Notes Lesson 6 To 9 Botany Lec
Notes Lesson 6 To 9 Botany Lec
Notes Lesson 6 To 9 Botany Lec
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Root cap
o Function Support the aerial part of the plant
o Columella cells
o Peripheral cells Advantage of elevated stem and leaves?
o What is Musigel o Elevated stem helps the plants leaves to
▪ Function perform photosynthesis
Zone of cell division Advantage of elevated fruits and flowers?
o Function o For flowers, dispersal of pollen
o Quiescent center o Exposed more in cross pollination
Zone of cell elongation o For fruits, dispersal of the seeds
o Function
Vascular plants evolved?
o How do they elongate
o Rise above, adapt
o What becomes evident here
Zone of cell differentiation Reproductive structures (flowers and fruits) are
o Function located on stems in areas accessible for insects,
o Root hairs birds, and air currents, which transfer pollen
from flower to flower and help disperse seeds
PRIMARY GROWTH IN ROOTS and fruits
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
The upright position of most stems and the They conduct water and dissolved minerals
arrangement of leaves on them enable each (inorganic nutrients) from the roots, where
leaf to absorb maximum light for use in they were absorbed from the soil, to the leaves
photosynthesis. and other plant parts.
Stems also conduct the carbohydrates
Stems transport water and solutes between produced in the leaves by photosynthesis to
roots and leaves the roots and other parts of the plant.
The vascular system of stems maintains an
aquatic environment in leaves and transports
sugars and other solutes between leaves and
roots. Stems link leaves with the water and
dissolved nutrients of the soil.
OTHER FUNCTIONS
Together, nodes and internodes perform several
functions: CONTROL OF STEM GROWTH
Stems support leaves
The solar collector of plants. Turgor pressure in Leaf primordia control the differentiation of
stems provides a hydrostatic skeleton that procambium in stems. As a result, there is no
support the young plant. Leaves are also procambium above the youngest primordium, and
supported by a stem’s internal skeleton of vascular tissues in developing leaves align and
collenchyma and sclerenchyma. connect with mature vascular tissues of the stem.
Light also controls stem growth: the stems of
Produce carbohydrates seedlings growing in darkness elongate much faster
Cactus than those growing in light.
Asparagus Stems elongate in subapical regions in response
o Have you seen white to auxin and gibberellins, which are made in young
asparagus? Why are they leaves. These hormones elongate stems by
white? stimulating cellular elongation and division. In many
o Not exposed to sunlight thus the plants, elongation occurs throughout the internode;
chlorophyll will not developed in others, it proceeds as awave originating at the
Stems of plants such as base of the internode.
Salicornia are green and Grasses such as bamboo elongate at meristems
photosynthetic. Although intercalated between mature tissues at the base and
photosynthesis in stems is leaf sheets. These meristems are called intercalary
usually insignificant compared meristems and remain merismatic long after
to that in leaves, in plants such tissues in the rest of the internode are fully
as cacti it accounts for most of differentiated.
the plant’s carbon fixation.
Halophyte – salt-tolerant
plant that grows in soil or MODIFIED STEMS
waters of high salinity.
Asexual reproduction Above Ground
Stem cuttings
Runners or stolon
Marcotting
Grafting
Stems produce new living tissue, as roots do.
They continue to grow throughout a plant’s life,
forming buds that develop into stems with new
leaves and/or reproductive structures.
Storage materials Cladodes and
Cactus cladophylls
Potato
Parenchyma cells in stems store large amounts
of starch and water. For example, water
accounts for as much as 98% of the weight of
many cactus stems.
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Stems exhibit great variation in structure and
growth, they all have buds.
Thorns
Distichous
Rhizome
Opposite
Corm
Tuber
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
the tips of stems and roots due to the activity of cells have completely differentiated and are fully
apical meristem mature. Root hairs are evident in this area.
