CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

A. Speaking
1. Definition of Speaking
Speaking is one of the four language skills (reading, writing,
listening and speaking). It is the means through which learners can
communicate with others to achieve certain goals or to express their
opinions, intentions, hopes and viewpoints. In addition, people who
know a language are referred to as „speakers‟ of that language.
Furthermore, in almost any setting, speaking is the most frequently
used language skill.1 Speaking is expressing thought, ideas, and feeling
which use the ability to pronounce the words to organize the words into
phrases or sentence to choose the words related to the topic.
The mastery of speaking skills in English is a priority for many
second-language or foreign-language learners. Consequently, learners
often evaluate their success in language learning as well as the
effectiveness of their English course on the basis of how much they feel
they have improved in their spoken language proficiency. Oral skills
have hardly been neglected in EFL/ESL courses (witness the huge
number of conversation and other speaking course books in the
market), though how best to approach the teaching of oral skills has
long been the focus of methodological debate. Teachers and textbooks
make use of a variety of approaches, ranging from direct approaches
focusing on specific features of oral interaction (e.g., turn-taking, topic
management, and questioning strategies) to indirect approaches that
1
Shiamaa Abd EL Fattah Torky.Ain Shams University. 2006 p.13

9
 10

create conditions for oral interaction through group work, task work,
and other strategies.2
Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through
the use of verbal and nonverbal symbols, in a variety of contexts. 3
From this definition we can share our idea to others with oral
communication. Speaking usually symbolized as express feeling to
others. Through speaking, humans are able to connect their mind in
every aspect of life. That is make the students more fluency in their
communication. Because When they speak, they know what they are
thinking and how they feel about it, and as you speak other people
make judgments about your character and assumptions about what you
are thinking and why. 4 Speaking for communication is designed for the
intermediate to advance level classroom. It will not focus on the
communication which usually become a “trap” for the students because
of its routine activities of every chapter, but will concern to the
students‟ activities cooperatively where the students can work in groups
which consist of two, three, four or even more students with different
activities.5
According Harwood explains that speaking is a unique form of
communication which is the basis of all human relationships and the
primary channel for the projection and development of individual
identity. Particularly in literate societies and cultures, its distinctive

2
Jack C. Richards .Teaching Listening and Speaking From Theory to Practice.
(New York: Cambridge University Press 2008). P19
3
Adapted from an article by Kayriye Kayi and various other sources! P.1
4
Robert Barrass, Speaking for Yourself “A guide for students” ( New York :
Roudledge 2006) p.2
5
Anita, S.S., M.Pd. Speaking for Communication (Serang: Fakultas Tarbiyah
dan Adab Press IAIN SMH Banten, 2010) P1
 10

characteristics are sometime overlooked. Speech is about making

choices. Students must choose how to interact in expressing themselves
and forming social relationship through speech. Of course when we
speak we use our tongue and talk orally. In short, the writer infers
speaking as activities by which human beings try to express thought,
feeling, opinion and to exchange information by using utterances in the
form of communication.6
Besides that, speaking is oral-language proficiency and a
complex language skill that involve knowledge and pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and culture. Speaking is also used for many
purposes, and each purpose involves different skill. In some situation,
many people use speaking to give instructions or to get thing done.
They use speaking to describe thing, to complain about people‟s
behavior, to make polite requests, or to entertain people with jokes and
anecdotes.
From definition above the writer concludes that speaking is one
of four skills of English to express opinion, idea, thought, our feeling
and etc to the other people, with speaking the people can communicate
each other so, the people especially the students have to mastery this
skill because this is oral skill that very important for second language
learner or foreign language learner to communication in their live.
Without speaking we can not express what we want to express and it is
make people difficult to communicate with other and will caused bad
relations.

6
Ani Fitriah and Anita, “Improving Students‟ Speaking Ability Through
Listen-Read-Discuss (LRD) Strategy”, Asses English Education Journal, Vol.2, No.1,
(January-June, 2016) p3.
 10

2. The Functions of Speaking

Speaking is a purposeful activity. Just like other activities such as
listening, reading, and writing. We have reasons and objectives in
speaking, the objective of our speech can define the strategy we use to
do it. Just as stated by Richards and Renandya based on Asses English
Journal from Herna Apriyanti and Apud that speaking is used for many
different objectives and each objective involves different skill, the
different objectives of speaking are as follows: 7
a. In casual conversation, for example, our objective may be to make
social contact with people, to establish rapport, or to engage in
harmless chitchat that occupies much of the time we spend with
friends.
b. When engage in discussion with someone, the objective may be to
seek or express opinions, to persuade someone about something, or
to clarify information.
c. In some other situations, we use speaking to describe things, to
complain about people‟s behavior, or to make polite request.
Each of these different objectives for speaking implies knowledge
of the rules of how spoken language reflects the context or situation in
which speech occurs.
Based on explanation above speaking has many functions formal
or non formal in every situation and in all aspect of human life, so it is
very useful for people especially for students as second language
learner or foreign language learner.

