPE QUESTIONS

The tissues derived directly from the meristem of embryo is called as …………
A group of cells with similar structure, organized to do a common function is celled as.
Which plant tissue remains in active metabolic state always ?

Define tissue.
What do you mean by division of labour ?

What is issue? Explain Meristematic plant tissue.

19
 TISSUE

BL -6
PERMANENT TISSUE
 The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their
capability to divide. They have definite shape, size and thickness. The permanent tissue may be
 dead or living.

 The division & differentiation of the cells of Meristematic tissues give rise to

permanent tissues. In cell differentiation, developing tissue and organs change from simple to
more complex forms to become specialized for specific functions. The cells of permanent tissue
loose the capacity to divide and attain a permanent shape, size and function.

Depending Upon the structure and composition, The

permanent tissues are classified into two types :

Simple permanent tissues : Theses are made up of same type of cells

which are similar structurally and functionally. They include two types of tissue :
Protective Tissues : these tissue are primarily protective in function.
They consist of :
Epidermis : Epidermis forms one cell thick outermost layer of various body organs
 of plants such as leaves, flowers, stems and roots. Epidermis is covered
outside by cuticle. Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance called as cutin which is
secreted by the epidermal cells. Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes. Cells of epidermis of leaves
are not continuous at some places due to the presence of small pores called as stomata. Each
stomata is guarded by a pair of bean shaped cells called as guard cells. These are the only
epidermal cells which possess chloplasts, the rest being colorless.
Functions :
The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation
and infection.
Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration and evaporation of
water and prevents wilting.
Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange to occur
during photosynthesis respiration.
Stomata also helps in transpiration.
 Cork or phellem : in older roots and stems, tissues at the periphery become
cork cells or phellem cells. Cork is made up to dead cells with thick walls and do not have any
intercellular spaces. The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin. The cells of
cork become impermeable to water and gasses due to the deposition of suberin. The cork cells
 are without any protoplasm but are filled with resins or tannins. Functions
:

Cork is protective in function. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and
mechanical injury.

Imperviousness, lightness, toughness, compressibility and elasticity
make the cork commercially valuable.

Cork is used for insulation, as shock absorber in linoleum.

Cork is used in the making of a variety of sport goods such as
cricket balls, table tennis, shuttle cocks, wooden paddles etc.

20
 (B) Supporting tissue : These are supportive in function and of three types

Parenchyma: it is the fundamental tissue.


Tissue first time evolved in bryophyte.

Thin walled cells, oval or spherical in structure.

Cell wall mainly composed of cellulose & pectin.

Large central vacuole for food & water storage.

Primary function is food storage.

Some parenchyma involved in excretory substance storage are so called as


 idioblast, storing such as resin, tannin, gums & oils. In typical parenchyma chlorophyll is absent.
Chloroplast containing parenchyma tissue are chlorenchyma
which perform photosynthesis e.g. mesophyll of leaves.

In hydrophytic plants aerenchyma (A type of parenchyma containing air
spaces) provides buoyancy.

Parenchyma provides turgidity to cells.

Collenchyma : it is the living mechanical tissue.

Elongated cells with thick corners.

Localized cellulose & pectin thickening.

Provides flexibility to plant parts & easy bending of various parts of plant.

Present only in herbaceous dicot stem.

Present at thin margin of leaves.

Few chloroplasts may be present.

If gives mechanical strength & elasticity to the growing stems.

Sclerenchyma : (Scleras-hard)

Strengthening tissue.

Composed of extremely thick walled cells with little or no protoplasm.

Cells are dead & possess very thick lignified walls.

Lignin is water proof material.

Inter cellular spaces are absent.
21
 Cells of Sclerenchyma are of two types :

Sclereids: These are also called grit cells or stone cells. Theses are small

cells, where lumen is so small due to higher thickening of cell wall, as present in drup fruit
 (Mango, coconut walnut) in legume seeds (Macrosclereid)

 Fibers : They are very long, narrow, thick, lignified cells. Lumen is large as

compared to sclereids. Generally 1-3 mm. long. In the thick walls of both the fibres and sclereids
are present thin areas called as pits.

Sclerenchyma fibres are used in the manufacture of ropes, mats &
certain textile fibres.

Jute & coir are obtained from the thick bundles of fibres.
Complex permanent tissue : it consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a
unit.

It helps in transportation of organic materials, water & minerals.


It is also know as conducting or vascular tissue.

Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.
Xylem : Also known as wood and is a vascular and mechanical tissue. Thick walled cells are
found in the form of tubular passages.

Xylem consists of four types of cells called as elements :


Tracheids : T hey are elongated angular dead cells (Primitive elements) mainly involved in
conduction of water & minerals in gymnosperms.

Vessels: they are advance element (Generally found in angiosperms).

Vessels are cylindrical tube like structures placed one above the other end to end which for m a
 continuous channel for efficient conduction of water.

 Xylem parenchyma : they are small & thick walled parenchymatous cells

 Subjected for storge of starch (food).

Xylem Sclerenchyma : They are non living fibres with thick walls &
 narrow cavities provide mechanical support.

 Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements are dead.

 Hadrome : Tracheids & vessels are collectively called hadrome, as main

 Conducting elements in xylem.

The annual rings present in the trunk of a tree are xylem rings. By
Counting the number of annual rings we can determine the age of a tree.

22
 Phloem : They also consist of both parenchymatous & sclerenchymatous cells.

Phloem consists of four types of element :


Sieve tubes : Sieve tubes are slender tube like structures made up of 

elongated, thin walled cells placed end to end. The end walls of sieve tube cells are perforated
by numerous pores are called as sieve plates. Nucleus of sieve cell degenerates at maturity,
however. Cytoplasm persists, because of protoplasmic continuation of sieve tube with
companion cell through plasmodesmata. Sieve cells possess slime protein or protein which is
concerned with growth and repair of sieve cells.
Companion cells : Companion cells have dense cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.

Sieve cells & companion cells are so called sister cells because they originate from single
 mother cell.
Phloem fibre : They give mechanical support to sieve tubes

 Phloem parenchyma : They store food & help in radial conduction of food.
Leptome : main part of phloem involved in conduction of food, which is sieve tube. 

In xylem only unidirectional movement is possible while in phloem bidirectional movement can
 occur.
In phloem except phloem Sclerenchyma all elements are living.
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 6.1

A permanent plant tissue consisting of thin walled living cells is

(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) Sclerenchyma (D) xylem
A permanent plant tissue made up of living having thickening at the comers is
A) Sclerenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) parenchyma (D) phloem
The main function of Sclerenchyma is to help in the
(A) conduction of food (B) synthesis of food (C) exchange of gases (D) mechanical support

23
 The wall of cork cells are thickened by the deposition of
(A) cutin (B) suberin (C) lignin (D) pectin
The wax like substance present in the cell wall of onion skin is
(A) pectin (B) lignin (C) cellulose (D) suberin
The outer wall of epidermis in stems and leaves has a waxy covering made up of
(A) lignin (B) suberin (C) pectin (D) cutin
Collenchyma differs from Sclerenchyma in
(A) retaining cytoplasm at maturity (B) having thick walls
(C) having a wide lumen (D) being Meristematic
8. Lignified elongated bead cells are
(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) sclerenchyma (D) Epidermis
Which of the following plant tissue lacks protoplasm at matunty ?
(A) Sclerenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) parenchyma (D) Epidermis
In plants phloem tissues perform the function of
(A) conduction of water (B) conduction of food (C) photosynthesis (D) mechanical support

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 6.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

sieve tubes and companion cells are found in…………. tissue (xylem/phloem/collenchyma)
Long, narrow, dead cells having a thick deposition of lignin in the cell wall are called ………. Cells.
(parenchyma/ cambium / sclerenchyma)
Which tissue is responsible for transport of water in plants ?

Name the different elements of xylem and phloem.

In hydrophytes xylem is less developed, why ?

Mention the role of parenchyma, collenchyma & Sclerenchyma.

24
 TISSUE

BL – 7

ANIMAL TISSUE
Outline classification of Animal tissue :
Animal Tissue

(1) Eplthellal Tissue (2) Connective Tissue (3) Muscular (4) Nervous
(I) Squamous Epithellum Tissue Tissue
Columnar Epithelium
Cuboldal Epithelium
(IV) Clliated Epithelium
(A) Striated (B) Non Striated (C) Cardiac
Muscles Muscles Muscles

(A) Connective Tissue (B) Skeletal (C) Vascular

Proper Tissue Tissue
(1) Areolar tissue (1) Cartilage (1) Blood
(2) White fibrous tissue (2) Bone (2) Lymph
Yellow fibrous tissue
Adipose tissue

The study of microscopic structure of tissues is called as Histology. Cells of a tissue are often held
together by cell junctions.
(a) Epithelial Tissue :
[Epi means above & thelial means to grow)
Always grows on some other types of tissue.

Cells of epithelium are set very close to each other and the tissue rests on a non- cellular
basement membrane.

Consists of single layer of cells.

Blood vessels are absent & non nervous in nature.

It covers all the organs & lines the cavities of hollow organs like stomach.

It is primarily protective in function.

Epithelial tissues are classified as :
(i) Squamous epithelium: Also called pavement epithelium.
 Cells arranged end to end like tiles on a floor.

 Cells are polygonal in surface view.

It forms the delicate lining of cavities (mouth, oesophagus, nose, pericardium, alveoli etc.) blood
vessels and covering of the tongue and skin.

25
 Epithelial cells are arranged in many layers (stratum) to prevent wear and tear in skin. This pattern is
stratified squalors epithelium.
(ii) Cubical epithelium : They are cube like cells that fit closely, cells look like squares
in section, but free surface appears hexagonal.
 It is found in kidney tubules, thyroid vesicles & in glands (salivary glands, sweat glands).

 It forms germinal epithelium of gonads (testes & ovaries)

It involves in absorption, excretion & secretion. It also provides mechanical support.
Columnar epithelium : Columnar means “pillar-like” epithelium. It forms lining of
stomach, Small intestine & colon, forming mucous membranes. Border of microvilli is present
at the free surface end of each cell which increases absorption efficiency in small intestine.
Ciliated epithelium :
Cells may be cubical or columnar.

On it‟s free surface are present protoplasmic outgrowths called cilia.

It helps in the movement of ova in the fallopian tube.

The cells of the connective tissue are widely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
The mature of matrix decides the function of tissue.

White & yellow fibres are present in the matrix.

Their basic function is to provide support to different organs & keeping them in place.

 (i) Fluid or vascular tissue :

(A) Blood & lymph : Blood is a connective tissue, fluid matrix of blood is plasma having wandering or
floating cells, called corpuscles, blood helps in the transportation of various materials such as
nutritive substances, gases, excretory products, hormones etc.
Plasma : form 55% part of blood.
Constitution
90-91% : water
7% : protein (Albumin, fibrinogen, globulin)
0.9% : inorganic salt etc.
Corpuscles: Forms 45% part of blood.

RBC‟s they are also called as erythrocytes, containing red Coloured respiratory pigment called
hemoglobin that helps in transportation of oxygen.

WBC‟s (Leucocytes: They are also celled as” Soldiers of the body”. They are irregular, amoeboid,
phagocytic cells that protect our body by engulfing bacterial & other foreign particles. They are of
five types: Monocytes, Lymphocytes, Basophiles, Neutrophiles, Eosinophils.

Blood platelets or thrombocytes: They are spindle shaped cells which are involved in clotting of
blood.
Skeletal tissue : It is hard connective tissue that forms supportive frame work of the body. It is
of two types :
(A) Bone :Matrix of bone is very hard because of salts such as calcium phosphate, CaCO3 (60-70%)
etc. and a protein ossein. Bone cells (osteoblasts) are embedded in this hard matrix. Matrix is
deposited in the form of concentric layers of lamellae formed round a central canal (Haversian
canal), the done cells occupy small spaces between the concentric layers of matrix. The long
bones are usually hollow containing cavity called as marrow cavity. It is full bone marrow.

26
 Cartilage : This tissue is elastic, less harder as compared to bone. Elasticity is
due the presence of chondrin (protein). Cells are called as chondroblast, which are widely spaced
and matrix is reinforced by fibres. It occurs at joint of bones, in the nose, ear, trachea & larynx. It
provides flexibility and great tensile strength.
Connective tissue proper : it is the most abundant type of connective
tissue. It is future divided into following types:
Areolar tissue : It is the most distributed connective tissue in the body. This
tissue fills spaces inside organs & is found between the skin & muscles, around blood
vessels, nerves & in the bone marrow.
Inelastic hitew fibres
There are two types of fibres  Elastic yellow fibres
Adipose tissue : These are oval & round cells, filled with fat globules. The
cells are called as adipocytes. It found in subcutaneous layer below the skin, around the
heart, brain & below the eyeballs. It acts as an insulator & prevents loss of heat from the body.
White fibrous connective tissue : They are very little matrix containing
abundant white fibres forming layers. Bundles of this tissue are called as tendons, which attaches
muscles to the bones.
Yellow fibrous connective tissue : They are very elastic due to the presence of
a network of yellow fibres in it‟s matrix called as ligament which attaches bone to bone.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 7.1

The entire body surface and cavities inside the body are lined by
(A) muscle tissue (B) epithelial tissue (C)connective tissue (D) nervous tissue
Which one of the following is a fluid connective tissue ?
(A)Areolar tissue (B) cartilage (C) Blood (D) Ligaments
The tissue that attaches muscles to the bones is
(A) cartilage (B) tendon (C) ligament (D) blood
The tissue that joins one bone to the other is
(A) ligament (B) tendon (C) blood (D) ) cartilage
Areolar tissue is a
(A) nervous tissue (B) muscular tissue (C) connective tissue (D) epithelial tissue
Tendon is a structure which connects
(A) a bone with another bone (B) a muscle with a bone
(C) a never with a muscle (D) a muscle with a muscle
Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is
(A) plasma (B) lymph (C) serum (D) vaccine
Which of the following structures joins skeletal muscle to bone ?

Yellow muscle fibers are also called as

(A) bone (B) muscle (C) ligament (D) none of these
Ligament joins
(A) bone the muscle (B) muscle to muscle (C) bone to bone (D) none of these

27
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 7.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

The special property of muscle fibres to contract forcefully and return to relaxed
state Is called …………… (Excitability/contractility/flexibility)
A branch of science dealing with the study of bones is called …………..
(Ornithology/physiology /osteology)
The fluid matrix of blood is called…………….(plasma/lymph/serum)

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What do you mean by division of labour?
Write the composition of mammalian blood.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

Give summarized classification of animal-tissue

28
 TISSUE

BL-8
MUSCULAR TISSUE
Movements are brought about in our body with the help of muscular tissues.
Features :
They are long fibre-like cells called muscle fibres.

They are capable of contraction or relaxation
Types :
It is of three types :
striated muscles : They are also called as
voluntary muscles because these are under
the control of one‟s will. Muscle fibres or
cells are multinucleated and unbranched.
Each fibra enclosed by thin membrane
which Is called as sarcolemma.
Cytoplasm is called as sarcoplasm.
These Muscles get tired & need rest.
Non striated muscles: They are involuntary muscles also called as smooth
muscles. These muscle fibres are uninucleated & spindle shaped. They are not enclosed by
membrane but many fibres are joined together in bundles. Such muscles are found in the walls of
stomach, intestine, urinary bladder, bronchi, iris of eye etc. peristaltic movements in alimentary canal
are brought about by smooth muscles.

29
 cardiac muscle fibres : They are also
involuntary muscles. Only found in the walls of
heart. Their structure is in between the striated &
non-striated muscles. They are uninucleated &
branched. Branches are united by intercalated disc.
In these muscles rhythmic contraction & relaxation
occurs Thought the life.


NERVOUS
 TISSUE
 
They are highly specialized tissue due to which the animals are table to perceive and respond to the
 stimuli.

 Their functional unit is called as never cell or neuron. Cell

 body is cyton covered by plasma membrane.


 Short, hair like extensions siring from cyton are dendron which are future subdivide into dendrites. Axon is
long, tail like cylindrical process with fine branches at the end. Axon is covered by a sheath.
 
Axon one neuron is very closely placed to the dendrons of another neuron to carry impulses from one to
another neuron in the from of electrochemical waves. This close proximity is called as synapse

(a) Types :

Nerve fibres are of two types :




















(i) Medullated fibres
Non-medullated fibres
Functions :
They control all the body activities
They co-ordinate between various parts during any body function.
Spinal cord & brain are made up of nervous tissue.








30
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 8 .1

Contraction and relaxation are unique features of

(A) epithelial tissue (B) connective tissue (C) muscle tissue (D) nervous tissue
The tissue which is under the control of animal‟s will is
(A) cardiac muscle (B) striated muscle (C) non-striated muscle (D) cartilage
The muscle which work throughout life without undergoing fatigue is
(A) striated muscle (B) non-striated muscle (C) ) cardiac muscle (D) all of the above
Which of the following is a voluntary muscle ?
(A) striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle (C) ) cardiac muscle (D) (A) and(B)
Wall of urinary bladder consists of
(A) striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle (C) both of above (D) none of these
Intercalated discs are present in
(A) striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle (C) ) cardiac muscle (D) all of the above
The function unit of nervous tissue is called as
(A) cyton (B) synapse (C) neuron (D) axon
Which type of tissue forms spinal cord and brain ?
(A) muscle tissue (B) Nervous tissue (C) epithelial tissue (D) Epidermis
Involuntary tissue forms wall of which of the following organ ?
(A) intestine (B) stomach (C) bronchi (D) all of the above
Movements in body are brought about by
(A) muscle tissue (B) epithelial tissue
(C) Bones (D) tendons and ligaments

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 8 . 2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Spindle-shaped, non-striated, involuntary muscle fibres present in hollow internal organs like urinary
bladder are called …………. ( smooth muscle fibres /striated muscle fibres/cardiac muscle fibres)
2. The brain and the spinal cord are made up of …………….. (nephrons/erythrocytes /neurons)
The small, branched processes of a never cell are called………………(dendrites/axons/neurons)

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What is the function of nervous tissue ?
State the main features of muscular tissue.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

Describe the structure of neuron with labeled diagram.

31
 ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP # 5 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A D A A B C A D B C

(Objective DPP # 6 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A B D B B D A C A B

(Objective DPP # 7 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B C B A C B A B C C

(Objective DPP # 8 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C B C A B C C B D A

32
 DIVERSITY OF LIVING
ORGANISMS

BL – 9

DIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION

Diversity means = variety. Different places on the earth have their own typical kinds of living beings.
This gives rise to the need of classification. So “Diversity is the need of classification”.
Classification is the theory and practice of classifying organisms. It is the
systematic arrangement of organisms on the basis of their relatedness.