A shoot apex—a terminal bud, for example—
Shoot apical meristem is quite different in appearance from a root tip
protoderm, ground meristem and procambium (•Figure 5-12). Within every bud is a dome of
tiny, regularly arranged meristematic cells, the
shoot apical meristem. Leaf primordia
(developing leaves) and bud primordia
(developing buds) emerge from the shoot apical
meristem. The leaf primordia cover and protect
the shoot apical meristem. As the cells formed
by the shoot apical meristem elongate, the
shoot apical meristem is pushed upward.
Subsequent cell divisions produce additional
stem tissue and new leaf and bud primordia.
Farther back from the tip of the stem, the
immature cells enlarge and differentiate into the
three tissue systems of the mature plant body
(•Figure 5-13).
Bud, a dormant embryonic shoot that
eventually develops into an apical meristem
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION
Monocot
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Vascular Cambium
dictyostele eustele actacostele Vascular cambium gives rise to secondary xylem
and secondary phloem
SECONDARY GROWTH TAKES PLACE AT LATER Vascular cambium is a thin layer of cells
MERISTEMS sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem
in the vascular bundles.
Softwood Hardwood
o Softwood is the wood o Botanically speaking,
of conifers (cone- hardwood is the wood
bearing of flowering plants—
gymnosperms). that is, woody
eudicots
o
o Ray initials
as horizontally oriented ray initials, which
are slightly elongated or squarish
o Fusiform initials
which are several to many times longer
than they are wide
The fusiform initials appear flattened or
brick-shaped in transverse section.
The xylem and phloem cells produced by
the fusiform initials have their long axes
oriented vertically and make up what is
known as the axial system of the
secondary vascular tissues.
Additional info about vascular cambium
Growth rings
The periodic activity of the vascular cambium, which
is seasonally related in temperate zones, produces
growth increments, or growth rings, in both
secondary xylem and secondary phloem (in the
phloem the increments are not always readily Cork cambium
discernible). The cork cambium is a thin cylinder or
Springwood Summer wood Annual ring irregular arrangement of meristematic cells in
In the As summer If a growth the outer bark region. Cells of the cork cambium
spring, when progresses layer divide to form the cork cells toward the
water is and water represents outside and one or more underlying layers of
plentiful, becomes one cork parenchyma cells that function in
wood less plentiful, season’s storage. Collectively, cork cells, cork cambium,
formed by the wood growth, it is
and cork parenchyma make up the periderm.
the vascular that forms, called an
Periderm
cambium known as annual ring
has late The cork cambium and the tissues it produces
thinwalled, summerwoo are collectively called periderm (outer bark).
large- d, has Periderm functions as a replacement for the
diameter thicker- epidermis, which splits apart as the stem
conducting walled, increases in girth.
cells narrower
(tracheids conducting Tissues
and vessel cells and Phellogen Phellem Phelloderm
elements) many fibers Cork Outer Inner
and few fi Late wood cambium -> derivatives of derivatives of
bers and is periderm phellogen phellogen
appropriatel - Cork cells Cork cells Living cells
y called + - Dead Large
springwood. phelloder - Waterpro intercellular
Early wood m of spaces
o Secondary phloem From cortex (suberin a tissue that
and ) resembles
parenchyma - Insulate cortical
DID YOU KNOW? of 2o phloem - Protect parenchyma,
the meristem - Lenticels formed to
The science of studying growth ring is called that produces the protective the inside by
dendrochronology. the periderm tissue formed the meristem
Ring patterns can indicate climate change to the outside
o Thick ring – warm or wet year by the cork
cambium;
o Thin ring – cold or dry year
o
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
A. Blade
- also called the lamina, that is usually broad, large, and
flat surface in where
photosynthesis occur
B. Margin
- the edge of the leaf
C. Apex
- the tip of the leaf
D. Midrib
- the central vein of the leaf
E. Veins
- small lines that run along the leaf
- helps in transporting water and mineral through the leaf
- vein density reflects photosynthetic performance, while
distance between
