Statement of

expected
difference
• Directionality of
difference
HYPOTHESIS
Example:
• Men will have
lesser use of
social media than
women
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
▪ Alternate hypothesis
▪ your initial hypothesis that predicts a
relationship between variables
▪ Null hypothesis
▪ is a prediction of no relationship between the
variables you are interested in.
EXAMPLES
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ Men will have lesser use of social media than
women
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no difference between men’s and
women’s in the use of social media.
TYPE I AND TYPE II ERROR
▪ 1. Type I Error (ALPHA ERROR)
▪ Reality: No relationship/difference

▪ Decision: Reject the null

▪ Believe your research hypothesis have

received support when in fact you
should have disconfirmed it
▪ Analogy: Find an innocent man guilty of
a crime
TYPE I AND TYPE II ERROR

▪ 2. Type II Error (BETA ERROR)

▪ Reality: Relationship/difference
▪ Decision: Accept the null
▪ Believe your research hypothesis has not
received support when in fact you should have
rejected the null.
▪ Analogy: Find a guilty man innocent of a crime
 EXERCISE 1
• Let’s say that the null hypothesis (Ho) is : John’s car is safe
to drive.(i) Which statement represents a type I error? (ii)
Which statement represents a type I error? (iii) Which type
of error has greater consequences?

a) John thinks that his car may be safe when, in fact, it is not
safe.
b) John thinks that his car may be safe when, in fact, it is
safe.
c) John thinks that his car may not be safe when, in fact, it is
not safe
d) John thinks that his car may be not safe when, in fact, it is
safe.
 EXERCISE 2
• In a criminal court case, the null hypothesis (Ho) is that the
defendant is presumed innocent.(i) Which statement represents a
type I error? (ii) Which statement represents a type I error? (iii)
Which type of error has greater consequences?

a) The jury believes that the defendant is guilty when, in fact, he is

innocent.
b) The jury believes that the defendant is guilty when, in fact, he is
not innocent.
c) The jury believes that the defendant is not guilty when, in fact, he
is not innocent.
d) The jury believes that the defendant is not guilty when, in fact, he
is innocent.
 TYPE I AND TYPE II ERROR
Video Link:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yQm9F2_yIk
FUNCTION OF STATISTICAL TESTS

▪ Statistical tests determine:

▪ Accept or Reject the Null Hypothesis
▪ Based on probability of making a Type I
error
▪ Observed results compared to the results
expected by the Null Hypotheses
▪ What is the probability of getting observed
results if Null Hypothesis were true?
▪ If results would occur less than 5% of the time by
simple chance then we reject the Null Hypothesis
START BY SETTING LEVEL OF RISK OF
MAKING A TYPE I ERROR

▪ How dangerous is it to make a Type I Error:

▪ What risk is acceptable?:
▪ 5%?
▪ 1%?
▪ 0.1%?
▪ Smaller percentages are more conservative in
guarding against a Type I Error
▪ Level of acceptable risk is called
“Significance level” :
▪ Usually the cutoff - <.05
CONVENTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
LEVELS
▪ .05 level (5% chance of Type I Error)
▪ .01 level (1% chance of Type I Error)
▪ .001 level (.1% chance of Type I
Error)
▪ Rejecting the Null at the .05 level
means:
▪ Taking a 5% risk of making a Type I Error
GUARDING AGAINST TYPE I ERROR
• Significance level regulates Type I Error
• Conservative standards reduce Type I
Error:
– .01 instead of .05, especially with large
sample
• Reducing the probability of Type I Error:
– Increases the probability of Type II Error
• Sample size regulates Type II Error
– The larger the sample, the lower the
probability of Type II Error occurring in
conservative testing
A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
▪ State your research hypothesis as a null (Ho) and
alternate (Ha) hypothesis.
▪ Collect data in a way designed to test the
hypothesis.
▪ Perform an appropriate statistical test.
▪ Decide whether the null hypothesis is supported
or refuted.
▪ Present the findings in
your results and discussion section.
STEP 1: STATE YOUR NULL AND
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
▪ After developing your initial
research hypothesis (the prediction that you
want to investigate),
▪ it is important to restate it as a null (Ho) and
alternate (Ha) hypothesis so that you can test it
mathematically.
EXAMPLE
▪ You want to test whether there is a relationship between the
academic performance of Medtech students and the level of
noncognitive skills.
▪ The Level Of Noncognitive Skills And The Academic
Performance Of Medtech Students
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no significant relationship between the academic
performance of Medtech students and the level of
noncognitive skills
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ The academic performance of Medtech students is associated
with the level of noncognitive skills
EXAMPLE
▪ You want to test whether there is a relationship between
gender and height.
▪ Based on your knowledge of human physiology, you
formulate a hypothesis that men are, on average, taller
than women.
▪ To test this hypothesis, you restate it as:
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ Men are, on average, not taller than women
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ Men are, on average, taller than women.
STEP 2: COLLECT DATA
▪ For a statistical test to be valid, it is important to
perform sampling and collect data in a way that is
designed to test your hypothesis.
▪ If your data are not representative, then you
cannot make statistical inferences about the
population you are interested in.
▪ To test differences in average height between
men and women,
▪ Your sample should have an equal proportion of
men and women
STEP 3: PERFORM A
STATISTICAL TEST
▪ Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of
data you collected.
▪ Based on the type of data you collected, you perform a
one-tailed t-test to test whether men are in fact taller
than women. This test gives you:
▪ an estimate of the difference in average height between
the two groups.
▪ a p-value showing how likely you are to see this
difference if the null hypothesis of no difference is true.
▪ Your t-test shows an average height of 175.4 cm
for men and an average height of 161.7 cm for
women, with an estimate of the true difference
ranging from 10.2cm to infinity. The p-value is
0.002
STEP 4: DECIDE WHETHER THE
NULL HYPOTHESIS IS
SUPPORTED OR REFUTED
▪ Based on the outcome of your statistical test
▪ You will have to decide whether your null hypothesis is
supported or refuted.
▪ In most cases you will use the p-value generated by your
statistical test to guide your decision.
▪ Your cutoff for refuting the null hypothesis will be 0.05
STEP 4: DECIDE WHETHER THE
NULL HYPOTHESIS IS
SUPPORTED OR REFUTED
▪ In your analysis of the difference in average
height between men and women, you find that
the p-value of 0.002 is below your cutoff of 0.05
▪ so you decide to reject your null hypothesis of no
difference.
STEP 5: PRESENT YOUR
FINDINGS
▪ In the results section you should give a brief summary of
the data and a summary of the results of your statistical
test (for example, the estimated difference between
group means and associated p-value).
▪ In the discussion, you can discuss whether your initial
hypothesis was supported or refuted.
▪ example
▪ We found a difference in average height between men
and women of 14.3cm, with a p-value of 0.002, consistent
with our hypothesis that there is a difference in height
between men and women.
 T-TEST
• A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to
determine if there is a significant difference
between the means of two groups, which may
be related in certain features.