Classification is the arrangement of organisms into sets or groups according to
the similarities and dissimilarities present between them.
(a) Advantages / Significance of Classification :
 It establishes hierarchy of groups of organisms on the basis of their common features.

 It makes the systematic study easier.

 It is essential to understand the interrelationship amongst different groups of organisms.

It serves as a base for the development of there biological sciences as well as different fields of
applied biology like public health, environment etc.
Taxonomic Hierarchy :
It is the framework by which taxonomic groups are arranged in definite order from higher to
lower categories. the hierarchical order of classifying of classifying organisms is :
Kingdom phylum class order family genus species (i) Taxon : it refers to
any rank or category in the hierarchial order of
classification. E.g. kingdom, phylum etc. the highest tacxon is kingdom while the lowest taxon
is species.
(ii) Species : These are the groups of organisms having similar morphological
characters which can freely interbreed & produce their own kind. It is the basic unit of classification.
Nomenclature :
It is the system of naming an individual. Nomenclature is done on the basis of a set of rules stated
inz the ICN i.e. international Code of Nomenclature.
(i) Binomial nomenclature : It is a system of naming the organisms in such a waythat
each of their names contain two components first is genus and the second one is species. E.g. scientific
name of human is Homo sapiens. Scientific name of crow is Corvus splendus. Homo and Corvus are the
genus while sapiens and splendus are the names of species. This system was introduced by carolus
Linnaeus in his book Systems Naturae. Who is also called Father of Taxonomy.
(ii) Certain convections are followed while writing the scientific names
 The name of the genus begins with a capital letter.

 The name of the species begins with a small letter.


 When printed, the scientific name is given in italics.

When written by hand, the genus name and the species name have to be underlined separately.

33
 System of Classification :
Artificial system: It was based on some superficial similarities. i.e. only one or
few characters were taken .e.g. on the basis of habital and ability to fly.
Natural system: It was based on natural affinity i.e. more than one natural characters
were used.
Phylogenetic system: It was based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic
relationship amongst the organisms.
Classification of Organisms :
Two kingdom system: It was given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. organisms were divided into
plant kingdom and animal kingdom. Fungi, Bacteria and Euglena could not find an appropriate
position.
Three kingdom system: It was given by Earnst Haeckel. In this kingdom protista was also
included along with plant kingdom and animal kingdom.
Four kingdom system: It was given by Copeland. Kingdom Monera was also included in this
system of classification.
Five kingdom system: It was given by Robert Whittaker. According to him organisms were
divided into five kingdoms.
Kingdom Monera : Unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic, most ancient, can live in deep
oceans, hot spring, deserts, high salt concentration etc. they include bacteria, filamentous
and photosynthetic blue green algae etc.
Kingdom Protista: Unicellular, colonial, eukaryotic. They include photosynthetic
algae, decomposers (slime moulds) and protozoa (predators) etc.
Kingdom Fungl: Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms, they are heterotrophic,
parasitic or saprotrophic.
Kingdom Plantae: They are multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic (photosynthetic), some
are heterotrophic and parasitic. They include photosynthetic algae, green plants etc.
Kingdome Animal: Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.

BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
 Complexity of structure
 Mode of nutrition
 Level of organization
Plant kingdom was divided in two sub kingdoms by Eichler
Plant Kingdom

Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
(Plants ithoutw eeds) (Seed bearing plants)

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnospermae Angiospermae

Algae Fungi Mnocotyledonae Dicotyledonae

(b). Sub kingdom Cryptogamae : (Cryptos = hidden gamous = marriage) :

 These are also called as lower plants, flowerless or seedless plants.

Their reproductive organs are hidden till they reproduce.

34
 (i) Division Thallophyta :
 Thallus : Undifferentiated plant body i.e. absence of root, stem & leaves.

 There is no vascular system.

 Reproductive organ are single-celled and there is no embroyo formation after fertilization.

 Dominant gametophyte.

Three classes of thallophyta are :




These are aquatic or terrestrial, fresh water or marine. Autotrophic, photosynthetic containing
 various pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls etc.

 Unicellular, colonial, filamentous.

Cell wall of cellulose, e.g. blue green algae (Nostoc) , Green algae (Ulothrix, Spirogyra)
Brown algae, red algae etc.

Class Fungi :
Characters :
These are heterotrophic.

They lack chlorophyll but have cell wall of chitin (fungus cellulose)..

They can be parasitic or saprotrophic

Their body is filamentous called as mycelium.

Reserve food material consists of glycogen. E.g. moulds (Rhizopus) , Yeasts (Saccharomyces)
Mushroom, (Agaricus)..

35
 Lichen :

Characters:

It is symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi.

Algal part is Phycobiont and fungal part is mycobiont.
 
They grow on rocks, tree trunks, grounds
etc. e.g. parmellis, Alectoria etc.

Division Bryophyta :

Bryophytes are called terrestrial amphibians (amphibians of plant kingdom) because they require moist
soil surface for awimming of their sperm & supply of water to all parts.
 
They are the first amongst land plants which occur in damp & shady habital

Plant body is of primitive from i.e. differentiated only in stem & leaves.



Vascular tissue & mechanical tissue are absent in them. Male gamete is


flagellated.

Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular.

Fertilization produces embryo.

They show heteromorphic type of alternation in generation. E.g. liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia),

hornworts (Anthoceros) and mosses (Funaria).

Division Pteridophyta :

Characters:

They are seedless vascular plants, primitive tracheophytes or vascular cryptogarr

Plant body is differentiated into true stem, leaves & roots.

Vascular tissue are present.

Sperms are flagellated.

Embryo stage is present.

Gametophytes are small, exosporic or endosporic.

Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular, e.g. fems (Dryopteris, Pteris), club moss (Lycopodium),
Horsetail (Equisetum).
(b). Sub kingdom: Phanerogamae: (phaneros = visible: gamous = marriage.)
These are higher plants having flowers and seeds both.

Body differentiated into true stem, leaves and root.

Vascular system i\s well developed.

Sex organ are multicellular.

Embryo develops from fertilized egg.

It is divided into two divisions :

Division Gymnospermae :

Characters:

Seeds are not enclosed in fruits. These are naked seeded.




36
 They have well developed vascular system but xylem lacks vessels and phloem lack companion cells.


They occupy an intermediate position between the pteridophytes and the angiosperms.

Plants are commonly tall trees or shrubs.

The flowers are represented by unisexual cones, often both being present on the same plant. E.g.

Division : Angiospermae :
Characters:

These are seed bearing.


These are represented by trees, herbs, shrubs.

Body well differentiated into root, system.
Seeds remain enclosed in ovary.

It is divided into two classes on the basis of
number of cotyledons.
Class : Dicotyledonae :
Their seeds have 2 cotyledons in the embryo.

Leaves are dorsiventral and show reticulate venation.

Tap root is present. E.g. neem, Peepal,

Mango, pea, Mustard.
Class :Monocotyledonae
Their seeds have one cotyledon in embryo.

Leaves are isobilateral, with parallel venation.

Fibrous root system is present, e.g. wheat, Maize, Onion.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 9 .1

Classification reflecting the evolutionary interrelationships of organisms is called

(A) Phylogenetic classification (B) artificial classification (C) Natural
classification (D) numerical classification

(A) systematics (B)natural classification (C) nomenclature (D) taxonomy

Two kingdom classification was given by
(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) ) Copeland (D) Whittaker
Three kingdom classification was proposed by
(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) ) Whittaker (D) Lamarck

37
 Five kingdom Whittaker was proposed by
(A) Linnaeus (B) ) Whittaker (C) john Ray (D) Lamarck
6. Thallophyta includes
(A) fungi and bacteria (B) algae, fungi, animals and lichens
(C) Algae, fungi and lichens (D) algae and fungi
Flowering plants are included under
(A) cryptogams (B) phanerogams (C) bryophytes (D) pteridophytes

Which of the following has an embryo but lacks vascular tissue ?

(A) Bryophyta (B) Pteridophyta (C) Gymnosperms

(D) angiosperms

Algae are characterized by (or) algae differ from bryophytes in

(A) aquatic habit (B) Thalloid plant body (C) Pyrenoids (D) unicelled sex organs

The most primitive vascular plants are –

(A) bryophytes (B) pteridophytes

(C) Gymnosperms (D) angiosperms

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 9 . 2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What is classification?
What is the lowest category of classification?
What is meant by nomenclature?
Name the scientist who proposed the binomial system.
Define taxon.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What are thallophytes?
What are phanerogams?
What are the advantages of classification organisms?

Draw an outline of Eichler classification.

38
 DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISM
BL-10

ANIMAL KINGDOM
(a) Basis of Classification :
 Organization and differentiation of cells to form tissues and organs.

 Body symmetry.


 Formation to body cavities and blood vascular system. Features

of embryonic development.

They are unicellular, eukaryotes


These are the simplest & the most primitive
 animals. their body organization is
 of “Protoplasmic Level”.


 They are of different shapes i.g. irregular elongated or rounded.

They have different types of locomotory organs like cilia, flagella,
 pseudopodia (false feet)etc.

Nutrition is of different types like holozoic, holophytic,

mixotrophic.

Digestion is intracellular & it : takes place in food
 vacuole.
Excretion & respiration occurs through general body
Surface by the process of simple diffusion.
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.

Alternation of generation is found. E.g., Amoeba,
Entamoeba, plasmodium, Euglena, Paramecium.
Phylum Porifera :
Characters:
These are pore bearing organisms i.e. with porous body. 

 Also called as sponges.
Aquatic, mostly marine.

39
 These are sessile and sedentary (attached to substratum).

 Occur in different shapes i.e. vase-like, rounded, sac like etc.

Body perforated by numerous pores called ostia which open into a canal system

having canals and chambers lined with coenocytes (flagellated) and have a large size water outlet
 called oscula.
Their cavity is called spongocoel.

Endoskeleton is made of needle like spicules made of calcium carbonate and silica or
 spongocoel.
Hermaphrodite, Asexual reproduction by budding. E.g., Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectella.

Cavity called gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron. It

 has single opening for ingestion and egestion both.

 Aquatic, mostly marine

Multicellular, diploblastic, radially symmetrical.

They have special organs called tentacles, chidoblast. Or
nematocyst cells. They are specialized for stinging.
They paralyse the prey by releasing poison.

These are polymorphic i.e. they occur in two forms.

Polyp is asexual, cylindrical, sedentary and diploid.

Medusa is sexual, umbrella shaped, free swimming and diploid.
 Asexual reproduction by budding and sexual reproduction by gametes.
Some of them have exoskeleton of CaCO3 . they are called Corals, they live in colonies and when they 
die they form coral reefs, or islands. E.g. hydra, jelly fish.
Phylum – Ctenophora :

Body is transparent with radial symmetry.


They possess comb plates that are ciliated and 8 in no. these help in locomotion. They also possess
 tentacles.
Marine, solitary and free swimming. E.g. cestum.

 Generally called as flatworms.

 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, dorsoventrally flattened.

 Acoelomates.

 Their digestive cavity has a single opening with mouth only and anus is absent. 

 They possess hooks and suckers.

 They have flame cells or protonephridia for excretion.

 Mode of nutrition is parasitic.

Reproduction is of both types i.e. asexual and sexual

These are hermaphrodite. E.g. Planaria, Fasciola
(liver fluke)
40
 Phylum – Nematoda (Aschelminthes) :
Characters:
 Also called as roundworms.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented triploblastic.
These are pseudocoelomic.

Their alimentary canal is tubular having both mouth
and anus.

Most are free living, some live in moist soil, some
 are fresh water while some are marine.

 Some are parasites on plants & animals.

They lack circulatory system.

Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate.
E.g. Ascaris (round worm), filarial worm.

Phylum – Annelida (Annulus = ring ; segments)

Characters:
Their body is triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, soft, elongated, vermiform,
cylindrical and dorsoventrally flattened.

Body is metamerically segmented. Head is formed by joining of some anterior body
 segments.

 Exoskeleton is absent, body is covered by thin cuticle.

 Eucoelomata i.e. They have true body cavity which first appeared in this phylum.

 Well developed alimentary canal is present.

They have closed circulatory system.

Locomotion is with the help of chitinous projections
 Called chastae (setae).

 Excretion by nephridia.
Nervous system has dorsal brain.

Most are aquatic, marine or fresh water, some are
 terrestrial.
They reproduce sexually e.g. Earthworm, Leech.
Phylum – Arthropoda (Arthros jointed , poda = legs)
Characters:
These are the organisms with jointed appendages.

This is the largest phylum in animal kingdom.

body triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and
metamerically segmented.

They have an exoskeleton made up of protein and
Chitin (Moulting Periodic shedding off of the
exoskeleton to induce the growth).

They have a complete alimentary canal with mouth & anus. 
41
 Respiration occurs through general body surface, gills, trachea and book lungs.

 They have open circulatory system with dorsal heart & arteries.

 Body cavity is called haemocoel.

 Excretion by coelomducts, malphigian tubules, green glands, coxal glands.

 Sexes are separate .

Each segment has paired lateral and jointed appendages. E.g. Palaemon (prawn) ,
Cancer (crab) ,Periplanata (cockroach) , Anopheles (mosquito) & Aranea (spider) etc.
Phylum Mollusca :
Characters:
It is second largest group of animals, body soft,
Unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical and without
Appendages.

Body divided into a head, foot and visceral mass. A
Thin skin covering the body is called as mantle,
which Secretes a calcareous shell.

Body cavity is haemocoel.

Respiration by gills (Ctenidial) in aquatic forms but in terrestrial forms space between mantle and body
wall called as mantle cavity act as lungs.

For ingestion they have tongue like structure “radual”
They also possess a digestive glandcalled
 hepatopancreas

 Open circulatory system.

 Excretion by metanephridia present near heart.

 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate.

E.g. Chiton (8 Calcareous pieces) , Pila, Melix (torsion univalve) , Dentalium (tusk like shell) , Unio,

Phylum Echinodermata :
Characters:
These are marine animals, their body is triploblastic,
Eucoelomata, unsegmented.

Their body has spines arising from exoskeleton of
Calcium.

Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are
Bilaterally symmetrical.

Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have five
 Radial ambulacra.
Excretory organs are absent.

A complex system of water containing tubes and
Bladders passing though pores of skin called water
Vascular system is present. From this tube like
structure Arise, these tubes look like feet and are called
as tube Feet that helps in locomotion

Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration. E.g. Asterias (star fish) , echinus (sea urchin) ,
Holothuria (sea cucumber) , Antedon (feather star).
42
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 10 .1

A branch of biology which deals with the identification, nomenclature and

Classification of organisms is called
(A) Morphology (B) Ecology (C) Taxonomy (D) Phytogeography
Who is know as father of taxonomy?
(A) Mendel (B) Linnaeus (C) Drawing (D) Crick
Binomial nomenclature was introduced by
(A) John Ray (B) A.P. de Candolle (C) A.L.de Jussen (D) Carolus Linnaeus
The basic unit of classification is
(A) Variety (B) species (C) genus (D) family
A group of freely interbreeding organisms constitutes a
(A) species (B) genera (C) family (D) class
According to binomial nomenclature, the scientific name of an organism must
consists of two words. these are
(A) species and tribe (B) genus and species (C) order and family (D) genus and family
Which taxonomic term may be substituted for any rank in the classification?
(A) class (B) Geuns (C) Species (D) Taxon
Cryptogams include
(A) thallophytes (B) bryophytes (C) pteridophytes (D) all of the above
Algae are characterized by
(A) Pyrenoids (B) aquatic habital (C) unicellular sex organs (D) all of the above organs
In Whittaker‟s classification, unicellular organisms are grouped under
(A) protista (B) porifera (C) fungi (D) protozoa

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 10. 2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Which is the largest phylum of kingdom animalia ?
Name the phylum in which animals have segmented body, coelom, and bilateral
symmetry.
Name the phylum in which animals have segmented body, jointed appendages
and compound eyes.
Write the binomial name of any one organism.
Name the code which govems the naming of organism

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Write down four main features of protozoa.
Mention the characteristic features of arthropod.
How do poriferan animals differ from coelenterate animals?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

What is five kingdom classification and who proposed it ?

43
 DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
BL-11

PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
Characters:

They are placed in between nochordates andChordates as

they possess some characters of both.
Theyincludewormlike,unsegmented,

bilaterallySymmetrical animals which are exclusively

marine.

Their body is divided into three regions proboscis,Collar &

trunk.

They do not possess notochord, which is a flexible, Rod

like structure running trough the length of the body,Above
alimentary canal.

They possess gill slit or gill cleft which is meant

forRespiration.

They possess nerve cord in collar region but it is notA

true dorsal cord. E.g. Balanoglossus (tongueWorm).

Characters:
This is the most advanced group of animals.

Notochord is present at some stages of life, supported by a tubular hollow dorsal nerve
cord. In higher chordates i. E. Vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by vertebral column.

A set of gill slits is also present at certain stage of life, also called as pharyngeal
gill clefts. Tail is also present behind the anal aperture that is post anal tail.
They also possess a proper circulatory system.

44
CHORDATA IS FURTHER DIVIDED AS FOLLOWS

Protochordata Vertebrata
[These are called as lower Chordates] [These are called as lower Chordates]

Agnatha Gnathostomata
Urochordata Cephalochordat

Cyclostomata

Aves
Chondrichthyes Osteichtlyes Amphibia Reptilia Mammalia

Protochordata :
Characters:
They are termed as lower chordates.
They do not possess brain, cranium, vertebral column, jaw and paired appendages.
Notochord is present atleast in some stages along with other diagnostic chordate
characters (dorsal hollow never cord, gill slits, post and tail).
They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, enterocoelomic, organ
system level organization.
They are marine animals.
Protochordata are further divided into two groups :
subphylum : Urochordata
Characters:
They are exclusively marine animals
where pharynx possess several gill slits.
They are commonly known as tunicates.
The notochord is present in the tail of the larva and
disappears in the adult.
The dorsal hollow never cord is present in the larva
only. it is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in the adult.
The pharynx has gill slits.
The larva (tadpole) undergoes retrogressive
metamorphosis, i.e., changes from a better developed
larva to a less developed adult. e.g. Herdmania (sea
squirt), Doliolum, Pyrosomea.
subphylum : Urochordata
Characters:
Animals are fish like without a head.
Animals possess all the characters of chordates i.e.,
A notochord which extends upto the entire length of

the body and persists throughout the life.