veins shows how well the veins are supplying nutrients
- also helps the leaf move to face the light source
F. Petiole
- the stalk that connects the blade with the leaf base
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
- attached to the stem - a small ear-like projection from the base of a leaf or
G. Stipule petal
- an outgrowth appendage, usually paired located on - for angle of the leaf to capture more sunlight
each side of the leaf INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF
base A. Epidermis
- protection of leaf bud and emerging young leaves - cuticle - outer covering of the leaf
- retention of moisture - stomata
H. Leaf Sheath - guard cells to regulate water
- an extended, cylindrical structure that houses the - stomatal distribution
shoot's early growth. Its B. Vascular Tissue
primary purpose is to support the entire plant and to - veins
safeguard the developing - upper side - xylem
shoots inside of it. - lower side - phloem
LEAF DEVELOPMENT - Major vein is supported by fibers to discourage insects
A. How are leaves formed? from eating it
- leaf arises from the stem cell niche at the shoot apical - Enclosed in parenchymatous bundle sheath
meristem C. Ground Tissue
B. Leaf primordia Mesophyll tissue - between two epidermal cell layers of
- group of cells that will form into new leaves leaf
C. Adaxial vs abaxial - Sclerenchyma
- adaxial is the upper surface of the leaf - Chlorenchyma (specialized parenchyma for
- abaxial is the lower surface of the leaf photosynthesis)
D. Marginal meristem - Palisade mesophyll - more elongated cells for light
- meristematic zone along the margins of the leaf absorption
primordium - Spongy mesophyll - spherical cells for gas exchange
- allows lateral expansion of the laminaIV. ENVIRONMENT CONTROL OF LEAF VARIATION
BASIC KINDS OF LEAVES A. Light
A. Simple Leaves - presence and absence of light
- obtuse - absence means plant will not be big
- palmate - affects chlorophyll
- cordate - daylength
- round - affects flowering and morphology of leaf
- reniform - light intensity
B. Compound Leaves - how much light receiving
- Compound Leaves - sun leaves exposed while shade leaves aren't exposed
- Pinnately compound B. Moisture
- Odd / Even, Once - Mesophytes are plants that have no special adaptations
- Twice/double, bippinate for water or for
- Thrice, trippinate extreme cold and what; usually grows in sunny and
- Palmately Compound shady areas
C. Peltate leaves - petiole attached to the middle of the - Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to survive very
lamina dry environments- Hydrophytes are plants that live and
D. Perfoliate leaves - pierced leavesV. have specialized adaptations
MODIFIED LEAVES
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES RELATING TO THE A. Tendrils
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE LEAF - specialized threadlike structured leaves that are used to
A. Prophylls anchor and support
- first few leaves of a node vining stems
B. Abscission zone - Squash and melon family (Cucurbitaceae)
- found at the base of the petiole B. Spines
- also called separation zone for shedding - sharp and pointy leaves that are specialized for
C. Frond protection against
- a large leave, specifically a fern, with many divisions herbivores, also functions to radiate heat
D. Leaf dimorphism - Cacti
- the ability of the developing leaves of certain C. Bracts
E. Ligule - specialized petal-like leaf to draw attraction from
- protecting the culm and leaves that it encloses from the pollinators via their bright
entry of water, dust color
and harmful spores - Poinsettia
F. Auricle D. Stipule
- may become modified into spines, thorns, or prickles
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
E. Bud scales/Cataphylls
- scale-like modified leaves that protect the lateral and Simplest formula
terminal buds
- Common Oak (Quercus robur)
F. Prophyll
- first few leaves of a node or shoot
- Grass (Poaceae)
G. Storage leaves
- thick leaves specialized to store starch or water or both
- Onion (Allium cepa)
6 Water + 6 Carbon Dioxide — Glucose + 6
H. Swollen petiole
- specialized to enclose air and helps plant to float, Oxygen
development of
aerenchyma 6H2O + 6CO2 - Light/Chlorophyll - C6H12O6 +
- Water Hyacinths (Eichhornia) 6O2
I. Leaves for asexual reproduction
- these are leaves that allows new plants to grow from o Glucose is not the direct product of
the buds growing on photosynthesis. What is it?