• CRITICAL VALUE:
– P-Value (Probability Value) = <0.05
– Random and has 95% chance that the data is
significant
 P-Values
• A p-value, or probability
value, is a number describing
how likely it is that your data
would have occurred by
random chance (i.e. that the
null hypothesis is true).
• The level of statistical
significance is often
expressed as a p-value
between 0 and 1. The smaller
the p-value, the stronger the
evidence that you should
reject the null hypothesis.
 P-Values
• A p-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) is
statistically significant. It indicates strong
evidence against the null hypothesis, as there
is less than a 5% probability the null is correct
(and the results are random). Therefore, we
reject the null hypothesis, and accept the
alternative hypothesis.
 P-Values
• A p-value higher than 0.05 (> 0.05) is not
statistically significant and indicates strong
evidence for the null hypothesis. This means
we retain the null hypothesis and reject the
alternative hypothesis. You should note that
you cannot accept the null hypothesis, we can
only reject the null or fail to reject it.
 T-TEST
• Two fundamental questions before
doing a T-Test:
–Are you conducting a one-tailed or
two-tailed T-Test?
–Is the data paired or unpaired?
ONE-PAIRED VS TWO-PAIRED

TWO-TAILED: Is there is a
ONE-TAILED: Are boys significant difference
significantly taller than between the height of
girls? girls and the height boys?
PAIRED OR UNPAIRED
 T-TEST
Video Link:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvPWQ-e03tQ
 EXERCISE 3

• Is there a significant
difference between the
height of boys when they
were 5 y.o. and when they
are 15 y.o?
– Are you conducting a one-
tailed or two-tailed T-Test?
– Is the data paired or unpaired?
 EXERCISE 3
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no significant difference between the
height of boys when they were 5 y.o. and when
they are 15 y.o
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ There is a significant difference between the
height of boys when they were 5 y.o. and when
they are 15 y.o
 EXERCISE 3: ANSWER

• Since P-Value is LESS THAN the

Critical Value, therefore we are
to REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS and
ACCEPT THE ALTERNATE
HYPOTHESIS

• CONCLUSION: There is a
significant difference between
the height of boys when they
were 5 y.o. and when they are 15
y.o
 EXERCISE 4

• Is there a significant
difference between the
height of boys and heights of
girls?
– Are you conducting a one-
tailed or two-tailed T-Test?
– Is the data paired or unpaired?
 EXERCISE 4
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no significant difference between the
height of boys and heights of girls.
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ There is a significant difference between the
height of boys and heights of girls.
 EXERCISE 4: ANSWER

• Since P-Value is GRETER THAN

the Critical Value, therefore
we are to ACCEPT NULL
HYPOTHESIS and REJECT THE
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS

▪ CONCLUSION: There is no
significant difference between the
height of boys and heights of girls.
EXCEL MODIFICATION FOR UNPAIRED:
• CHECK STANDARD DEVIATION (SD) OR
VARIANCE IF ITS EQUAL OR NOT.
• IF EQUAL: PICK NO. “2” ; IF NOT EQUAL: PICK
NO. “3”
 EXERCISE 5

• Is there a significant
difference between test
scores of the beginning and
end of the year?
– Are you conducting a one-
tailed or two-tailed T-Test?
– Is the data paired or unpaired?
 EXERCISE 5
▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ There is no significant difference between test
scores of the beginning and end of the year.
▪ Alternate hypothesis:
▪ There is a significant difference between test
scores of the beginning and end of the year.
 EXERCISE 5: ANSWER

• Since P-Value is LESS THAN

the Critical Value, therefore
we are to REJECT NULL
HYPOTHESIS and ACCEPT THE
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS

▪ CONCLUSION: There is a significant

difference between test scores
of the beginning and end of the
year.