A nerve cord (without a distinct brain).
Numerous well developed gill sli
A post anal tail throughout life. e.g. branchiostoma (Amphioxus; Lancelet)

45
 Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are
bilaterally symmetrical.

Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have

five radial ambulacra.
Excretory organs are absent.

A complex system of water containing tubes and

bladders passing through pores of skin called water
vascular system is present. from this tube like
structure arise, these tubes look like feet and are
called as tube feet that helps in locomotion

Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration. e.g. Asterias (star fish), Echinus (sea
urchin), Holothuria (sea cucumber), Antedon (feather star),

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 11 .1

The mode of nutrition in all fungi is characteristically

(A) Symbiotic (B) autotrophic (C) holozoic (D) saprotrophic
The reserve food in fungi is
(A) starch (B) cyanophycean starch
(C) glycogen (D) glycogen and fat
The algal partner of a lichen is called as
(A) Mycobiont (B) Phycobiont
(C) Both of the above (D) None of the above
Pteridophytes are known as
(A) sea plants (B) vascular cryptogames
(C) club mosses (D) horse tails
Gymnosperms are characterized by
(A) non-motile male gametes (B) naked seeds
(C) Winged seeds (D) true fruits
6. Which one is mismatched?
(A) Flagella …………. Euglena (B) Pseudopodia ………… Amoeba
(C) Cilia ………Paramecium (D) Flagella ……….. Plasmodium
Contractile vacuole is present in
(A) Amoeba (B) Euglena
(C) Paramecium (D) All of the above
„Venus flower basket‟ is the dried skeleton of
(A) Euspongia (B) Euplectella (C) Spongilla (D) Leucosolenia
Choanocytes are unique to
(A) Protozoa (B) Porifera (C) Mollusca (D) Echinodermata
10.Cnidaria is characterised by
(A) nematoblasts (B) coelenteron
(C) tissue level of organisation (D) all of the above

46
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 11 .2
VERY SHORT ANSVER TYPE QUESTIONS
Who is the father of taxonomy?
What is taxonomy ?
Given one point of difference between bilateral and radial symmetry.
Give an example of hemichordata.
Herdmania is classified in which subphylum.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Write down the distinct features of chordata.
Write down the unique features of hemichordata.
What are the main characteristic features of Protochordata?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

Draw an out line of classification of chordates.

47
 DIVERSITY OF LIVING
ORGANISMS

BL-12

SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA OR CRANIATA

Majority of chordates are included in this phylum.

Characters:
They are advanced animals, having a cranium (brain box) around the brain. Nervous system is
well developed.
Notochord is replaced by a vertebral column (backbone) in the adults. Endoskeleton is highly
developed.
There are two pairs of limbs or
appendages. Head is well differentiated.
The heart is situated ventrally. The circulatory system is closed consisting of bold vascular system and
lymphatic system. Red Coloured pigment hemoglobin is present in red blood corpuscles. Respiratory
organs may be gills (in aquatic animals), skin, buccopharyngeal cavity (in amphibians) or
lungs (in land animals).
Excretion occurs through kidneys.
Sexes are separate.

This subphylum is subdivided into seven classes. They are:

Subphylum Vertebrata 7 classes

Agnatha Gnathostomata
(Jawless vertebrates) (Vertebrates with well developed jaws)

1. Cyclostomata

2. Chondrichthyes 3. Osteichtlyes 4. Amphibians 5. Reptiles 6. Aves 7. Mammals

Class Cyclostomata :
(Gr. Cyclos = circular, stome = mouth ; the circular
Mouthed fishes) these are the most primitive
Vertebrates.
Characters:

Animals are jawless and possess a circular mouth.

They are ectoparasites on fish and use mouth to
stick to fish ; the mouth is therefore suctorial.

Notochord is present in the form of a cylindricalrod.

Head and brain are poorly developed.

48
Cartilaginous endoskeleton is present.
Respiration occurs through gills contained in pouches.
Heart is two-chambered consisting of one auricle and one ventricle.
Gonad is single and fertilization is external. e.g. petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag fish).
Class Chondrichthyes :
(Gr. Chondros = cartilage; ichthys = fish, the
cartillagenous fish). Characters:
Skeleton is cartilaginous, hence the name Chondrichthyes is given.

The body is either laterally compressed and spindle shaped, or dorso ventrally flattened and
disc shaped.

Mouth is ventral in position on the head.

Jaws are well-developed.
Respiration occurs through gills.
The skin is covered with placoid scales (exoskeleton).

Heart is two chambered, consisting of an auricle and a

ventricle. Lung or air bladder is absent.

They reproduce by laying eggs (oviparous) or

produce eggs which hatch inside the mother‟s body
(ovoviviparous).
Fertilization is internal.

Mostly marine and large in size (upto 10-20 meters

long). e.g. sharks, rays and skates. scoliodon (Indian
shark, dog fish), Torpedo (electric ray), Trygon
(sting ray), Rhinobatus (guitar fish).
Class Osteichthyes :
Characters:
Skeleton is cartilaginous, in the embryonic stage, but is replaced by bones in adult form (bony
endoskeleton), hence the name osteichthyes is given.
Body is generally spindle shaped.

The exoskeleton, if present, consists of cycloid or ctenoid

scales. The mouth is terminal (anterior) on the head.
Gills are covered by bony flap called as the operculum.

A swim bladder (or air bladder) is usually present. it helps in floating.

Heart is two chambered.
Fertilization is mostly external.
They live both in fresh and sea water.

In size, they vary from 10 mm to 4 meters. e.g. Labeo,

Hippocampus (sea horse), Anabas (climbing perch),
Muraena (eel), Protopterus (lung-fish).

49
 Class Amphibia :
(Gr. amphi = both, bios = life, the vertebrates leading two lives/ dual life)
The amphibians are the first land vertebrates, Amphibious party terrestrial and partly aquatic.
Characters:
They are amphibious in nature ; found in fresh water and moist places.

Skin is smooth or rough, rich in glands which keep it moist ; skin with pigmented cells,
i.e., chromatophores.
Body is without scales.

Endoskeleton is mostly bony, notochord does not persist in adults.

Head and trunk are distinct ; neck and tall may or may not be present.
Limbs tetrapods(four-limbed), pentadactyi type (five-fingered).

Respiration occurs by lungs, skin or buccal lining, are present at least during Laval stage for reapiration.
Heart three chambered with two auricles and a ventricle, red blood corpuscles are large, biconvex, oval

and nucleated.
Brain is not much developed, cranial nerves are 10 pairs.

Sexes are separate, i.e., dioecious, male without copulatory

organ. Eggs with gelatinous covering, usually laid in water.
Fertilization is external.
Development is indirect with a tadpole larva which undergoes metamorphosis to become adult.
E.g. Salamanders, newts, frogs and toads. Salamandra (salamander ) , ecturous (mud puppy), Triturus
(newt), Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).
Class Reptilia :
(L. reptare = to creep ; creeping vertebrates).
These are first truly terrestrial animals living in warmer regions.
Characters:

Body is divisible into head, neck and trunk. tail is well developed in some, while it is reduced in others.
Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs are present ; but in snakes limbs are reduced or absent.

Body is covered with epidermal horny scales.

Skin is dry, impermeable and devoid of glands.
Respiration takes place by lungs only. gills are absent.

Heart is incompletely four- chambered, having two auricles and incompletely divided ventricle. in
crocodile, heart is completely four chambered.
Sexes are separate.

Fertilization is internal(characteristics of land animals).

The embryo always lies in a fluid filled sac called amnion.
They is no larval stage in development. e.g. Testudo(tortoise), Chelone(turtle) Draco (flying lizard),
Chameleon, Hemidactylus (wall lizard), Naja (cobra) etc.
Class Aves : (L.
Aves = birds).
The birds are described as „feathered reptiles‟ that have developed the power of flight.

50
 Characters:
The body is covered with soft feathers (feathery exoskeleton).
The body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.

There are two pairs of limbs. the fore limbs are modified to form wings (in flying birds) or are
reduced (as in non-flying birds). Hind limbs are strongly developed for perching, walking.

Endoskeleton is light. the bones have got air cavities. this makes the bird
light. Jaws are modified to form a strong beak.
Teeth are absent.
Respiration is by lungs only. Lungs have additional bag like membranous extensions called asair
sacs. Heart is completely four chambered.
Sexes are separate.
Birds are oviparous, i.e. egg laying.
Fertilization is internal. Fertilized eggs are laid with a yolk (stored food) and with a hard
calcareous shell.

Like reptiles and mammals, they have the embryonic membranes namely the amnion, chorion, yolksac
and allantois.
High degree of parental care is exhibited.
There is no larval stage in development. e.g. Columba (pigeon), Pavo(peacock), Corvus (crow), Passer
(sparrow), Struthio (ostrich), Kiwi and penguin are flightless birds.
Class Mammalla :
(L. mamma = breast; the mammals)
Mammalia is the most evolved group of organisms and are found in diverse habitats ranging
from deserts, polar ice caps, oceans, mountains, forests and grasslands.
They are named mammals as all of them possess mammary glands (milk producing glands) .
Mammals are the only animals which feed their young ones with milk.
Characters:
Skin is covered with an exoskeleton of hair. Hair are provided with sweat glands which help in the
regulation of body temperature. in aquatic mammals, hair being negligible, the subcutaneous layer
of fats provides insulation.
Mammals have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
The body cavity is unequally divided into two parts by a muscular partition called as diaphragm.
Eyes are provided with movable lids.
Ears have fleshy external ears or pinnae.
Teeth are embedded in sockets (thecodont). Two sets of teeth develop in the life time of a mammals
Milk teeth and permanent teeth (diphyodont).
Teeth are of different types (heterodont).
Respiration occurs by lungs.
Heart is our chambered. R.B.Cs are non nucleated and usually circular.
Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Testes lie commonly in the scrotal sacs outside the abdomen.
Fertilization is internal. Eggs are small, microscopic without shells and are retained in uterus of
female for development.
Embryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois) present.
They give birth to living young ones and are called as viviparous. The young ones are fed on milk
from mammary glands.

51
 Important Groups of Mammals :
Mammals are divided into three main groups,
Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) : These mammals show characters of both reptiles and
mammals. They jay hard shelled eggs (oviparous) e.g. spiny ant eater, Duck – billed platypus
Marsupial mammals (pouched mammals) : Pouched or marsupial mammals (Latin marsupium = pouch)
They are viviparous. The young ones, when born, are only three cm. long. Hence they are cared in
pouch called marsupium present on the mother‟s abdomen. in the pouch, they feed on the mother milk
e.g. Kangaroo(Macropus), Kola bear,
Placental mammals (true mammals) : These mammals with true placenta. The embryo is retained in the
uterus. These are the very successful group of land animals, occurring in diverse climatic condition.
e.g. Mole, bat, lion, tiger, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, humans etc.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 12 .1

Mesoglea is characteristic of
(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Aschelminthes (C) Cnidaria (D) Mollusca
True jelly fish (e.g., Aurelia) belongs to class
(A) Hydrozoa (B) Anthozoa (C) Scyphozoa (D) Both B and C
Polymorphism is exhibited by
(A) Hydra (B) Physalia (C) ) Octopus (D) Crab
Comb jellies belong to
(A) Scyphozoa (B) Hydrozoa (C) Ctenophora (D) Both A and B
Platyhelminthes are called
(A) round worms (B) flat worms (C) blind worms (D) none of the above
In Platyhelminthes, the excertory organs are.
(A) nephridia (B) malpighian tubules
(C) flame cells (solenocytes) (D) green glands
7. Platyhelminthes are
(A) coelomates (B) pseudiocoelomates (C) ) haemocoelomates (D) Acoelomates
The common name for Ascaris is
(A) shipworm (B) pinworm (C) tapeworm (D) round worm
Metamerism is characteristic feature of
(A) Chordata (B) Annelida (C) Mollusca (D) Nematoda
The excretory organs of Annelida are
(A) nephridia (B) statocysts (C) archeocytes (D) none of the above

SUBJECTIVE DPP –12.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What is Notochord ?
Give the classes of vertebrata.
Which is largest phylum of kingdom Animalia ?
Give an example of urochordata.
Give the difference between notochord and nerve cord.

52
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Mention two points of difference between fish and frog.
Describe the general characters of class mammalia.
What are the differences between animals belonging to the aves and mammalia
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
What is classification? Explain its importance.

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP # 9 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A D A B B C B A D B

(Objective DPP # 10 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C B D B A B D D D A

(Objective DPP # 11 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. D D B B B D D B B D

(Objective DPP # 12 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C C B C B C D D B A

53
 WHY DO WE FALL ILL

BL-13

HUMAN HEALTH & DISEASE

Every living organism, may be plant or animal, requires food (nutrition) for its survival, maintenance, growth
and development. Nutrition is required in specific amounts. Proper dietary habits lead to sound health
and proper mental development. A person is said to be healthy if one:

has no symptoms of disease and

anxiety. has no physical deformity.
has no mental problems and social
tensions. has no psychological tensions.
has all the body organs functioning properly.
has purposeful life.
has sufficient balanced diet.
The most widely accepted definition is (1947) World Health Organization‟s description that states
“Health is a state of physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity”.
Significance of Health :
Good health is “health body with a healthy mind and healthy attitude”. Good health increases our
efficiency for doing work. The increased efficiency of a man due to good health contributes to his own
progress, the progress of community and the progress of nation as a whole. Good health also make a
man happy and cheerful. It allows a person to have the initiative for betterment. It makes living a joyful
experience. It keep a person not only happy but also provides cheerfulness to the people. Good health
is a condition for our purposeful existence in this world.
Community and Personal Health :-
Health of a person depends upon his personal habits as well as his environment. One cannot remain
healthy, if his environment is not clean. Good economic condition and job are needed for individual
health, so that the person can have balanced diet and be healthy. Social equality and harmony in the
community are also important to maintain individual‟s health. If neighbors of a person are healthy, but
possess no civic sense (i.e., they are in the habit of throwing garbage in an open space and there),
files, mosquitoes, and other disease causing microorganisms will grow on the filth (foul matter) thrown
by them. These microorganisms will infect nearby foodstuffs thereby spreading diseases. Thus, a
person with his clean home, but unclean neighborhood will become sick. Similarly, the health of the
whole community depends on the personal habits of various individuals who constitute the community.
So community health can be defined as “All the personal health along with the environmental services
for the improvement of health of community.” It comprises of all efforts for maintaining, protecting and
improving the health of the people. WHO is doing remarkable work in community health.

1
 Difference Between Personal Health and Community Health :
Personal Health Community Health
1. The state of physical, mental and social 1. It is maintenance, protection and
well improvement of health of the whole
2. Only the individual maintains his/her 2. Community.
health. 3. The whole community remains
3. An individual can maintain his health 4. Healthy.
by. 5. Community health can be achieved by.
(a) Eating balanced diet. (a) Provision for treated and safe drinking
(b) Observing personal and domestic water.
hygiene. (b) Proper disposal of sewage and wastes.
(c) Consuming clean food, clean water and (c) Providing medical facilities.
clean air. (d) Control of communicable diseases.
(d) Proper exercise, relaxation and good (e) Health education.
habits.

The various activities involved in maintaining community health are as follows :

(i) Maintaining proper sanitation of the environment by
: Providing cleans and safe drinking water.
Providing good sewage and rain wate disposal systems (through underground
pipes). Proper garbage disposal.
Strict enforcement of antipollution laws, management of different types of environmental pollution
by Central and State Control Boards.
(ii) Providing proper facilities for prevention and control of diseases such as :
Preventive vaccinations against a number of diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping
cough, tetanus, measles, hepatitis, polio, mumps, etc.
Spraying mosquito and germ killing chemicals (insecticides, pesticides etc.) at regular intervals. Providing
health education : to people about the mode of transmission of diseases and mechanism
to control communicable diseases; importance of balanced diet; effects of bad habits
Like alcoholism, addiction, etc.
Establishment of health care services: primary Health Centres, District Hospitals,
Community Health Centres, Medical Colleges, All India institutes, Regional Hospitals, etc.
Prevention of food adulteration.
Providing maternity and child care centres: so that mortality rate among children is reduced to a
great extent. Provision of family planning advice and medical care to school going children.

WHAT IS A DISEASE?
A disease is a condition of the body or a part of it in which functions are disturbed. Disease may also
be defined as morphological (structural), physiological (functional) or psychological disturbance in the
body of body parts caused by external agencies which may be nonparasitic e.g. Deficiency of nutrients
or may be parasitic e.g. Caused by vieuses, bacteria, fungi, etc. The term disease means dis-ease or
discomfort or without ease. In short, it can be defined as “disease is disorder of body.”
Distinction Between Healthy and Disease Free :
The term disease is used when we find a specific and particular cause for discomfort. We may not be
knowing the main cause of the discomfort, but still we can use the term disease. A person may not be
suffering from any disease but may be in poor health. This is particularly true for social and mental health,
where we can be in poor health without there being a cause in the form of an actual disease. This
is the reason why, when we think about health, we think about societies and communities. On the
other hand, when we think about disease, we think about individual sufferers.

2
 Difference‟s Between Healthy and Disease Free
Healthy Disease Free
1. It is the state of physical, mental and social well being 1. it is the state of absence of any body
2. It depends upon the person and one‟s environment discomfort.
including society. 2. it depends upon the person alone.
3. A person can be unhealthy even in the absence of disease. 3. a person would be disease free in the absence of
discomfort.
(b) Manifestation of Diseases :
There are number of tissue in the body, which aggregate together to form organ while a number of organs
make up an organ system. Each organ system is performing a specific function. Each organ in the organ
system also has a specific role to play. For example, in digestive, system, teeth help in mastication, stomach
and intestine help in digestion, kidneys take part in excretion, bones and muscles hold the body parts
together to form a musculoskeletal system that helps the body to move. When a person is suffering from any
disease, then the physiological processes (functioning) or the appearance of organs in organ systems will
change. These changes give rise to symptoms and signs of disease. symptoms are evidences of the
patient‟s feeling of being wrong. For example, headache, loose motions or a wound with pus are symptoms
which may indicate the occurrence of discomfort. Headache may be due to examination stress, meningitis.
The symptoms give an indication of the presence of a particular disease. The physicians will also get
laboratory tests done to identify the disease further.
(c) Acute and Chronic Diseases :
The manifestations of diseases are different depending upon a number of factors. one of the factor is
duration of disease. on the basis of duration serious disease can be acute or chronic.