7
Herna Apriyanti and Apud, The Effectiveness Of Find Someone Who Game
Toward Students‟ Speaking Skill. Asses English Education Journal, Vol.2, No.1,
(January-June, 2016) p88.
 10

B. Teaching Speaking
Teaching and learning are considered complex processes,
influenced by different multiple factors, including use of media or
instructional aid, which results active involvement of learners and
makes teaching more interactive.
According to Maryam Bahadorfar and Reza Omodvar 8 Speaking
is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. The mastery
of speaking skills in English is a priority for many second language or
foreign language learners. Our learners often evaluate their success in
language learning as well as the effectiveness of their English course on
the basis of how much they feel they have improved in their spoken
language proficiency. Oral skills have hardly been neglected in today's
EFL/ESL courses.
Teaching speaking is to teach our learners to:
a. Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns.
b. Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of
the second language or foreign language.
c. Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper
social setting audience, situation and subject matter.
d. Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
e. Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.
f. Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses,
which is called as fluency.
Based on explanation above teaching speaking is an activity to
make students as second language learner or foreign language learner

8
Maryam Bahadorfar and Reza Omodvar. Technology In Teaching Speaking
Skill. KIKS, (India: University of Mysore, 2014), p.10
 10

to produce their speech so, they can speak fluently and confident in
front of people or other students.

C. The Roles of a Teacher in Speaking Class

Teachers play vital roles in the lives of the students in their

classrooms. Teachers are best known for the role of educating the
students that are placed in their care. As with any other type of
classroom procedure, teachers need to play a number of different roles
during the speaking activities. However, three have particular relevance
if teacher are trying to get students to speak fluently:9
1. Prompter
The students sometimes get lost, cannot think of what to say next,
or in some other way lose the fluency teacher expect of them.

2. Participant
The teacher should be good animators when asking students to
produce language. Sometimes this can be achieved by setting up an
activity clearly and enthusiasm. At other times, however, teachers may
want to participate in discussions role-plays themselves.
3. Feedback Provider
The vexed question of when and how to give feedback in speaking
activities is answered by considering carefully the effect of possible
difference approaches. When students are in the middle of a speaking
activity, over correction may inhibit them and take the

9
Ani Fitriah and Anita, “Improving Students‟ Speaking Ability Through
Listen-Read-Discuss (LRD) Strategy” p.4
 10

communicativeness out of the activity. On the other hand, helpful and

gentle correction may get students out of difficult misunderstandings
and hesitations. Everything depends upon.

D. Teacher Roles on Teaching Speaking

Some teachers get very involved with their students during a
speaking activity and want to participate in the activity themselves.
They may argue forcefully in a discussion or get fascinated by a role
play and start playing themselves.

There is nothing wrong with teachers getting involved, of course,

provided they don‟t start to dominate. Although it is probably better to
stand back so that the teacher can watch and listen to what‟s going on,
students can also appreciate teacher participation at the appropriate
level in other words, not too much.

Sometimes, however, teachers will have to intervene in some way

if the activity is not going smoothly. If someone in front of the class
can‟t think of what to say, or if a discussion begins to dry up, the
teacher will have to decide if the activity should be stopped. Because
the topic has run out of steam or if careful prompting can get it going
again. That‟s where the teacher may make a point in a discussion or
quickly take on a role to push a role play forward. Prompting is often
necessary but, as with correction, teachers should do it sympathetically
and sensitively. 10 So, the teachers should be able to see the situation in
the speaking classroom, whether the students need a help or not. The

10
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English (New Edition), 2010. Pearson
Education Limited. England and Associated Companies throughout the world. P.123
 10

teachers should be handled the class and the problems in the speaking
class.

E. Speaking Classroom Activities

Creating a Speaking Classroom provides timely professional

development for teachers. Based on a theoretical approach underpinned
by classroom research, this book offers classroom-tested strategies for
engaging children in their own learning. Such strategies involve the
direct teaching of speaking and listening. Activities in the book can
ensure that children know how and why to support one another‟s
learning in whole-class and group work. The approach enables teachers
to ensure that personal learning program are based on what children
already think and know. The suggested strategies for teaching speaking
can enable children to use one another‟s minds as a rich resource 11.
According to Kleinmann‟s in Bailey, and Kathleen M study found that
oral performance was positively affected by facilitating anxiety. 12 So,
oral speech activity is good to improve their speech and make students
want to speak up in front of the class and the teacher must facilitate this
activity to get good result.