the margin of these leaves The product of photosynthesis moves to the
- plants in Bryophyllum such as Kalanchoe laetivirens other pathway to produce glucose
J. Traps STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- common in carnivorous plants, which are used to trap
insects and consume
Light Reaction
them
Photochemical Reaction
- Nepenthes ventricosa (Tropical Pitcher plant)
Oxidation of water happens
K. Window Leaves
We need water for photosynthesis and oxygen
- specialized leaves that has a translucent area in which
released as byproduct that happens during this
light can enter,
first stage
thereby increasing absorption of light and rate of
Calvin Cycle/Photosynthetic Carbon Reactions
photosynthesis
Biochemical Reaction
- Lithops salicola (Living Stones)
Reduction of carbon dioxide
Where carbon assimilation occurs also called the
LESSON 9. PHOTOSYTHESIS biochemical reactions
Where and when the carbon dioxide is produced
DEFINITION AND EQUATION AND OTHER BASIC and then converted to carbohydrates (product)
CONCEPTS o Not dark reaction and light reaction also not
light dependent
Define, requirements and equation
ORGANELLE IS ESSENTIAL FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis
the chemical process used by plants, algae and
certain bacteria to turn sunlight, carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water into food (sugars) and oxygen.
conversion process that transforms the energy
of sunlight into chemical energy stored in sugars
and other organic
molecules
Light energy converts to chemical energy
Byproduct of oxygen
REQUIREMENTS AND EQUATION Chloroplast where we can find the chlorophylls, the
chlorophylls absorbed the lights we need this to
Chlorophyll - to absorb light from the sun, in turn drive photosynthesis
triggers the photosynthesis reaction an organelle that contains the chlorophylls, or
Sunlight - the light serves as the main energy to be the green photon catching pigment
used in the process using photolysis photosynthesis takes place inside the
Water - raw material used in the process, provides chloroplasts that sit in the mesophyll of the
the electrons lost in the process (oxidize) leaves
Carbon Dioxide - raw material used in carbon Thylakoid – where Photochemical reaction
reactions to become carbohydrates, becomes occur
reduced Grana is a stack of thylakoids
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Light as a particle
Light behaves like it is made of particle called
photon
Photon contains energy called quantum
the quantum particle of light, has zero mass but
an energy packet of electromagnetic radiation
Plank’s law - electromagnetic radiation from
heated bodies is not emitted as a continuous flow
but is made up of discrete units or quanta of
energy, the size of which involves a fundamental
physical constant
relates the energy of a photon to its frequency,
which determines its energy
E = hv where v is frequency, h is Planck’s Chlorophyll structure
constant, and E is energy
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Chlorophyll b
Accessory pigments
Absorbs light around color blue and orange red
For resonance – it absorbs the light that Chlorophyll
a wasn’t able to, and pass it again on it
is the accessory pigment that collects sunlight Absorption Spectrum of Chloroplast
and passes into chlorophyll a through a process
Carotenoids is now included
called resonance, it also absorbs light within
Carotenoids can’t absorb in the green part because
the range of450-650 nm, absorbing orange-
they reflect it that is why we usually see leaves
red light from the spectrum
green
It is also important as its central role is to
Green lights are not absorbed but reflected
expand the absorption spectrum of the
photosynthetic organism
Carotenoids
Accessory pigment
Ex: Carotene, xanthophyll
Poor resonance
Chloroplasts also contain carotenoids, which
are red, orange, and yellow pigments that
absorb blue-green light and act as
photoprotective elements of photosystems
It absorbs the too much light and helps Action Spectrum
dissipate it or put it away Ask the question which wavelength is most effective
in driving the photosynthesis
Absorption Spectrum of Chlorophyll shows which wavelengths are used by plants to to