Acute disease : actual disease is the one which has a short duration by relatively severe course.
most people with acute illness can expect to return to normal health. a case of cough and
common cold is an example of an acute illness which lasts only for a few days. afterwards the
patient becomes well without any bad effect, loss of weight, feeling of tiredness or short of breath.

Chronic disease : chronic disease is the one which is long lasting is usually slow to develop, often
having a major effect on health, reducing the person‟s ability to do work efficiently, learning in
school o r doing work. the patient will also weight and feel tired all the time. examples of chronic
diseases include tuberculosis, diabetes, asthma, hypertension, kidney disease, depression, etc.
in these diseases we can develop a treatment plan to manage symptoms and prevent
complications with the help of doctor.
Difference‟s Between Acute and Chronic Diseases
Acute Diseases Chronic Diseases
1. They are short duration diseases of relatively 1. They are long lasting diseases of debiliting (Weakening)
severe course. effect.
2. The patient recovers completely after the cure. 2. The patient does not recover completely.
3. There is no loss of weight or feeling of tiredness. 3. There is often loss of weight or feeling of tiredness.

4. There is short duration loss of work and efficiency. 4. There is prolonged loss of work & efficiency.
(d) Causes of Diseases :
The various causes of diseases are
Pathogens : They are disease causing organism like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms,
etc. The pathogens are transferred to human being through air, contaminated food, water, soil and
animals. Pathogens are primary cause of infectious diseases. However, every body does not suffer
equally from infectious agents. There are some contributory causes that increase the proneness of an
individual to catch the disease.

3
 Lack of nutrition diet: it is a second level cause of disease as absence of nutritious diet makes a
person unhealthy. Unhealthy persons are susceptible to various diseases in comparison to healthier
persons. Another contributory cause can be poor heredity which increases proneness of individual to a
particular disease.
Lack of public services: Government should provide clean drinking water, good sewage disposal, proper
garbage disposal, etc. If the public services are poor, there are more chances of contamination of food and
water. They are the third level cause of disease. Poor people, due to poverty, live in unclean surroundings
where even basic amenities are lacking, there are three level causes of diseases. These are
st nd
infection with pathogen (1 level), lack of nutrition diet and poor heredity (2 level) and lack of
rd
public services (3 level).
Diseases
TYPES OF DISEASES

A . Congenital Diseases (Haemophilia, B. Acquired Diseases

Colour blindness etc. )

(I) Communicable or Infectious (I) Non-Communicable of Non-Infectious

(a) Contagious e.g., (a) Degenerative or

mallpox,S Ringworm Organic disease e.g., Heart
Diseases, Nephritis

(b) Non-Contagious (b) Deficiency diseases e.g.,

e.g., Malaria, curvy,S Rickets , Anaemia
Tuberculosis etc .

(c) Allergies e.g., Hay fever

(d) Cancer

Congenital Diseases :

Congenital diseases are present right from the birth. They are caused either due to genetic disorders
or environmental factors during development or due to combination of these factors. These diseases
pass on from generation to generation e.g. hemophilia, colour blindness, sickle cell anemia, Down ‟s
syndrome, albinism etc.
Acquired Diseases :

These disease are acquired by an organism after birth and are not inheritable i.e., do not pass on
from one generation to another. These are futher classified into categories;

Communicable or infectious diseases: These diseases are caused by pathogens/infectious agents

such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms, etc. These diseases can spread from diseased
person to healthy parson by means of air (droplet method), water, food, insects, physical contact, etc.,
e.g. tuberculosis, malaria, diarrhea etc.

Non-Communicable or Non-Infectious diseases: These diseases can‟t be spread through

infected persons to healthy persons. e.g. Scurvy

4
 Table: Various Pathogens and Diseases Caused By Them.
S.No Type of pathogens Common diseases caused by them
1 Viruses Common Cold, Influenza, Measles, Mumps, Poliomyelitis,
Rabies, Small Pox, Chicken Pox, Yellow Fever, Aids Etc.
2 Bacteria Cholera, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pneumonia,
Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, Leprosy Etc.
3 Rickettsiae Typhus Fever, Tick Fever Etc.
4 Protozoa Malaria, Amoebic Dysentery, Sleeping Sickness Etc.
5 Fungi Ringworm, Athlete‟s Foot Etc.
6 Worms Filaria, Ascariasis, Cysticercosis, Pinworm
7 mites Scabies

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 13 .1

1. Health is.
(A) Complete physical well being (B) mental well being
(C) social well being (D) all of the above
Dislocation is a disease caused by
(A) Biological agent (B) mechanical agent (C) physical agent (D) chemical agent
A carrier is a human being that
functions as a reservoir of infection
possesses pathogen but is not harmed
contains antibodies sufficient enough to balance the antigen
all of the above
Droplet infection is a mode of.
(A) direct transmission (B) indirect transmission
(C)pathogen spread through mosquitoes (D) tomite transmission
Specific defence mechanism against disease comprises
(A physical barrier (B) lysozme (C) phagocytes (D) immune system
The antigen present in pathogen is
a specific protein involved in metabolism
polysaccharide synthesized by it in the host
a specific protein or polysaccharide present on its coat
any of the two, A, or B.
Pathogens are destroyed by
(A) kidneys (B) liver (C) tonsils (D) lymphatic tissues
A noninfectious unnatural and unusual reaction to a substance or condition is
(A) immunity (B) allergy (C) infection (D) toxin
AlDS was first reported in.
(A) Russia (B) France (C) U.S.A. (D) Germany
A person has developed interferon in his body. He seems to carry infection of
(A) Tetanus (B) Malaria (C) Measles (D) Typhoid

5
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 13. 2
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Define Health.
What are communicable diseases ?
Define the term disease.
Write the name of the vector of the disease malaria.
Define the following terms :
(a) Acute diseases (ii) Chronic diseases

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Define the following :
(i) Health (ii) Disease

State two conditions essential for good health.

What are the two broad types of diseases?
Define communicable diseases and give three examples.
Define non-communicable and give three examples.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

A physician examines a number of sick people daily. But he normally does not fall sick himself. How
this happens?

6
 WHY DO WE FALL ILL

BL-14

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

infectious Agents :
The various infectious agents are-bacteria, viruses, protozoans, helminthes (worms) and
fungi. Bacteria : They are unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic organism. they reproduce
very quickly. Some common diseases caused by bacteria are typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis, anthrax,
diphtheria, tetanus, etc.
Viruses : They are submicroscopic organisms. They cannot reproduce by
themselves because they do not have their own metabolic machinery. They utilise the metabolic
machinery of the host cell and multiply. The various diseases caused by viruses are common cold,
influenza, dengue fever, AIDS , measles, mumps, polio, small pox, chicken pox, etc.

Protozoans : They are microscopic unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. The various

diseases caused by protozoa are malaria (caused by Plasmodium), kala-azar (caused by Leishmania),
etc.
Helminthes : Helminthes are multicellular worms which are mostly present in
intestine. They cause taeniasis (caused by tapeworm), ascariasis (caused by worm), elephantiasis
(caused by filariasis worm, hence also know as filariasis), etc.
Fungi : They are also multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms.
They cause ring worm, athlete‟s foot and other skin infections.
Reason for Categorization of infectious Agents :
it is important to categories infectious agents because each group of organisms have some common
traits and many similar biochemical pathways. As a result, a drug that blocks one of the biochemical
pathways peculiar to one group would be effective against many members. Antibiotics are used for
killing bacteria. They inhibit wall synthesis (e.g. penicillin), inhibit ribosome function (e.g. erythromycin,
streptomycin) or DNA replication (e.g., ciprofloxacin). However, antibiotics are not effective against
viruses. Protozoan infections are treated by different types of drugs. Antifungal drugs are useful against
all types of fungi. Vermicides are used for overcoming worm infection. Means of Spread :

Infection diseases are called communicable diseases because they can spread from affected persons to a
healthy person. The means of communication or spread are different for different pathogens.
Direct transmission. The pathogens are transmitted from an infected person
to a healthy person directly without an intermediate agent. It occurs in the
Following ways:
Contact with infected person ; Diseases like chicken pox, small pox, ring worm
are spread by actual contact between infected person and a healthy person. Such diseases are called
contagious diseases. The sexual contact is one of the closest physical contacts two people can have
with each other. Diseases like syphilis, gonorrhea (both caused bybacteria0 and AIDS (caused by
virus) are transmitted by sexual contact from one partner (infected) to the other (healthy).

7
 Contact with Soil : The infectious agent of tetanus can enter the human body from soil through injuries.
Animal bites : The rabies virus is injected in the human body by the bite of rabied dog or monkey.
Transplacental Transmission : The diseases like AIDS, German measles and syphilis can also be
transmitted from infected mother to the foetus though placenta.
Droplet infection : Pathogens spread by way of sneezing, coughing, spitting and taking as in
common cold, influenza, diphtheria, tuberculosis, pneumonia etc.
indirect transmission : They pathogens of some diseases are carried through some intermediate agents.
It occurs in the following ways :
Vectors : They are living organisms which spread their pathogens from an infected person to a healthy
person. Usually, a part of life cycle of the pathogen is passed in the body of the vector. Some animals
like housefly transfer the pathogen without taking them in their bodies. They are called carriers.
Housefly is carrier of cholera, dysentery, typhoid, diarrhoea, etc. Female mosquitoes of many species
are vectors of several diseases. They require blood meal in order to obtain nutrients for laying eggs.
Female Anopheles spreads malaria while Culex spreads Filaria.
Through contaminated food and water. Cholera, hepatitis B, diarrhoea, ascariasis, etc. are
some diseases which are transmitted through contaminated food and water.
Air borne diseases : Infectious agents can get transferred from infected person to healthy person
through air, dust and droplets (emitted on sneezing, coughing or spitting), e.g., common cold,
pneumonia, tuberculosis.
Fomite borne : Articles coming in contact with patients are a source of infection, e.g., door
handles, taps, garments, currency, utensils, crockery.
Pathogenicity :
Pathogens can harm their hosts in a number of ways such as by
destruction of body tissues and
release of toxins or poisons which may be endotoxins. The entry of the pathogen in the
body is called infection. After entering into the body, the pathogens multiply till they produce enough
toxins to make the symptoms of the disease appear The interval between infection and appearance of
first symptom of the disease is called incubation period.

MANIFEST ATION
Organ or Tissue Specific Effects :
A microorganisms enters the body through different points like nose, mouth, sex organs etc. Which decides
the organ or tissue that micro organism invades. At the same time the signs and symptoms of an infectious
diseases also depends upon the tissue being invaded. e.g. If bacteria causing tuberculosis enters through
nose, it invades respiratory passage and lungs and its symptoms are cough and
breathlessness, but in some cases they may infect other organs also.
Common Effects :
This category includes effects like inflammation in which swelling, reddening and pain in infected area
and increase in body temperature occurs. These effects arise due to the active involvement of immune
system to provide defence to body by producing some specific chemicals from WBC‟s, against that
microbe and this is not confined to a particular organ or tissue but seen in whole body. Severity of
Effects :
It directly depends upon the no. of microorganisms. if microbes are smaller in number their effects are
minor and can be overcame by our immune system in a lesser time but if the number of micro
organisms inside the body is very high the effects are more severe and long lasting.

8
TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
The basic concept behind the treatment process is to target the biochemical pathways occurring inside
an organism for this certain drugs like antibiotics are prepared to after or stop the biochemical reaction
of the microbes at some stage to stop them to produce infections, toxins or to kill them or to check their
further growth and multiplication. There are two ways in which these diseases are treated they are :
Reducing the symptoms : By this, infection is not cured but some of the symptoms like fever, pain,
aches, inflammation can be reduced to make the patient full comfortable. this is done by medicines like
pain killers etc.
killing infectious agents : this can be done by targeting the biochemical pathways of infectious
agents using specific drugs.
Drugs :
chemical compounds that targets a particular reaction among the chain of reactions involved in the
biochemical pathway by reacting with some substrates of that reaction and resulting in an undesirable
product so that reaction cannot proceed further and stop infections and can kill the microbes. they do
not affect human cells.
Antibiotics :
Antibiotic are chemicals that kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of microbes. They help our body to
fight against diseases. The development of antibiotics began with the discovery of penicillin by sir
Alexander Flemming in 1928. Flemming noticed that an agar plate inoculated with bacterium
Staphylococcus aureus had become contaminated with a mould. He future noticed the presence of a
clear zone in the agar plate in which breakdown of the bacterial cells had occurred. Detailed studies led
to the isolation of an inhibitory substance from the mould. As the mould was identified as Pencillium,
Flemming called the antibiotic penicillin. Soon other antibiotics were isolated. Some well know
antibiotics are streptomycin, gramicidin and tetracycline. the antibiotics have been obtained from either
bacteria or fungi.
These are the drugs specific for curing bacterial diseases. they either ceases the formation of cell
wall or interferes in their metabolic activities like production of proteins. This kills or stops the growth
of bacteria.
Antibiotics are not effective for viruses or it is difficult to make antiviral diseases because Viruses are
acellular entities which only have nucleic acid and protein but lacks cytoplasm, cell wall and cell
organelles they do not have their own metabolic system but they use the host‟s metabolic machinery
to grow & multiply so drugs are not effective for them.

PREVENTION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Preventive measures are categorized into two distinct groups:

General preventive measures :
It includes:
Safe drinking water :Drinking water should be filtered to remove suspended particles And boiled,
ozonized and treated with chlorine before drinking to avoid water borne diseases like typhoid, cholera,
hepatitis etc.
Proper disposal of waste: Garbage should not be dumped here and there rather it should be thrown in
covered garbage cans and burnt or buried for disposal. Sewage carrying drains should be covered for
proper treatment of diseases of stomach and intestine.
Control of vectors : Growth and breeding of animals like mosquitoes, rats, flies,
Cockroaches should be controlled, by keeping surrounding clean, spraying insecticides, removing
stagnant water from populated areas.

9
 Strong immune system: It helps to defence our body against invading microbes and can be
made strong by proper diet and nourishment.
Immune system: our body possesses a special type of defence mechanism called immune system.
it provides resistance against disease causing microorganisms. immunity is the ability of the body to
resist the infections. Two specific types of cells are present in our body that provide immunity.
They are WBC (leucocytes) in blood and lymphocytes in lymph when any foreign body attacks
our body these cells are released to all parts of body, they isolate, engulf, kill and digest the
infectious agents and thus defend our body against any type of infection.
Specific Preventive Measures :
This can be done two ways :
Immunization: Stimulating the body to produce antibodies by artificial means. our
Immune system is misleader, to develop a memory against particular infection by introducing
something into the body that mimics the specific microbe. Specific prevention is provided by the
immune system. it produces specific molecules called antibodies that fight against the invading
microorganism or their products called antigens. Antibodies are pertinacious molecules made by
WBC‟s and lymphocytes to fight against foreign bodies or other harmful chemicals. Antigens are also
proteins or other harmful chemicals that are present on surface of invaders. Whenever there occurs
attack of a foreign body specific Antibodies are produced corresponding to that antigen and an antigen
antibody reaction occurs. it either engulfs and phagocyte it or makes it harmless and then makes them
unable to grow and multiply. Besides this immune system also possesses memory. once antibodies
are produced they remain in the body and at the second infection they recognize the antigens and
show a much faster response.

Vaccination: A vaccine is a suspension of disease- producing micro-organisms which is

Modified by killing or wreaking (attenuated) so that the suspension will not cause disease. Rather it
stimulates the formation of antibodies upon inoculation. The antibodies remain in blood for long and
when the germs of a particular disease enter the body, the antibodies destroy them. This is the basis of
immunization.

Some common vaccines :

DPT vaccine, for protection against diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus
BCG vaccine, for protection against tuberculosis
Polio (OPV) vaccine Typhoid vaccine Measles vaccine TT vaccine, against tetanus

Schedule of Immunisation
Beneficiaries Age Vaccine No. of doses
(a) pregnant woman 16-36 weeks TT 2,at intervals of 4-8 weeks
DPT 3 does at intervals of 1-2 months
3-9 months Polio -do-
BCG 1
(b) infants 9-12 months Measles 1
DPT 1(booster)
18-24 months polio 1(booster)
5-6 years Typhoid 2
10 years TT 1(booster)
c)children Typhoid 1(booster)
16 years TT 1(booster)
typhoid 1(booster)

Pulse polio programme: The aim of this programme it to eradicate polio from our country. it was
first held in our country in December, 1995. Polio vaccine called Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is given
to children orally (through the mouth), as per the National Immunisation Schedule (NIS),

10
 NON INFECTIOUS / NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

These diseases which remain confined to a person. they are neither present at birth nor spread from
one person to another. The diseases are caused due to some specific factors. They may be caused
due to improper functioning of an organ (short sighted, hypertension, arthritis), hormonal imbalance
(diabetes, dwarfism), allergy, cancer, inadequate diet (anaemia, goitre), etc.

These diseases are of following types :

Deficiency diseases : caused due to lack of some nutrient materials in our body like Vitamins,
minerals, protein etc.
Degenerative diseases : caused due to ageing or malfunctioning of any organ or part of Body.

Allergies : caused due to hypersensitivity of an organism to certain type of material

like Pollen grains, dust etc.
Uncontrolled growth of cells: this can cause cancer and tumor.
Mental disorders
Occupational diseases
Addiction: caused due to excessive intake of drugs tobacco, alcohol etc.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Disease Causative Mode of Symptoms Cure Prevention

Organisms Transmission

Bacteria
1. Cholera Vibrio cholerae Contaminated food Watery diarrhoea, Antibiotics, ORS Proper sanitation
And water Vomiting, Or Salt-Sugar Personal hygiene.
Dehydration, muscle solution
Cramp, weight loss.

2. typhoid Salmonella typhi Contaminated food Headache, fever in Antibiotics Use of safe drinking
afternoon, slow Water, TAB vaccine,
Pulse, erruption of Proper seweraeg
Spots & rashes on System.
Abdomen, diarrhoea.
3. tuberculosis Mycobacterium Droplet infection Loss of appetite, Antibiotics
Tuberculosis Weakness, typical Antitubercular Public
Fever pattern, night Therapy (ATT) Awareness, BCG
Sweat, chest pain Vaccine.
Breathlessness.
4. diarrhoea Salmonella, Contaminated food Loss of water, Antibiotics like Property washed
Shigella And water Vomiting, headache, Penicillin & cooked food,
Fever, abdominal clean surroundings.
Pain.
5. syphilis Treponema Sexual contact, Painless ulcers, Antibiotics Improper and
Pallidum From mother to Swollen lymph Unhyiegenic
child Glands and joints, Sex practices should
Paralysis, heart Be avoided.
Trouble etc.
6. Gonorrhoea Neisseria Sexual contact, use Pus containing Antibiotics Proper cleaned
Gonorrhoeae Of common toilets Discharge, burning And disinfected
Sensation in sex Toilets should be
Organs, arthritis Used, improper sex
practices should be
avoided

11
 Disease Causative Mode of Symptoms Cure Prevention
Organisms Transmission

Virus Hepatitis A virus Contaminated food High temperature, Interferon injection, Use boiled water and
1.Hepatits A And water Headache, joint Adequate rest Fresh food, Hepatitis
Pains, dark yellow Vaccine
Urine, fatigue. It is
Also called jaundice
2. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B virus Infected blood, Progressive liver Interferon injection, Hepatitis B vaccine,
Inoculation, from Disease, chronic Adequate rest Avoiding risky sex
Mothers to their Active Hepatitis , Practices, injectable
Child, sexual route Hepatocellular Drugs and direct or
Carcinoma (cancer) Indirect contact with
Blood, semen etc. Of
Infected person
3. Rabies Rabies virus Bite of Dog, High fever, painful A course of 5 anti Pet animals should
Monkey, etc. Contraction of Rabies vaccines at Be vaccinated with
Muscles of throat Regular intervals Anti rabies vaccine
And chest. Patient With in 30 days is
Develops fear of Given
Water so it is also
Called hydrophobia.
4. Influenza Influenza virus It is spread from Sneezing, fever, Amanatadin and We should try to
Person to person Headache, muscular Rimantidine are Keep away from flu
Contact, Droplet Pains, coughing, Used Patients.
Infection. Discharge from nose
5. AIDS HIV Virus 1.spreds through Swollen lymph -- 1.disposable
[Human immuno Unprotected Nodes, regular fever, Syringes
Deficiency virus] Sexual contact with Weight loss, loss of And needles
An infected Persons Immunity. Should be used.
2. Spreads through 2. Sexual contact
The transfusion With unknown
Of blood people
Contaminated with Should be avoided
AIDS virus 3. Before transfusion
3. Spreads through Blood should be
The use of infected Tested for HIV virus
Needles for
Injection
4.AIDS infected
Mother can
Transmit the virus

Protozoans
1.malaria Plasmodium It spreads though Headache, Quinine should be 1. Use proper
The bite of female Muscularpain, Used Arrangement to
Anopheles higher fever, feeling Avoid mosquito
Mosquito cold and shivering, from our houses.
Patient feels weak 2. Mosquito larvae
And becomes Should be killed
anaemic 3. We should not
Allow the collection
Of water in any
Uncovered container.

Amoebiasis Entamoeba Contaminated food Diarrhoea -- --

Histolytica And water.

12
NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Cause Name of Disease Symptoms
Deficiency
Shrivelled appearance, thinning of limbs,
Prominent ribs, retarded physical and mental
1. protein (PEM) Marasmus(infants below 1 year) Growth, digestive disorder, repeated diarrhoea.

2. protein(PEM) Kwashiorkar(1 to 3 year age) Loss of appetite, stunted growth, bulging eyes,
Enlarged stomach, long thin and curved legs.

3. iron Mycrocytic anaemia Become pale, loose appetite, feels tired

4. vitamin B12 Perinicious anaemia Become pale, loose appetite, feels tired
5. folic acid Megaloblastic anaemia Become pale, loose appetite, feels tired
6. Lodine Goitre Abnormal enlargement of thyroid, swelling in the
Neck, reduced thyroid function, retarded growth.
7.vitamin A xeropthalmia night blindness, dryness of comea
8. Vitamin D Rickets(children), osteomalacia Twisted, thin, soft, bent bones, deformed ribs.
(audits)

9. Vitamin B-1 Beri-Beri Muscular dystrophy, nervous disorder

10. Vitamin B5 Pellagra 4D‟ syndrome, dermatitis, diarrhoea, dementia,
death.

11. Vitamin – C Scurvy Bleeding gums, loosening and falling of teeth,

Loss of weight

12. Degeneration Heart attack, liver failure, kidney Hypertension, liver megaly etc.
failure

13. Hyper sensitivity Allergy Sneezing, coughing, watering of eyes, asthma,

Hay fever
14. Uncontrolled growth of cells Cancer and tumour Loss of weight, person becomes weak, can lead
To death or destruction of affected organ

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 14 .1

1. AIDS day.
(A) May 1 (B) December 20 (C) June 1 (D) December 1
Antibodies are.
(A) lipids (B) genes (C) proteins (D) carbohydrates
Which of the following statements is correct ?
(A) Degenerative diseases are non communicable (B) Allergy is caused by droplet infection
(C) Cholera is a viral disease (D) AIDS can be prevented by vaccination.
4. Remain healthy means
(A) free of infection by pathogen (B) tension free mental status
(C) Living in a pollution free environment (D) All of the above
Diseases occurring due to infected articles of a patient are called
(A) Air borne (B) Water borne (C) Fomite borne (D) Food bome

13
 World Health Day Is On.
(A) 1ST May (B) 7TH April (C) 30th June (D) 5th December
Which are intimately related.
(A) Diseases and health (B) Body and health
(C) Body and mind (D) Body and spiritual health
Pulse polio programme is organised in our country for.
(A) curing polio (B) eradicating polio (C) spreading polio (D) non of the above
9. Community health aims at.
(A) better health and family planning (B) better hygiene and clean environment
(C) removing communicable diseases (D) all of the above
Head quarter of work Health Organisation(WHO) is located at.
(A) New York (B) Geneva (C) London (D) Paris

Write the name of causative organism of the following diseases.

(i) Tuberculosis (ii) Cholera (iii) Hydrophobia (iv) Influenza (v) AIDS

Write the difference between acute and chronic disease.

Why do malaria patients suffer from anaemia?
Name any three water borne diseases and their causative organisms.
Define interferons.

How are diseases diagnosed by physicians?

How are diseases manifested?
Name three acute and three chronic diseases.

Under which of the following conditions are you most likely to fall sick ?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
(i) When you are traveling by bus. (ii) When you are talking with your teacher.
(iii) When you visit a friend who is suffering from measles.

EXERCISE

(Objective DPP # 13 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. D C D A D C D B C C

(Objective DPP # 14 .1)

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. D C A D C B D B D B
14
 NATURAL RESOURCES

BL-15
NATURAL RESOURCES
It indicates the potential wealth of a country. The variety of substance that man gets from earth and
nature to meet his basic needs are called natural resources. The word resource means a source of
supplying a material generally held in reserve. Natural resources are both living and non-living. Some
of these resources are found in abundance, while others are found in limited quantities and that too in
some restricted parts of our land. For this reason, the natural resource have to be wisely used.
However, in reality it is not so. They are being used indiscriminately.
Types of Natural Resources :

Depending upon the abundance and availability, the natural resources are categorized into two types, i.e.

(i) inexhaustible natural resources (ii) exhaustible natural resources.

Natural Resources

Inexhaustible Echaustible
Resources that rea in unlimited uantityq. Resources that rea in limited uantityq .
Resources that rea not likely to Resources that rea likely to be
be exhausted by human ctivitya exhausted by human ctivitiesa.
or their use.
Examples : Air, terWa nda olarS Radiations.

Renewable Non-Renewable
Can replenish themselves by uickq Cannot replenish themselves by
Recycling nda replacement ithinw recycling nda replacement.
a reasonable time . These may be exhausted.
Not likely to be exhausted . Example : Minerals, Fossil fuels
Examples : oil,S Forests nda ildW life.

AIR OR ATMOSPHERE
The multilayered, transparent and protective envelope of gases surrounding the planet earth is called
atmosphere. In other words atmosphere is the layer or air above the earth‟s surface and air is a
mixture of several gases. About 95% of total air is present up to the height of 20 km above earth‟s
surface. Remaining 5% is up to the height of 280 km.

Composition of Air :

Gas relative percentage / volume

Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.94%
Argon 0.9%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
He, Ne, Kr, Xe, in trace amounts
Ch4.O3

Besides these gaseous components air also possesses water vapour, industrial gases, dust,
smoke particles, microorganisms, pollen grains, fungal spores etc.

15
 The different zones of Atmosphere or Air :
Troposphere: It is the basal part that extends about 20 km above the earth‟s surface. (Upto 8 km on
poles), in this layer important climatic events occur like cloud formation, lightening, thundering etc. in
this region air temperature gradually decreases with height.
Stratosphere: It lies next to troposphere and is 30 km high. in this layer temperature rises. there is a
formation of ozone layer in this region which can absorb the harmful ultra violet rays coming from sun.
Mesosphere: It lies next to stratosphere and is 40 km in height. Temperature decreases in this region.
Lonosphere: It lays upto the height of 300 km above earth‟s surface. In this layer gaseous
components become ionized to sun‟s energy and remain there as ions.
Role of Air or Atmosphere :
It acts as medium for movement of insects, birds etc.
It protects the life on earth from harmful ultra violet rays.
It is a source of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen required for various metabolic activities of living
beings.

It helps in dispersal of spores, pollen, seeds etc. It

maintains temperature on earth required for life. It
transmits sound for communication.

Ionosphere reflects the radio waves back to earth for long distance communication due to presence
of ions and free electrons.
Burning (combustion) takes place in presence of oxygen and produces carbon dioxide.
Specific climatic conditions and water cycle is maintained due to circulation of air.
Eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic cells require O2 for break down of glucose to get energy
through respiration, they release CO2.
The Role of Atmosphere in Climate Control :
Climate is an average weather of an area. Temperature, light and rainfall are important factors
that determine climate of an area. Atmosphere plays a crucial role in its control :
It acts like a blanket covering the whole earth.

It keeps the temperature of earth steady. It acts as bad conductor of heat thus prevents the sudden
increase in temperature during the day as well as slows down the escape of heat into the outer space
during night.
The role of atmosphere on earth,0 when compared
0
with moon (with no atmosphere), temperature range

varies at moon from – 190 C to 110 C. Although both lie at same distance from sun.

Air in called wind. Speed of wind can be determined by :

Heating of air Formation of water vapour
Atmosphere can be heated from below by radiations, such radiations are reflected back. Convection
currents appear in air on being heated. When the air gets hot due to radiations emitted from land or
water, it rises. Air over land get heated speedily as compared to air above water bodies because, land
gets heat faster. Wind occurs because of horizontal and vertical differences in atmospheric pressure.
During daytime in coastal regions, air on lands rises due to heating at faster rate. Air over sea moves
into the space of low pressure created due to rising of air above land. This creates wind. During day
time, thus air moves from to land. Sea and land both become cool during night hours. Cooling of water
is slower than land, thus air above water becomes warmer. Thus air will move from land sea.

16
 Factors controlling movement of air
rotation of earth.
in the path of wind, mountain ranges may come across. The general pattern of winds over earth is known as
general circulation and specific winds are named for the direction from which they originate (e.g. wind
blowing from west to east is westerly). Wind speeds are often classified according to Beaufort
scale.
Rain :
The warm, moist and rising air cools and forms clouds in the sky. This happens due to heating of water
bodies during day time which get mixed with atmosphere. The air rises, it expands and cools. cool air in
the atmosphere sinks towards the ground. Due to cooling water vapours present in air get facilitated.
These tiny droplets become bigger and bigger due to condensation. When they become heavy, they
fall down in the from of rain. Four main types of precipitation are as follows:
rain. Precipitation in the form of liquid
sleet. Rain which freezes.
snow. Small ice crystals that form around dust or salt particles.
hail. Frozen rain that is circulated up and down in a cloud until, it is hard frozen ball of
ice. Cloudy, wet, changeable weather is common in low pressure zones with rising
unstable areas. Such conditions are found at temperate latitudes, where warm air along polar fronts.
Here spiraling low pressure cells known as depressions (mid-latitude cyclones) are formed. In India
mostly rains are brought by usually southwest or northeast monsoon. Depressions in Bay of Bengal
also cause rain at some places of India.
POLLUTION
Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics in the air, water
and land which is harmful to the men directly or indirectly though animals, plants,
industrial units or raw materials is called as pollution. pollution is mostly man made. But it
can also be natural.
Pollutants :
Any material or act of man, or nature which leads to pollution is called as pollutants. The pollution is
usually brought about by the addition to the environment of waste products of human activity. When the
waste products are not efficiently assimilated, decomposed or other wish removed by natural,
biological and physical processes (recycling) and the system is unable to utilize them properly, so that
the balance of the system breaks down. Therefore such type of pollutants can stimulate or inhibit the
biological reactions or change in their capacity. Therefore changes also take place in the ecosystem.
The amount, numbers and types of pollutants are increasing with the growth of the population.
Air Pollution :
Air pollution is caused due to the addition of the unwanted substances or gases. The atmospheric
pollution is mainly caused by the activities of man and concentrated to the inhabited and the industrial
complexes in cities. There are two main categories of air pollutants.
Gaseous: The gaseous materials include various gases and vapours of volatile substances or the
0
compound with a boiling point below 200 C.
Particulate: Dust particles, carbon particles, particles of other matels etc.
Major air Pollutants and Their Effects :

17
 carbon monoxide (CO) : this is the main air pollutant. Carbon monoxide is a highly toxic as which is
colourless and odourless in nature. It combines with hemoglobin of the blood and blocks the
transportation of oxygen. Thus, it impairs respiration and it causes death.
Unburnt hydrocarbons : Out of them 3, 4 – benzpyrene is the main pollutant. This causes cancer in
lungs.
Ethylene: The falling of leaves without particular reason, falling buds et. Effects are seen in plants
are due to ethylene.
Oxides of nitrogen: these oxides form photochemical smog in the atmosphere and release ozone.
Ozone causes harm to mucilaginous membrane. The oxide pollutants of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO), and
nitrogen di oxide (NO2). These oxides and ozone are very harmful for the plants. The entry of these
pollutants causes various diseases in animals like- respiratory trouble such as emphysema, bronchitis,
swelling of lungs and lung cancer etc.
(v) smoke : Many constituents are present in smoke such as sulphur dioxide(SO2), Sulphur trioxide (SO3),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Ozone (O3), Carbon dioxide (CO2), PAN (Peroxyacetyle nitrate), Arsenic and
Fluoride etc. the distribution area of lichen and mosses are the indicators of SO 2 pollution because
lichen and mosses cannot grow in the industrial regions or the regions containing SO2 pollutants. The
higher concentration of ozone produces harmful effects. But normally, ozone layer absorbs U.V. rays
which are harmful for the living things.
(vi) aerosol : The aerosol like C.F.C. (chloro fluoro carbon) release into the atmosphere from the
refrigerators, air conditioners and jet planes deplete or reduce the ozone layer. This thin layer of ozone
is also known as ozone hole results in the increase in temperature of the earth.
Measures to Control Air Pollution :
Barium compounds should be mixed with petrol which reduce the smoke.
It is also very essential to check the quality of gases released from
the factories. Industries should not be established at one place.
The smoke should be released into the atmosphere after filtration and purification (by cyclone collector
or electrostatic precipitators).

WATER (HYDROSPHERE)

It is renewable resource which is essential for sustenance of life. It covers 3/4 th of the earth‟s surface.
Of the total water present in hydrosphere 97% is present in oceans which is not utilizable by living
beings. Only 3% water is fresh water. Among this 3%, 72.2% is stored in glaciers and ice caps (frozen),
22.4% is ground water and soil moisture. Remaining 0.36% is found in lakes, rivers, streams and
swamps.
Types of Water Resources :
Fresh water resource : It consists of pounds, lakes, large rivers. It can be recycled. It is essential for
life on earth as well as for survival. It can be obtained by three different types of natural resources.

Rain water : India receives 3 trillion m3of water from rainfall or precipitation. Its intensity is different in different zones,
on this basis zones are classified as :
Wet zone : with very high rainfall intermediate zone : with heavy rainfall
Semi arid zone : with moderate rainfall Arid zone ; with low rainfall.
There are 14 major river systems with plenty of lakes, pounds etc.
It is the water which percolate into the ground. There is a certain level below the surface where the rocks
are saturated with water and this level is known as the zone of saturation. The upper level of the zone of
saturation is called the water table. However, the vertical distance from the surface from the
surface of a region of the water table is called the water level.
(ii) Salt water resource :It consists of oceans, seas etc. it cannot be used by living beings for drinking.

18
 Role of Water or Hydrosphere :
Water is the main constituent of protoplasm.
It is the universal solvent. Through which mineral salts are transported from one part of the plant to the
other.
Various metabolic reaction take place in the medium containing
water. It acts as a reactant in numerous metabolic reactions.
During photosynthesis, water releases oxygen.
Turgidity of the growing cells is maintained with water.
Various movements of plant organs like movements in sensitive plant (touch-me-
not) are controlled by water.

The growth of the cells during elongation phase is mainly depends upon absorption of
water. Metabolic end product of respiration is water.
It acts as a temperature buffer as its specific heat is highest (only exception – liquid ammonia).
It show the properties of cohesion and adhesion which account for the capillary action of water.
Water pollution :
The water pollution is caused by the addition of organic and inorganic chemicals as well as the
biological materials which change the physical and chemical properties of water. This harmful process
is called as water pollution. The water pollution is caused by many sources such as sewage matter,
industrial wastage, agricultural wastage, domestic wastage, not water of thermal plants and nuclear
reactors etc. water pollution can be caused by the following man made sources :
Household detergents : The household detergents include the compounds of
phosphate, nitrate, ammonium and alkylbenzene sulphonate etc. harmful substances which are
gathered in water. Alkyl benzene sulphonate (ABS) is not degradable, so that its concentration
increases which is harmful for aquatic life.
Control measures : For the control of this pollution lime, ferric chloride etc. are used to precipitate the
phosphate. Zirconium is considered best for this purpose.

Sewage : Sewage contains highest amount of carbonic materials and biological materials. These
carbonic materials increase the number of decomposers like bacteria and fungus. The rate of
reoxygenation reduced as compared to deoxygenaion in a water reservoirs. The acceleration of
microbial activity increases the BOD of water. BOD is very less in pure water. The higher BOD is the
indication of water pollution and the water of polluted reservoir can not be utilized and produces a very
bad smell spreading around the locality. The infection or disease also takes place. Daphnia and some
fishes are sensitive to water pollution and show the intensity of water pollution.