Will tell you the light absorb by the chlorophyll power a photochemical process (effectivity)
(pigment) violet blue and red color effective in driving the
shows which wavelengths are most absorbed or photosynthesis
harvested by a chlorophyll (strongly captured)
PHOTOSYSTEMS
Light harvesting unit of thylakoid membrane
First stage occurs in thylakoid
Excitation of energy by light
two multi-protein complexes that contain the
pigments necessary to harvest photons and use light
energy to catalyze the primary photosynthetic
endergonic reactions producing high energy
compounds
Ground State
When the chlorophyll molecule absorbs the energy,
it gets excited
an atom at its lowest energy, most stable
arrangement
Excited State
When the chlorophyll molecule absorbs the energy
or photon, the electron shoots up
But being in excited stage is not stable you have to
go back to your ground state
an atom at a higher energy arrangement, the
electrons absorb energy thus jumping to outer orbits
Thus, an electron at an excited state would be ready
to be used in photosynthesis and chemical reactions Components
Deactivation of Excited State light harvesting complex (LHC)/ Antenna complex
Reaction center
Heat/Thermal Emission/Dissipation
o Special Chlorophyll a
Release of heat then you calm down a bit
molecules collide with one another. The excited o Primary electron acceptor
molecule can transfer its extra energy to one or
more molecules. This increases their kinetic PHOTOSYSTEM II AND I
energy. Photosystem II go first because it was the one that
Photoluminescence first discovered
When energy absorb and emitted as light PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I
the loss of energy through the emission/losing
of a photon Reaction P680 P700
o Fluorescence center
After absorption of energy it release it complex
immediately as light Primary Pheophytin A0
emission is basically immediate after Electron
photoexcitation single state to ground state acceptor
o Phosphorescence LHC chl 1:1 4:1
It persists longer (light emitted) the a: chl b
fluorescence, after glow Location Thylakoid Thylakoid
emits the radiation for much longer time after membrane membrane
the radiation is removed Grand lamelle Stromata lamelle
this is due to high energy levels of electron (unstacked region)
(more energy to spend and lose) triple state to
ground state
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Photosystem I
- also called P700 because it absorbs light at 700
nm
- Ao is the primary electron acceptor
- electron from PS II boosted to a very high energy
level and transferred to an acceptor molecule
- electron is passed to NADP+ (Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) to NADPH
(Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate)
- located at the stroma lamellae
Explantion …..
Photosystem II
- also called P680 which absorbs light at 680 nm
Cyclic Electron Flow
- light absorption, boosting an electron to a high
energy level electrons sometimes break the cyclic pattern and
- pheophytin, the primary electron acceptor instead loop back to the first part of the electron
- water oxidation happens through photolysis transport chain, repeatedly cycling through PSI
here to replace electron to an acceptor molecule, instead of ending up in NADPH. This is called cyclic
oxygen becomes a byproduct photophosphorylation.
- ATP synthesis happens here through chemiosmosis P700 accept electron then passes to A0 passes to Fd
- located at the grana lamellae (Ferredoxin), then Fd will return it to the
Cytochrome complex, then accept again the Pc the
NOTE: Photosystem II comes first because it is first pass again to P700
in in the path of electron flow, however only makes ATP
Photosystem I is the one discovered first It happened for photo protectiveness, for intensive
light
Electron Transport Chain
- electron is transferred to plastoquinone, to a
cytochrome complex, and to a plastocyanin
- proton pump hydrogen ions and produce ATP
Photophosphorylation
C4 VS CAM
Similarities
Minimize photorespiration
Concentrate CO2 at site of rubisco
ATENEO DE DAVAO UNIVERSITY BY: MOHAMIDIN K
MAMALAPAT
BS MEDICAL BIOLOGY DATE: SEPTEMBER 16,
2022
SUBJECT: GENERAL BOTANY LECTURE
Light Irradiance
Carbon Dioxide
Translocated carbohydrates?
- sucrose
Rising CO2?
C3