Control measures : To control the water pollution of sewage water it should be left into reservoir after
the primary and secondary treatment. The big particles are mainly separated in primary treatment
through floatation and sedimentation. Micro organisms are used for secondary treatment such as
oxidation chamber or activated sludge process. Oxidation chamber is a shallow reservoir in which the
sewage is stored. Algae and bacteria grow very well because of the higher amount of carbonic
materials in it. Bacteria decomposes the organic materials and produce CO2 which is utilized by the
algae in photosynthesis. Oxygen released by photosynthesis protects the water pollution. Therefore
oxidation pond is the example of symbiosis in between algae and bacteria. The infectious bacteria
are destroyed during the activity (reactions) in the oxidation pond. So that the simple substances are
left after decomposition of organic matter.

19
 Industrial wastes : the wastes of industries are discharged into the running water, rivers and canals,
industrial wastes mainly contain inert suspended particles such as dust, coal, toxins like acid, base,
phenols, cyanides, mercury, zinc etc., inorganic materials like-ferrous salts, sulphides, oils and other
residues of organic material and hot water. The water polluted by mercury, lead etc. causes
disorganization of nervous system. It means it produces insanity. The minamata disease is caused in
Japan by eating of mercury polluted fishes. So many people died because of this disease.
Control measures: The industrial wastes and toxic components should be made pure before
releasing into rivers, lakes, ponds or sea. So that the water pollution of industrial effluents can be
controlled by suitable treatment to remove the pollutants.

Bioaccumulation of pesticides: Pesticides like DDT are poisonous chemicals sprayed on crops to
protect them frompests and diseases. This increase in concentration of harmful non-
biodegradable chemical substances in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food
chain is called biological magnification.

Eutrophication: the discharger of sewage water and detergents in water bodies promotes excessive
growth of phytoplanktons (minute aquatic algae). This excessive growth causes reduction in oxygen level
of water. The excessive growth of phytoplanktons brings about a reduction in dissolved oxygen which
affects other aquatic organisms. Consequently potential sources of food are highly reduced.

LITHOSPHERE

Lithosphere is the main life supporting system. Top layer of earth is called soil. It is the main
natural resource essential for survival and development.
Structure and Formation of Soil :
Soil is formed due to interaction between weathering of rocks, rain, wind, temperature (physical
components) and plants, animals and microbes (biological components). .it is formed by combined
action of climatic factors such as temperature, rainfall, light etc. and biotic factors such as plants and
microbes on earth crust.
Constituents of Soil :
Soil contains: (a) inorganic constituents of parent rocks (b) organic products of living organisms; (c)
living organisms including microorganisms (d) air in the pores. There are four important components of
soil. They are
(i) Mineral matter 50-60%
(ii) Organic matter 10%
(A) Living organisms (B) decomposed matter
(iii) Soil water 25-35%
(iv) Soil air 15-25%
Types of Soil :
On the basis of its nature and composition, soil is mainly of six types ----
Alluvial soil: rich in loam and clay. (ii)Black soil-which has clay.
Red soil: which is sandy to loam. (iv) Mountain soil-which is a stony and sandy soil.
Desert soil- which is sandy.(vi) Laterite soil- which has porous clay.
Outer most layer of earth is called crust. Many types of minerals are found in crust. They provide
many types of nutrients to living beings.

20
 Factors / Processes Responsible for Formation of Soil :
Sun: rocks get expanded due to heat produced by sun during day time. At night, The rocks cool down
and contract. Due to this unequal expansion and contraction of rocks, cracks in rocks appear. This
leads to formation of smaller pieces of rocks.
Water : due to continuous movement of rain and fast flowing river water, rock Pieces collide and break
down in still finer particles due to their abrasive effect.
Wind: wind has abrasive effect on rocks. Finer rock particles are blown away and get deposited at
other distant places.
Living organisms : the step of weathering is brought about by plants and animals. Lichens are first to appear
on bare rocks. They produce acids which corrode the rocky surface to produce fine particles. Now plants like
mosses can appear on it. In such type of soil, certain microbes, algae, insects and worms
appear and die. Organic matter gets accumulated. Roots of some plants grow into the cervices of rocks.
Soil pollution :
Soil is also polluted through the polluted water and air. These pollutants are mixed into the soil through the
rainy water. Such as H2 SO4 acid is formed by mixing of SO2 with rainy water in the air. The fertilizers are
used to increase yield of the crops. Various types pesticides and weedicides etc. are sprayed over the crops.
All these mixed with soil to produce harmful effects. The growth of plants inhibited or reduced due to this type
of pollution and sometimes death also takes place. Excluding to these soil pollution is also caused by the
disposal of house hold detergents, sewage, flowing oils, radioactive substances and hot water etc. the main
substances of pesticides in soil pollutants are D.D.T.
and weedicides 2, 4-D (2,4 di-chlorophenoxy acetic acid) 2,4,5-T (2,4,5, tri-chlorophenoxy acetic
acid). Control measures: soil pollution can be controlled through biological degradation of waste
materials. The various carbonic materials are of agricultural waste, cattle dung etc. which can be
minimized by the use of biogas plants which can produce energy also. Inspite all measures
pesticides and weedicides should be used in limited quantity only when they are required. Bhopal
Gas Tragedy is the best example of human hazard which took the life of many persons the tank of
methyl isocyanate burst during the
manufacturing of savin insecticide on 3rd December 1984.
Soil erosion :
Fertility of soil depends on
Presence of organic matter(humus) and nutrients, (ii) capacity of soil to retain water and air. A loamy
soil is the best-suited for plant growth.
The fertility of soil is threatened due to various activities of humans. The main threat to the fertility of
soil is from soil erosion, which is the loss of soil due to wind or water flow.
Methods of Preventing Soil Erosion :
Prevention of soil erosion can be brought about by controlling the factors which cause soil erosion. The
methods would thus be follows:
Deforestation should be stopped, rather, trees should be planted (afforestation). Afforestation should be
undertaken not only in areas already cut, but additional areas should be brought under plantation.
To reduce the effect of strong wind in the fields, the boundaries of the fields should be planted with
trees in two or three rows.
To maintain the soil in its natural condition, it is advisable to grow different crops. Crop rotation helps to
maintain the fertility of the soil. The water – holding capacity of the soil is also maintained by this
method.
Proper drainage and irrigation arrangements should be made in the fields.
On the sloping areas in hills, strip cropping should be practiced, thereby reducing the steepness of
the slopes and checking soil erosion.
Strip – cropping means the planting of crops in rows or strips to check flow of water.

21
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 15 .1

Soil is a part of
(A) atmosphere (B) lithosphere (C) hydrosphere (D) ionosphere
Maximum air in which we breath is present at
(A) troposphere (B) stratosphere (C) ionosphere (D) mesosphere
Biogeochemical cycles are also known as
(A) sedimentary cycles (B) gaseous cycles (C) material cycles (D) cycles of water
Which of the following is a free living nitrogen fixing bacteria present in soil ?
(A) Azotobacter (B) Nitrosomonas (C) Rhizobium (D) pseudomonas
CO2 and O2 balance in atmosphere is due to
(A) Photosynthesis (B) respiration (C) leaf anatomy (D) photorespiration
Nitrogen fixation is
(A) Nitrogen Ammonia (B) Nitrogen nitrates
(C) Nitrogen Amino acid (D) Both A and B
Soil erosion can be prevented by
(A) deforestation (B) afforestation (C) overgrazing (D) removal of vegetation
A renewable source of energy is
(A) petroleum (B) coal (C) nuclear fuel (D) trees
Percentage of nitrogen in air is
(A) 77.02% (B) 78.09% (C) 76.08% (D) 74.09%

Ozone layer is present in atmosphere in

(A) troposphere (B) stratosphere (C) mesosphere (D) thermosphere

SUBJECTIVE DPP - 15 .2
VERY SHORT ANSVER TYPE QUESTIONS
Define the term biosphere.
Mention the components of biosphere.
Name any two inexhaustible and exhaustible natural resources.
Write about the cause of wind.
Name three natural resources of water.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Explain the composition of air ? What is the role of atmosphere in climate control?
Write a short note on wind.
Write the causes and effects of air pollution.
ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
What is green house effect? Name the different green house gases.

22
 NATURAL RESOURCES

BL-16
BIOGEOCHEMIC CYCLES

These are the cyclic pathways through which

chemicalElements move from environment to organisms
and back toThe environment . Such cycling is essential
as the earth and its environment, with reference to these
elements, are consideredAs closed system and there is
no inflow of such elements from Outside the earth and
their amount is limited.

Two types of biogeochemical cycles are :

Gaseous cycles Sedimentary cycles

Table: Differences between gaseous and sedimentary cycles

Characters Gaseous cycles Sedimentary Cycles
Reservoir pool Air or water Rocks
Speed Faster Slower
Examples Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen cycles Calcium, phosphorous and sulphur cycles.

Water Cycle :
Water is the most abundant (60-90%) component of protoplasm. It acts as a habital for hydrophytes and
many aquatic animals, a good ionizer, good solvent, temperature, buffer and perform transportation of
materials. It also helps in digestion of organic compounds and in photosynthesis of plants.

Types of water cycles are:

Global water cycle : does not involve living organisms and involves the interchange of water between the
earth‟s surface and the atmosphere via the processes of precipitation and evaporation. Ocean is the
biggest store house of water. Evaporation involves the conversion of liquid and solid forms of water
into vapours and later form the clouds. Precipitation involves the rainfall, hail, snow, etc. energy for
global water cycle is provided by sunlight.

23
 Biological water cycle : it is the interchange of water between Abiotic and biotic components of
environment e.g. the plants absorb water from water bodies and soil while loose most of the water by
the process of transpiration, animals consume water from water bodies or the food ingested, while
release water via the processes of respiration and excretion.
Nitrogen Cycle :
Nitrogen is an essential component of amino acids, proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids of the
protoplasm. Reservoir pool of nitrogen is atmosphere which contains about 78.08% of nitrogen in
gaseous state. But it cannot be used directly and is changed into nitrites and nitrates and then utilized.
Steps of nitrogen cycle are:
(A) Nitrogen fixation: it involves the conversion of free diatomic nitrogen (N2) into nitrites and nitrates.
It occurs in three ways :
Atmospheric nitrogen fixation in the presence of photochemical and electrochemical reactions induced
by thundering and lightening.
Industrial nitrogen fixation in the industries at night temperature and high
pressure. Biological nitrogen fixation in the presence of certain living organisms as

Rhizobium bacterium in the root nodules of legumes.

Azotobacter bacterium in the soil.
Anabaena (blue green algae) in water in the paddy fields.
Azospirillum bacterium in loose association with the roots of maize, sorghum, etc.
Ammonification: it involves the decomposition of proteins of dead plants and animals to ammonia in
the presence of ammonifying bacteria like Bacillus ramosus.
Nitrification: it involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites (NO2) and nitrates (NO3) in the presence of
nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas (Ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacter (Nitrite to nitrate), etc. plants
absorb the nitrites and nitrates from the soil through their roots and convert them into organic
compounds(e.g. proteins) of protoplasm by the process called nitrogen assimilation.
Denitrification: it involves reduction of ammonium compounds, nitrites and nitrates to molecular
nitrogen in the presence of denitrifying bacteria like Thiobacillus denitrificans.
Carbon Cycle :
Carbon is the basic component of all the organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
enzymes and nucleic acid of the protoplasm. In atmosphere, it is present as carbon dioxide. It involves
two types of processes, one involving CO2 utilization and another involving CO2 production. They are
expressed as follows:

24
 CO2 utilization : carbon dioxide is utilized by the
Photosynthetic organisms like green plants,
Photosynthetic bacteria, diatoms and blue green algae
In the presence of Photosynthesis, it occurs in the
Presence of chlorophyll and radiant energy of Sunlight.
Glucose synthesized in photo synthesis is Used to
synthesize other organic compounds.
CO2 production :
CO2 is released during respiration of
both producers And consumers.
During decomposition of organic compounds of dead
Bodies.
During burning of fossil fuels like wood, coal,
Petroleum, etc.
Volcanic eruptions and hot springs.
During weathering of rocks by acids produced by microorganisms and roots of higher plants.
Oxygen Cycle :
Oxygen is present in water and from 20% of air in
Atmosphere. All living beings need it for respiration.
Oxygen content of atmosphere has remained constant

For the last several million years. Most of O2 lost is

Replenished by photosynthesis. During photosynthesis
CO2 is used by plants to from food along with release
Of oxygen. The oxides can be reduced both chemically
And biologically to produce oxygen.
Microbial oxidation can also occur. Due to burning materials oxygen form carbon dioxide. When
oxygen combines with nitrogen, it forms oxides of nitrogen, amino acids, proteins etc. these
compounds on breakdown release the oxygen in atmosphere.

GREEN-HOUSE EFFECT
Usually carbon dioxide is not considered as pollutant, but its higher concentration forms the thick layer above
the earth surface which checks the radiation of the heat from the earth surface. Because of this the
temperature of the earth surface increases. This is called as “Green house effect”.
The various green house gases are CO2
(Warming effect 60%) ,CH4(Warming effect

20%), chlorofluoro carbon or CFCs(14%)

and Nitrous oxide(N2O6%) : Even 2-30 C

rise in Temperature will lead to melting
glaciers and Ice caps of polar regions &
consequently Causes floods in rivers, rise in
sea level and Changes in cycle of rain.
Islands may be Emerged in sea water. The
present growth rate Is continued then the
amount of CO2 will be double upto 2020.

25
 Global warming :
Global warming is the increase in average global temperature due to increase in amount of GHGs
in earth‟s atmosphere.
consequences of global warming :
Increase in the sea level : Global warming will melt polar ice caps. If all the ice on the earth will melt,
about 200 feet of water would be added to surface of all oceans. Thus low lying coastal cities like
shanghai, Kolkata, Bangkok, Dhaka, Venice, etc. will be inundated.
Increase in global temperature : If present input of GHGs will be continued, the earth‟s
global temperature will rise.
Effect on agriculture : Grain production will be reduced. India‟s annual monsoon rains may even
cease together. One third of global forest might be swept away. Deserts are likely to increase
Chances of hurricanes, cyclones and floods will be more.
Increased temperature and humidity caused by global warming will lead to spread of diseases like
malaria, filariasis etc. due to spread of vectors. Incidences of respiratory and skin diseases are likely to
increase.

OZONE DEPLETION
Between 320 And 26 Km Above The Sea Level It Occurs Ozone Layer And The Part Of Atmosphere
Containing It Is Called Ozonosphere (Stratosphere). This layer is established due to an equilibrium
between phto-dissociaiation of ozone by UV-radiation and regeneration of ozone. The thickness of this
ozonosphere averages 5km. the ozone layer acts as a shield and absorbs the harmful UV-radiations of
the sunlight so protects the earth‟s biota from the harmful effects of strong UV-radiations. So this layer
is very important for the survival and existence of life n earth.
Causes of Thinning of Ozone Layer :
The decline in spring-layer thickness is called ozone hole is largest over Antarctica and was just short of
27 million sq.km. during Spetember 2003.main chemicals responsible for destruction of ozone-layer
are : chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs), halogens (used in fire extinguishers) methane and nitrous oxide. Out
of these, most damaging is the effect of CFCs which are a group of synthetic chemicals and are used
as coolants is refrigerators and air conditions; as cleaning solvents, propellants and sterilants etc.
these CFCs produce “active chlorine” (CI and CIO radicals) in the presence of UV-radiations. These
active chlorine radicals catalytically destroy ozone and convert it into oxygen.
Nitrous oxide : It is produced by industrial processes, forest fires, slid waste disposal, spraying
of insecticides and pesticides, etc. methane and nitrous oxide also cause ozone destruction.

Effects of Ozone Depletion :

The thinning of ozone layer results in an increase in the UV radiation(in the range of 290-320nm)
reaching the earth‟s surface. It is estimated that a 5 per cent loss of ozone results in a 10 per cent
increase in UV-radiations. These UV-radiations :
Increased incidences of cataract and skin cancer.
Decrease the functioning of immune system : due to killing of melanin- producing cells of the skin.
Inhibit photosynthesis in most of phytoplanktons so adversely affecting the food chains of aquatic
ecosystems.
Damage nucleic of the living organisms.
Strip-cropping means the planting of crops in rows or strips to check flow of water.

26
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 16.1

Nodules in the roots of legume plants contain

(A) nitrogen fixing bacteria (B) sulphur fixing bacteria
(C) potassium fixing bacteria (D) none of the above
Which gas is manly responsible for the depletion of ozone layer ?
(A) oxygen (B) CFC (C) Nitrogen dioxide (D) All of the above
Acid rain mainly contains
(A) nitric acid (B) hydrochloric acid
(C) Sulphuric acid (D) (A) and (C)
Plants and animals are known as
(A) biotic resources (B) Abiotic resources (C) machines (D) none of these
5. Coal is an / a
(A) exhaustible resource (B) inexhaustible resource
(C) potential resource (D) none of these
6. Ozonosphere occurs at height of
(A) 8-10km above poles (B) 8-10km above equator
(C) 20-26 km above the earth surface (D) 11-16km above equator
Biosphere is made of
living beings and their remains
living beings, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
living beings and lithosphere
living beings, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Soil erosion can be prevented by
(A) deforestation (B) afforestation (C) overgrazing (D) removal of vegetation
Which one of the following is renewable resource ?
(A) water (B) Metals (C) Fossil fuel (D) All of these
Which gas is responsible for the global warming
(A) O2 (B) N2 (C) H2 (D) CO2

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 16.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Define pollution.
What is acid rain ?
Expand CFC and write about its effect on environment.
What is global warming ?
Define biogeochemical cycles ?

27
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Write the causes and effects of water pollution.
Write a short note on importance of water in biosphere.
How is soil formed ? what is the role of human in fertility of soil ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

Give diagrammatic representation of carbon and oxygen cycles.

EXERCISE

(Objective DPP # 15 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B A C A A D B D B B

(Objective DPP # 16 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A B D A A C B B A D

28
 IMPROVEMENT IN
FOOD RESOURCES

BL-17

INTRODUCTION

food is the combination of various organic and substances which is capable of

providing energy for the various metabolic activates.
materials for repair / replacement of worn-out tissues in the body.
materials for growth & reproduction.
regulatory substances, body secretions and metabolic activities etc.
Agriculture :

(Ager means field ; cultural means cultivation). it is applied biological science which deals with the
production of plants raising of animals useful to man, involving soil cultivation, breeding and
management of crops and livestock.
Horticulture ;
(Hortus-garden ; cultura-cultivation). it is the branch of agriculture and the science of
growing vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
Silviculture :
(Sylvan-wood and trees) Cultivation of wood and trees e.g. –pine, teakwood, sesamum etc..
sources of Food :
plants provide us foods like cereals, pulses, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, on this basis plants are
classified as follows :
Table: Classification of crop plants
Type of crop plant Examples Importance
1. cereals Wheat, Rice, Maize, Minor Rich in carbohydrates for energy
Millets, Sorghum Requirements.
2. pulses Gram(Chana), Pea (Matar) Rice in proteins that are body
Black Gram (Moong), Pigeon Builders.
Pea (Arhar), Lentil (Masoor)
Etc.
3. oil seed crops Soybean, Groundnut Rice in oils and fatty acid
Sunflower, Niger, Sesame,
Castor, Mustard, Linseed.
4. root crops Turnip, Carrot, Turmeric, Sweet It is utitized as the vegetables &
Potato & Ginger medicines
5. sugar crops Sugarcane And Beet Important for wine industry.

29
 Type of crop plant Examples Importance
6. fibre crops Jute & Cotton Important for jute & cotton
industry.
7. plantation crops Tea, Coffee, Coconut And Increases case and also called as
Rubber Case crops.
8. fodder crops Berseem, Maize, Sorghum And Provide fodder for animals
Elephant Grass.
9.horiculture crops Apple, Banana, Guava, Provide vitamins, minerals along
(Fruits and vegetables) Pomegranate, Pears, Chilies, with
Coriander, Jeera, Carrot, Small three quantities of
Raddish, Cabbage, Caulifiower, Carbohydrates, proteins and oils.
Spinach, Cucurbit.

Crop Seasons :
Different types of crops require different climatic conditions like :
(i) Temperature (ii) Photoperiod (duration of light)
Completion of life cycle
Depending Upon the Growing Season, there are two Groups of Crops :

Kharif crop Rainy season crop Rabi crop/ Winter season drop
(i) Are grown during monsoon/rainy season (i) Are grown during winter season
(ii) They require warm and wet weather (ii) They require cold and dry weather
(iii) They are sown in June/ July and (iii) They are sown in October/November
harvested in September /October and harvested in March/April
(iv) E.g. – Rice. Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Pea, (iv) E.g. – Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Potato etc.
Groundnut, Urad, Moong etc.

IMPROVEMENT IN CROP YIELD

Varietals improvement of crop through genetic manipulation.
(ii)Crop production management. (iii) crop protection management.
Improvement in Crop yield : in India, there has been a four times increase in the
production of food grains from 1960 to 2004. However, cultivable land area has increased by only 24
per cent. the yield of a crop can be increased by adopting number of improved agricultural practices,
from sowing to harvesting. the various practices that are followed at various stages of production are
as follows :
preparation of soil Sowing
Application of manures and fertilizers irrigation
weed control Crop protection
harvesting, threshing and winnowing Storage
crop improvement Rotation of crops, mixed and multiple cropping.
Varietal improvement of Crops Through Genetic Manipulation :
The principal aim Varietal improvement is to get many of the desirable & economic characters as
possible in one variety.
Aims of crop improvement are :
(A) Developing high yielding varieties (B) improved quality
(C) Early and uniform maturity (D) insensitivity to light and temperature
(E) Wider adaptability (F) Lodging- resistant varieties
Desirable agronomic characters

30
Plant breeding : the technique of producing improved varieties of crop plants by
the introduction of several desired characters into them is called as plant breeding. Scientists
concemed with the improvement of crop varieties are called as plant breeders.
Aims of plant breeding : new varieties of crop plants have :
(a) higher yield. (b) resistance to heat, frost, drought
( c) pest resistance (d) early maturing varieties

Methods for the genetic improvement of crop plants :

(a)introduction (b) selection (c) hybridization
introduction : it refers to the taking of superior varieties of crop plants from the
place of their natural cultivation to the place where they were never grown earlier.

Parent 1 × Parent 2
(with a desired character, like high- (with a desired character like
disease resistance )
yield)

Hybrid variety
(High-yielding nda disease-resistant)

Green revolution was a process by which India‟s production of wheat, rice, maize and several other
food grains was tremendously increased in the late 1960s and early 1970s. India, which was due to
the new agricultural technologies whereby high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice were grown in
India. Fertilizers and pesticides were used. Irrigation facilities were improved. Dr. M.S.Swaminathan
played a key role in bringing about the „green revolution‟.

Padam Vidhuahan Professor, DR.M.S> Swaminathan, FRS(Fellow of Royal Society), is the Father of
green revolution in India. he stressed the need for the reorientation of the breeding programme and
his work led to the era of dwarf varieties in India. In 1967, he developed a high-yield dwarf variety of
wheat, Sharbati Sonara. Being a plant geneticist, he has contributed to the development of agriculture
in indica. He has held various important positions in India and abroad.

Selection : it is the process in which economic plants having best desired characters are picked up from
the given population and seeds of such plants are used for future cultivation.e.g. Maize & Cabbage are
represented by their cultivated varieties only.
Natural – Survival of the fittest
Selection can be
Artificial – Based on the human
needs and interests

Hybridization : it means the process of crossbreeding of two genetically dissimilar varieties of crop plants
(each having a specific and better characteristics) to obtain a new crop plant having both the desired
characteristics is called as hybridization. crop plants produced in this way are called as hybrid varieties
or high yielding varieties.

Inter varietal Between two different varieties

Hybridization may be Inter pecifics Between two pecies of meas genus

Inter generic – Between plants belonging to different genera.

Crop Production Management :

in order to improve and manage our crop production system, we have to focus on cheaper and farmer
friendly approaches. as there is direct co-relationship between the higher yields and input applications.

31
Successful crop Productions upon :
Understanding how drops develop and grow.
How various factors affect the growth and development of crops and
How each factor can be modified and managed.
Approaches for crop production :
(i) Nutrient management (ii) irrigation (iii) Mixed cropping
(iv) Inter cropping (v) crop rotation
Nutrient management : Plant nutrients are the mineral elements needed by the plants for their growth,
development and maintenance. plants absorb a large number of elements from soil, besides water and
air, only 16 elements are essential nutrients for plants, out of 40 elements in plant ash. they are :
(i) Carbon (ii) iron (iii) hydrogen
(iv) Manganese (v) Oxygen (vi) Phosphorus
(vii)Nitrogen (viii) Zinc (ix) Phosphors
(x) Copper (xi) Potassium (xii) molybdenum
(xiii)Magnesium (xiv) Chlorine (xv) Sulphur
(xvi)Calcium
Sources of plant nutrient : the plants obtain their nutrients mainly from the soil. out of the total 16
nutrients, as many as 13 are absorbed from the soil.

SOURCES OF PLANT NUTRIENTS

Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur,
Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine

Air Carbon, Oxygen

water Hydrogen

Characteristics of an essential plant nutrient :

In the absence of such element, the plant is not complete its life cycle.
Such element much have a direct influence on the plant nutrition and metabolism.
The requirement of such element can be corrected or prevented only by supplying that Nutrient.
Classification of plant nutrients : On the basis of quantities required 13 mineral nutrients are obtained
from soil needed for plant growth have been grouped into two categories.
(i) Macronutrients (ii) Micronutrients

Micronutrients Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,

Magnesium, Sulphur,
Micronutrients Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine.

out of the sixteen essential nutrients, some are required by plants in relatively large amounts than the
others. the nutrients required in relatively large quantities are called macronutrients or major elements,
while the ones required in very small quantities or traces are called micronutrients or minor elements.
deficiency of the nutrients affects physiological process in plants as well as their reproduction, growth
and susceptibility to diseases. to overcome the deficiency of nutrients, the soil can be enriched by
adding manures and fertilisers.
Besides these, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are called framework elements.

32
 EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 17.1

Which one of the following includes only macronutrients?

(A) C,N, Ca (B) H, Fe, P (C) O, K, Cl (D) K, S, Zn
Transfer of seedling from the nurseries to the main field is termed as
(A) weeding (B) sowing (C) transplantation (D) ploughing
The unwanted wild plants growing alonwith the crop plants are called
(A) weeds (B) seedling (C) minor crops (D) grasses
Damp grains in storage gets heated due to
(A) infestation by insects (B) decrease in humidity
(C) decrease in atmospheric pressure (D) high moisture content and growth of moulds
Green maturing refers to
add green leaves to the soil
grow young and green crops of leguminous plants along with non leguminous
add decomposed organic matter to soil
none of these
Vermicomposting involves
(A) earthworm (B) cockroach (C) leech (D) roundworm
Improved storage structures include
(A) grain silos (B) pusa bin (C) pusa kothar (D) all of these
8. Weedicides among the following are
(A) 2, 4-D, nitrofen, atrazine (B) atrazine, BHC, pyrethrum
(C) Pyrethrum, EDB, methyl bromide (D) 2, 4-D , BHC, EDB
Which one of the following does not cause plant diseases?
(A) viruses (B) Bacteria (C) Protozoa (D) Fungi
10. EDB is a very effective
(A) rodent bait (B) spraying insecticide
(C) fumigant for killing insects (D) preservative of food grains

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 17.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
What do we get from cereals, fruits and vegetables ?
Define eutrophication.
What is meant by agriculture ?
What is meant by crops ?
Name the two growing seasons for crops in our country also give examples.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
What is the use of mixed farming ?
Why legumes are desirable in crop rotation ?
Name the two fertilizers supplying N, P, K to crops.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
Explain what will happen if in a cultivated field only manures are supplied and in another field only
fertilizers are supplied, and keeping all other conditions similar ?

33
 IMPORVEMENT INF
FOOD RESOURCES

BL -18

MANURES & FERTLIZERS

Manure :
A manure is a mixture of various decomposed organic substances like dead leaves, city garbage,
agricultural wastes, animal dung, crop residue etc. thought the action of microbes. Manure increases
the fertility and productivity of crops. As they contain plenty of organic compounds and almost all the
essential elements required by the plants.
Characters :
Manures are organic substances obtained through the decomposition of plant wastes (like straw) and
animal wastes (like cow dung). The decomposition is brought about by the action of microbes.
Manures contain large quantities of organic matter.
Manures contain nutrients in small quantities and therefore are needed to be supplied to crops in large
quantities.
Manures are not nutrient – specific. For this reason, manures are not of much help when a
specific nutrient is required for a particular crop.
Manures are bulky. So it is not convenient to store and transport
manures. Manures are recycled and do not cause pollution.
They enrich the soil with nutrients.
Being rich in organic matter, manures improve soil texture and soil aeration. Water holding capacity in
case of sandy soils and drainage in clay soil is increased.
Types of Manure : Manures are of three types.

Farm Yard Compost Green

Manure Manure Manure
Partially decomposed It is prepared by a biological It is prepared by growing
mixture of cattle decomposition of farm and town ploughing and mixing of young
excreta (dung & urine) refuse (vegetable and animal & green crops of leguminous
along with litter refuse, sewage waste) weeds, & non-leguminous plant such
(bedding material) garbage, crop stubble Straw etc. as Berseem, Egyptian Clover
and left over organic It takes about 3-6 months. (Trifolium alexandrium)
matter such as During this period micro - Sunnhemp (Crotolaria juuncea)
roughage or fodder, organisms (aerobic as well as) crops grown for 6-8 weeds
dead leaves and twigs. anaerobic) decompose organic ploughed into field in tender
All these materials matter to yield compost Stage, These remain buried for
are daily collected from (2) Type 1-2 months. During this time
cattle sheds and these are completely
stored in pit for decomposed . Green
decomposition Farm Town refuse
by microbes 0.5%N 1.4%N manuring reduces alkalinity .
(bacteria & fungi) to 0.5% K20 1.4% K20 Prevents leaching
form humus And soil erosion .
Farmyard manure contains 1%P205

5%Nitrogen 2% P205 5%K20

34
 Fertilizers :
These are commercially manufactured inorganic salts or an organic compound containing one or more
essential plant nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium which are used for increasing soil
fertility. Fertilizers usually contain higher amount of nutrients then manures hence required in small
quantities.
Characters
Fertilizers are inorganic or organic compounds containing the necessary plant nutrients.
They contain much higher amount of nutrients in comparison to manures, and are therefore, required in
very small quantities.
They are manufactured commercially from chemicals, and are marketed in
concentrated form. They are easy to use, store and transport.
Being soluble in water, they are easily absorbed by the plants.
Fertilizers are generally nutrient – specific i. e. these supply only one or more specific
nutrients. Types of Fertilizers

Nitrogenous Phosphatic Potassium Mixed

Contains nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium More then one
as principal as principal as principal nutrient
nutrient nutrient nutrient (NPK)
eg NaNO3 (NH4)3PO4 K2SO4 Potassium
(NH4)2 SO4 (NH4)H2PO4 KCI ammonium
NH2-CO-NH2 Ca(H2PO4 )2 KNO3 phosphate,
NH4NO3 urea,
Ca(NO3)2NH 4NO3 ammonium
phosphate

Hazards of using fertilizers : Thought use of fertilizers has brought about significant increase in
crop yields, however, the continued use affects soil quality and brings about pollution of water
bodies.
Effect on soil quality : Continuous use of fertilizers leads to a loss of organic matter, a deterioration
of soil structure and a decrease in porosity. As a result, the plant roots are deprived of oxygen and
can not absorb the salt effectively. Further, the soil is more likely to become dry and powdery and
can be blown away by the wind, when not protected by a plant cover.
Water pollution and eutrophication : Excessive use of fertilizers, in particular nitrogenous ones, causes
build up of nitrates in the soil. From the soil, the nitrates as well as phosphates are washed by rain and
carried to lakes, ponds and rivers. Here, they stimulate excessive growth of microscopic plants like
algae resulting in the formation of blooms. The algae grow quickly then die and decomposed. During
decomposition, the algae deplete the oxygen content of the water body, which ultimately results in the
de4ath of fish and other aquatic animals. This excessive growth of algae and the subsequent depletion
of oxygen content of water is called eutrophication. Fertilizers, therefore, must be used carefully and
judiciously in limited quantity.
Application of fertilizers : fertilizers are applied before sowing, during irrigation or sprayed on standing
crops. But fertilizers are never applied directly to soil if the crop is standing. It would bring about wilting of
crop due to exosmosis because of increase in the osmotic pressure around the roots of the plants.

Only urea is an organic compound.

VERMICOMPOSTING
Composting with the help of earthworms is called vermcomposting. Earthworms help in breakdown
of wastes. This activity along with the excreta of the worms makes the compost rich in nutrients.

35
 Table: Differences between manures and fertilizers

S.No. Manures Fertilizers

1. Manures are organic natural substances derived from Fertilizers are inorganic or organic substances.
the decomposition of biological materials (plants and
animal residues)
2. Manures contain organic matter in large quantities. Organic matter is not present.

3. Manures contain nutrients in small quantities, and are Fertilizers contain much higher amount of
needed in large quantities. nutrients, and are required in very small
quantities.
4. They are not nutrient – specific. These are nutrient - specific.

5. They are prepared in field and villages. These are manufactured in factories.

6. Manures are bulky substances. So, these are These are available in concentrated form. So these
inconvenient to store, use and transport. are easy to store, use and transport.
7. Manures do not cause pollution. They cause water pollution.

BIOFERTILISERS
Biofertilisers are micro-organisms(like bacteria, algae and fungi used and fungi used singly or
in combination) or biologically active products which are used to enrich soil fertility. Some of the
Biofertilisers are given below :
Legume – Rhizobium symbiosis
Azolla – Anabaena symbiosis
Free – living bacteria (Azotobacter) living in soil symbiotically.
Cyanobacteria (Anabaena, Nostoc)
Mycorrhiza (symbiotic association of fungi with roots of higher plants.)

ORGANICFARMING
Cultivation of land without conserving soil fertility and soil structure would lead ultimately to the
development of deserts. Excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides as
is done in present day agriculture could lead to
changes in biological balance ; population of soil organisms will be
affected. increase in the occurrence of cancer and other diseases.
contamination of water (water pollution) and enrichment of water bodies with nutrients leading to
excessive growth of phytoplankton). These are some of the problem due to the adoption of improved
agricultural practice in order to increase food production for the ever increasing human population.
Scientists are greatly concerned about these problems and attempts have been made to develop
alternatives to chemical agriculture. The altematives consist of adopting “ green or ecofriendly
technologies” or “ecologies farming” or organic farming is a farming system in which chemical
fertilizers, herbicides or pesticides are minimally used or not used at all. Instead of , manures
recycled farm wastes and biofertilisers are used in place of chemical fertilizers. Neem leaves or
turmeric are used as biopesticide specifically in case of stored food grains.
Advantages of Organic Farming :
Natural ecosystem is not disturbed, as organic farming is in harmony with the natural ecosystem.
Soil fertility is preserved.
Harmful effects of chemicals on the living organisms are avoided.
Pollution of air, water and soil does not take place.
The basic objective of cropping is to achieve insurance against total crop failure under poor rainfall
conditions and there by minimizing risk and monetary loses.

36
IRRIGATION
Process of supplying water to crop plants growing in the fields by means of canals, reservoir, wells, tube
wells etc is know as irrigation. Water requirements of crop plants depends on two factors:-
Crop-based irrigation : Water requirements of different crop plants varies at different stage oftheir growth
& maturation e.g. paddy crop is transplanted in standing water and also requires continuous water
supply whereas this is not so for wheat, gram, cotton, maize crops etc.
Soil-based irrigation- irrigation also depends on the nature of soil in which crop is grown e.g. if two wheat
crops are grow together one in sandy and another in clay soil, then in sandy more frequent irrigation is
needed then clay soil.

Irrigation systems :
Most commonly used irrigation systems in our country are as follows :
Canal systems : Canals usually receive water from rivers and usually an elaborate, extensive network of
irrigation systems.
Canal Branch canal field channels then irrigate or a group of fields. Rotation systems
called water bandhi or intermittent water delivery method is followed in canal
irrigated areas.
Tanks : Tanks are usually small water storage reservoir, constructed at higher elevations in hilly areas.
They intercept and store the run off water of small catchments areas.
Wells are dug and constructed wherever ground water is exploitable. Wells are of two types:
Dug wells : in which water is collected from water bearing strata i.e. bottom below the ground water
table. In these wells water from lower strata slowly accumulates. Water from these wells is usually lifted
for irrigation purpose by mechanical means such as bullock operated devices.
Tube wells : They are dug in the deeper strata much below the ground water table. Deep bore tube-well
can supply water continuously. Water from tube-well is pumped up directly from fields thought narrow
lanes by using diesel or electrical pumps.
River valley systems: In southern part of India particularly in Western Ghats, Kerala & Karnataka, the
rainfall is heave but concentrated in 4-5 months of the year. Consequently many steep and narrow river
valleys are found in these areas. This results in higher run off and discharge flows in the rivers. To
prevent his, several perennial plants ( coffee, rubber, coconut, areca nut & tapioca) are cultivated on
the slopes of these valleys. Bottom lands of valley are used for growing single rice crop.
River lift systems : it is used in the area where either canal flow is insufficient or irregular due to
insufficient reservoir water release. In this system, water is directly drawn from the rivers (using pumps)
in order to supplement irrigation in the areas adjoining rivers.
Sprinkler irrigation systems : it is water efficient systems and is being introduced in the canal irrigation
areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. A device having perforated ring or small stand with
a revolving nozzle to which a base is attached for watering crop plants. This systems spreads water
uniformly over crop plants and fields, required quantity of water is supplied.
Drip- irrigation systems : modem systems being encouraged in Maharashtra, Karnataka, André Pradesh,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu for fruit crops. Fertigation is an innovative method for applying fertilizers
thought drip irrigation to maximize farm productivity with available water.

CROPPING PATTERNS
Mixed cropping :
It is the practice of growing two or more types of crops simultaneously on the same piece of land.
Different crops to be grown are selected in such a way that products & wastes from one crop can
stimulate the growth of other crop.

37
 Crop combinations used in mixed cropping :
Growing wheat crop + gram Growing cotton crop + groundnut
Growing groundnut +sunflower Growing ragi + gram
Growing turmeric + groundnut
Selection of crops for mixed cropping : Following criteria are taken into account :
Duration of crops Growth habit
Root pattern water needs
Nutrient demands
Intercropping : improved version of traditional mixed cropping in which two or more crops are grown
simultaneously in the same field but in a definite row pattern is called intercropping.
Criteria to accomplish intercropping :
spatial arrangement plant density
maturity dates of crops plant architecture
Types of intercropping :
Row Intercropping : in this intercropping all crop combination of mixed cropping are used in definite
row pattern 1:1, 1 : 2 or 1: 3.
Strip Intercropping : growing two or more crops simultaneously in strips, wide enough to
permit separate crop production using machines.
Advantages

Productivity is increased.
It economises spaces and time of cultivating two or more crops.
It helps to maintain soil fertility.

TABLE COMPARISON BETWEEN MIXED CROPPING AND INTER CROPPING

Mixed cropping Inter cropping
1. Aim is to minimize risk of crop failure. Aim is to increase productivity per unit area
2. Seed of component crops are mixed Seed of component crops are not mixed.
Before sowing.
3. Sowing is not done in rows. Sowing is done in rows.

Crop Rotation :
Practice of growing different crops on a piece of land in a preplanned succession. Depending upon the
duration
Crop rotation may be of three types :
1 years rotation : Rice-Wheat, Maize-Mustard
2 years rotation : Maize-potato-Sugarcane-Peas
3 years rotation : Maize- Mustard- Sugarcane-Methi-Rice-Wheat-Hing- Mustard.
Sugarcane-Berseem-Cotton-Oat- Sugarcane-Peas-Maize-Wheat.
Crop rotation confers following benefits :
All crops do not require the plant nutrients in the same proportion. By growing crops in rotation,
the fertility of the soil is utilized more evenly. The soil is not depleted in a particular nutrients.

38
 When different crops are grown, the operation concerned with the preparation of soil, manuring, sowing,
harvesting and other operation are spread throughout the year, thereby reducing the work pressure at
any particular time.
When different crops are grown on the field one after another, the yields of product obtained are
greater then the same crops are grown year after year.
The incidence of weeds, pests and diseases is reduced.

CROPPROTECTION MANAGEMENT
It includes eradication of pests, pathogens, weeds and other organisms that cause harm to the
crop plants.
Pests : These are the organisms like insects, rats, mites, weeds, fungi etc. which damage or
destroy cultivated plants or plant products and can even make them unfit for human consumption.
Pathogens : These are disease causing organisms and include bacteria, fungi, virus etc.
Weeds : These are unwanted plants that grow and live at the expense of main crop.
Effective methods to control pests :

Pesticides or biocides : Chemicals (poisons) used to kill pests of plants such as insects, fungi, weeds,
mites, rats etc. are know as pesticides. They are of following types :
(A) Fungicide : To kill fungi
(B) Weedicide : To kill weeds
(C) Rodenticide : To kill rodents like rats, moles
(D) Nematicide : To kill nematodes

Preventive measures should be adopted instead of using pesticides as :

Use of pest & disease resistant hybrid varieties of crop plants.
Selection of optimum time of cropping
Crop rotation and multiple cropping
Clean cultivation
Summer ploughing
Sowing of health seeds

Insect – pest Control :

Chewing insects : Locust, grasshopper, caterpillar larva destroy all sorts of crop plants.
Control : By mixing chlorophyriphos in the soil.
Sucking insects – Aphids (Aphis), leaf hoppers (Pyrilla) such cell sap from various plant parts.
Control : By Malathion, lindane & Thiodan
Borer insects : sugarcane borer, gain weevil, cotton boll worm. Internal feeders, live inside the parts of
crop plants
Control : By metasystox.

Weed Control :
It can be done by following ways :
Mechanical methods – By weeding, removing weeds from crop fields by harrow, interculture
ploughing, burning & flooding

39
 Chemical methods – Using chemicals called herbicides or weedicides e.g.2, 4-D, Nitrofen, Atrazine
Biological methods – Employ living organisms to destroy weeds e.g. :
Cassia plant prevents the growth of parthenium weed
Herbivorous fish feed on aquatic weeds.

Advantages of biological method

It does not cause pollution.
Organisms are harmless to the main crop.
Cultural methods : inclution.
(A) Proper seed & bed preparation (B) Timely seed sowing

(C) Inter cropping Mixed cropping (D) Crop rotation

STORAGE OF GRAINS

9.3% food grain in our country are lost due to inadequate &
improper storage. Factors responsible for such a great loss during storage are as follows :
Biotic (living): Insects, rodents, birds, mites etc.
Insect – pasts

Common insect- pests include weevils, beetles, locusts, mites, aphids, grasshoppers, bugs
and termites. Insect – pasts damage/ harm the plants in following ways :
They cut root, stem and leaves.

They suck the cell sap from various plant

parts. They bore into stems and fruits.
They from falls.
They eat stored grains.

Abiotic (non-living) :
(A) Temperature (B) Moisture
(C) Humidity (D) Material of container in which grains are stored
The above mentioned factors bring about :

Infestation of food grains by insects and

microorganisms. Degradation in quality.
Loss in weight.

Poor germination potential of grains.

Discoloration of product.
Unpalatable or even toxic food materials.

Finally poor marketability and lower profits. Thus, it is essential that loss of food grains during storage
is avoided. The attack on food grains by insects and micro-organisms is called infestation. A general
rise in the temperature of the grain and presence of patches of white powdery material on the bags or
on the floor also indicates infestation of grain by insects. Presence of rodents can be detected by the
excreta or tell – tale holes in the bags.

40
 Preventive Measures :
Drying before storage
Maintenance of hygiene
Plant – product treatment
Prophylactic treatment
Improved storage structures

Control Measures
Pests are controlled by the use of chemicals called pesticides.
Fumigation is the most convenient and method of pest control in stored grains inside godowns.
Fumigation are volatile (gaseous) chemicals that quickly vaporize and the resultant fumes kill the
insects without affecting the grains. Utmost care has to be observed in handling of pesticides as these
are equally harmful to humans and domestic animals.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 18.1

The science of vegetable culture is called as

(A) Agriculture (B) Horticulture (C) Olericulture (D) Floriculture
All animals are
(A) Parasitic (B) saprophytic (C) autotrophic (D) heteotrophic
The principal cereal crop of India is
(A) wheat (B) rice (C) maize (D) sorghum
which is the most important source of food and fodder ?
(A) Algae (B) Fungi (C) Lichen (D) Cereal
The element which is required in largest quantity by plants is
(A) sulphur (B) calcium (C) phosphorus (D) nitrogen
Nodules with nitrogen – fixing bacteria are present in
(A) mustard (B) wheat (C) gram (D) cotton
Application of nitrogenous manure to a plant causes
(A) vigorous vegetative
growth early flowering
early
growth retardation due to toxicity to NH3
Rotation of crops is essential for
(A) getting different kinds of crops (B) increasing quality of minerals
(C) increasing quality of proteins (D) increasing fertility of soil
The unwanted plants are known as
(A) grasses (B) shrubs (C) weeds (D) fodder crops
Plants can be made disease resistant by
(A) breeding (B) hormones (C) colchicine (D) heat

41
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 18.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

What are nutrients and how many nutrients are essential for plant growth ?
What are macro and micro - nutrients ? Name three of each kind .
What is green manuring ? Give examples of green manures.
What are fertilizers ? Mention three important features of fertilizers.
What are the hazards of using fertilisers ?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Define intercropping. Mention the advantages of intercropping.
How does intercropping differ from mixed cropping ?
Define organic farming. Why is organic farming important to us ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

Explain the different types of nutrients for plants and differentiate between them with examples.

42
 IMPROVEMENT IN
FOOD RESOURCES

BL-19

ANIMALHUSBANDRY
Science which deals with the scientific management of farm animals including their feeding, breeding,
weeding and heeding (disease control) is called as Animal husbandry. Animal food mainly comes from:
Milk : from cattle such as cow, buffaloes, goat, camel.
Egg : from birds (poultry).
Meat : animals like pigs, fishes, poultry etc.
Honey : from honey bees.
There are four main practices involved in keeping of animals or animal husbandry.
Breeding : it is done to obtain animals with desired characters. Through breeding, we can develop high
milk – yielding and high meat- yielding cattle.
Feeding : it deals with the study of proper food (called feed), mode and time or feeding of
different animals
Weeding : This concerns with the elimination of uneconomical animals.
Heeding : It means the proper care and management of animals.
Most notable effort for dairy development & milk production in India isbeing carried out by NDDB
(National Dairy Development Board) and is called “operation flood“ to increase milk production. It
has resulted in white revolution in India.

TABLE NUTRITIONAL VALUES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Animal products Nutrients (%)
Protein Fat Carbohydrat Minerals Water

1. Cow 4.0 3.6 3.5 0.7 87.2

2. Egg 13.0 12.0 Traces 1.0 74.0
3.Meat 21.1 3.6 Traces 1.1 74.2
4. Fish 19.O 2.5 Traces 1.3 77.2
White Revolution :
Just like the green revolution in case of crop plants, the increase in milk production has been possible
just like the green revolution in case of crop plants, the increase in milk production has been possible
due to the launching of countrywide programmecalled „operation flood‟ which resulted which resulted
in the white revolution in India. This operation involved use of New improved high milk-yielding
crossbreeds of milch animals and following the practices of animal husbandry providing them proper
feed and health care. Dr.V. Kurien is credited with the designing and implementation of the largest
dairy development programme – the operation flood, and sharing in of the white revolution n India. He
is know as the father of white revolution and is the founder chairman of the National Dairy,
Development Board (NDDB). Silver revolution refers to the tremendous increase in egg production,
while blue revolution to the fish production.

43
(b) Breeds of Cows :
High milk – yielding indigenous ( desi ) breeds.
(A) Gir (B) Sahiwal (C) Red Sindhi

(A) Haryana (B) Tharoarkar (C) Deoni

The exotic ( foreign ) breeds of cows that have been used for crossbreeding are :
(A) jersey from USA(B) Brown Swiss from Switzerland
(C) Holstein – Friesian from Holland
Many high milk-yielding breeds of cows have been developed in India through crossbreeding of desi
breeds with exotic breeds in recent years. These include Karan Swiss Friesian –Sahiwal or Frieswal
Karan -Fries
High milk – yielding indigenous breeds of buffaloes :
(A) Murrah from Punjab and Haryana (B) Mehsana from Gujrat
(C) Surti from Gujrat (D) Nili from Punjab
(E) Jaffarabadi from Gujrat

Cattle like cows and buffaloes are normally housed in sheds, which possess following
features The shed is properly roofed to protect the animals from rain, hat and cold.

The floor of the shed is made sloping to facilitate cleaning, and kep their sitting space
dry. The shed is airy, well – ventilated with adequate sunlight.

The shed is spacious enough to provide sufficient space to each animal. a cow cow requires about six
square meter space while a buffalo needs a little more space.

The sheds have proper arrangement for disposal of excreta.

various types of animal farming are :
Cattle farming – (Milk producing or milch animals)
Poultry farming – (Egg yielding animals)
Fish farming – (Meat providing fishes)
Bee keeping- (Honey providing bees)
cattle farming : Farming of cattle for milk and labour is called cattle farming. it is done for two purposes :
Milk : Milk providing animals are – cows, buffaloes, goats, camels.
Draught : For labour. e.g. ox, camel etc.
cows & buffaloes are main providing animals in India. they are also used for bullock labour cow‟s milk
is highly nutritious, contains large amount of proteins and vitamin A which is best for infants. buffalo‟s
milk is rich in fats, proteins, vitamin E, calcium, phosphorous, contains low Na , K and cholesterol.
Types of breeds of cattle :
Draught breeds Dairy or milk breeds Dual purpose

Strong & sturdy Specialized in milk Both for milk

chiefly for labour production production & labour

44
Cattle food is of two types :
Roughage : rich in fibre content. It includes green fodder, silage, her.
Concentrate : rich in all types of nutrients, lack fibre. It includes maize, oat, barley, jowar etc.
Diseases of cattle
Symptoms of diseased animals : a healthy animal is recognized by its regular feeding, normal
posture, a definite body temperature and normal pulse and respiration rates. A sick animal shows
following symptoms.
The animal stops eating and becomes lethargic, looks tired and
remains isolated. The animal shivers with high body temperature.

the animal shows excessive formation of saliva which sometimes hangs from the
mouth. Blisters appear on skin surface, eyes turn red, and the animal may have a
running nose. The animal passes loose dung and Coloured urine.
The lips and ears of the animal droop.
Milk – yield, egg-laying capacity or working capacity of the animal is reduced.
Diseases : diseases caused are broadly of three types :
Parasitic Infections Non-infectious

Table Diseases of Dairy Animals and their Causal Organism

S.No. Causal Organism Disease
1. Virus Foot and mouth disease, pox, Dermatitis
2. Bacteria Rinderpest, Anthrax,
3. fungi Ringworm

Prevention and control :

Providing proper shelter.
Ensuring animal hygiene (frequent bathing and grooming) and proper disposal of dead animals and
animal wastes.

Periodic screening of animals for diseases and immediate isolation of diseased

animals. Providing proper diet and suitable medicines under the advice of a veterinary
doctor. Hygienic handling of all animal products and by products.
Compulsory vaccinations.
poultry farming : Practice of raising chickens, ducks, geese & turkey for egg & meat. it provides best
source of animal protein and fast. egg laying poultry is called egger or layer and poultry raised for meat
is called broiler.
Indigenous (desi) breeds of hen
Aseel (Indian game) Ghagus (kadaknath)
Basra (Burrsa) Chittagong (Chattisgarh)
Brahma Cochin
Exotic breeds used in India
White Leghorn Rhode island Red
Light Sussex
Silver Revolution : increase in egg producing at large scale.

45
 improvement of poultry breeds : It involves :
Developing of new varieties. They have following advantages.
Number & quality of chicks are increased.
Summer adaptation capacity.
Low maintenance requirements.
Dwarf broilers present for commercial chick productions.
Poultry diseases: These birds suffer from many diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses and
parasites along with nutritional deficiencies. These can be prevented by proper cleaning sanitation and
spraying of disinfectants.
Poultry farming offers advantages like :
Investment involved is small, Area required is small,
Maintenance is easy, and Returns are quick.

The egg – laying poultry birds is called hen (egg layer),while the one groomed for obtaining meat
is called chicken or broiler.
Fish farming =Pisciculture : Cheap source of animal protein for human food. Various ways to obtain
fishes:-
Capture farming – From natural resource :

Culture farming – Fish farming in land water fishes, ponds lakes, marine fishes. Our freshwater
edible fish include cat fishes such as wall ago, mystus etc. Indian major carps such as catla, rohu,
mrigal (Cirrhina) and exotic varieties such as silver carp and grass carp. Catla is the fastest growing
carp of great economic significance.
Bee farming = (Apiculture) : Rearing of bees for honey is called as apiculture. Different varieties of
bees are used for commercial production of honey. They are :
A. indica is called Indian bee
A. mellifera ( Italian bee) is domesticated in India to increase the yield of honey.

EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 19.1

Murrah, Surti and Mehsana are the indigenous breeds of

(A) cows (B) buffaloes (C) poultry (D) pigs
2. Inland fisheries is referred to
(A) culturing fish in fresh water (B) deep sea fisheries
(C) extraction of oil from fishes (D) capturing fishes from seas
chemical used to kill rats and moles is called as
(A) fungicide (B) nematicide (C) rodenticide (D) insecticide
Cropping pattern involving a definite pattern of rows is called as
(A) crop rotation (B) mixed cropping (C) inter cropping (D) monoculture
cattle food rich in one or more nutrients but lacks fibres is called as
(A) roughage (B) concentrate (C) sap (D) none of these
IR36 and Pusa Basmati are high yielding varieties of
(A) rice (B) wheat (C) maize (D) mustard

46
Honey bee culture is called as
 (A) pisciculture (B) apiculture (C) sericulture (D) horticulture
Hybridization can be
(A) intervarietal (B) interspecific (C) intergeneric (D) all of these
The process of applying fertilizers through drip irrigation is called as
(A) strip farming (B) fertigation (C) fumigation (D) none of these
The specific term for poultry used for meat purpose is
(A) layers (B) broilers (C) growers (D)none of these

SUBJECTIVE DPP – 19.2

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Define livestock.
differentiate milch breeds and drought breeds of cattle.
what are the two main components of cattle feed?
Who is called as the Father of white revolution ?
What is artificial breeding ?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Describe about artificial insemination.
Name two diseases of each of the following :

Define animal husbandry. What is the need of it ?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

What are biofertilizers? Why are they advantageous to be used?

ANSWER KEY

(Objective DPP # 17 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A C A D B A D A C C

(Objective DPP # 18 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C D B D D C A D C A

(Objective DPP # 19 .1 )

Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B A C C B A B D B B

47