1. Speaking in the Language Classroom

Though our foreign language classrooms are a long way from this
scene, we are also very directly concerned with speaking. But what

11
Dawes, Lyn. Creating a speaking and listening classroom: Integrating talk
for learning at Key Stage 2. London:Routledge, 2010.p.i
12
Bailey, Kathleen M. Voices from the language classroom: Qualitative
research in second language education. Cambridge University Press, 1996.p.266
 10

exactly is this ability that we often take so much for granted in our
mother tongue yet find so difficult when learning to do it in a foreign
language? According to Chastain, Speaking is using background and
linguistic knowledge to create an oral message that will be meaningful
for the intended audience. It is taking thoughts and putting them into
words and saying them, with much of this process being done
unconsciously. There are, of course, special characteristics that
distinguish oral production, speech, from written production. Speaking
is definitely not writing that we say aloud. It is greatly conditioned by
the time factor, it involves language produced spontaneously with false
starts, repetitions, self-corrections and, under normal circumstances, it
disappears, leaving no record but traces in memory. Another important
distinction is that it is generally directed at a specific audience in a
face-to-face situation where the speaker can make use of the here- and-
now and can get immediate feedback from the listener(s)13. When we
speak or deliver the speech, we must analyze and know who is the
object, who is the audience, so we can adapted according the age of
listeners because speaking is spontaneously, so we must carefully in
deliver the speech, what they need and what they want to listen.

2. How to Manage Speaking Activities?

Here are some tips to help teacher manage and organize fluency
speaking activities:14

13
Jorda, Maria Del Pilar Safont. Oral Skills: Resources and Proposals for the
Classroom. Vol. 10. Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I, 2002,p.51
14
Baker, Joanna, and Heather Westrup. Essential speaking skills. A&C Black,
2003.p.93
 10

a. Make sure that the students have practice the necessary grammar
and vocabulary before they start the activity.
b. Place students into pairs or groups quickly and without a fuss.
c. Explain the activity and write instructions on the board.
d. Tell students how much time they have to do the activity.
e. Demonstrate the activity with one pair or group in front of the whole
class if necessary.
While communicative language teaching is concerned with all the
skills and their use in a naturally integrated manner, the recent
emphasis on communication has focused particular attention on ways
of promoting speaking skills. As shown in Chapter 1, this is a question
of developing not only linguistic competence but also sociolinguistic,
discourse, strategic, socio cultural and social competence, all of which
combine to constitute the ultimate goal of communicative ability.
Speaking activities aim, therefore, to develop the confidence, desire
and ability to use the target language not only accurately but also
appropriately and effectively for the purposes of communication.
In the light of that which is known about the nature of the
language learning process, and given the many demands which
speaking activities can make on learners, it is important to set attainable
objectives and to have realistic expectations about learners'
achievements. This requires a certain attitude on the part of the teacher
towards learners' performance, particularly with regard to error and the
use of coping or communication strategies to compensate for gaps in
their linguistic resources. The development of communicative ability
also has implications for the choice and organization of activities which
provide learners with appropriate learning experiences to foster their
 10

confidence and speaking skills.15 Speaking very useful in our life,

especially for students or learners second language or foreign language,
speaking is use for improve their speech, confidence and fluency when
communicate with the others, especially in social life the students or
learners will habitual with this activity.

F. Teaching Media

Teaching media are tools which are provided and brought into
classroom by a teacher to facilitate teaching learning process. Teaching
media are all physical devices which can present message and stimulate
students to learn. Thus, teaching media are expected to help teacher
present the lesson more clearly and interesting to be followed by the
students. Teaching aids are valuable instructional tools that can help
make learning more effective and interesting. Harmer says that a range
of objects, pictures and other things that can be used as instructional
media to present and manipulate language and to involve students in
the activities.16 From the discussion above, it can be concluded that
media are everything that can help teacher to deliver the lesson
(message) to the students (receivers) to make the lesson clearer and
easier to understand and absorb by the students so that they get more
zealous to participate in learning activity.

15
Sheils, Joe. Communication in the Modern Languages Classroom. No. 12.
Council of Europe, 1988, p.139
16
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of Language Teaching,(Cambridge: Ashford
Color Press, 2007), p177.
 10

For this activity students can form pair or group and each group is
given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups,
then a spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the whole
class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners
as well as their public speaking skills.
In speaking, the students usually reflect the language they use at
home. In social life, it can be seen when they speak by using different
intonation, vocabularies, and structure. So, to make the students
practice in class, first, the teacher needs to adopt and vary of media for
teaching. One of media for teaching especially teaching speaking using
chain picture.
So, this media can help students in speaking class and make
students easy to express their opinion, feeling, thought, idea and etc.
there are many shape of pictures that teacher can use in speaking class
and pictures easy to find in everywhere like magazine, newspaper and
internet. For example kinds of picture are poster, comic and teacher can
paint the picture by self in the paper or other media. Teacher also can
make the picture in the power point or other software to save the cost.

1. Definition of Chain Picture

Chain picture or picture series are some pictures representing
continuous events of a story with important information17. These
pictures can increase the students‟ desire and imagination to produce
speech sound. It is enjoyable for the students because it encourages

17
Luki Nugroho, Sudirman, Hartati Hasan, The Use Of Picture Series In
Improving Students‟ Speaking Recount Text Skill, Unisla e-Link Journal, (November
2015), P2
 10

activity in guessing the messages from the picture based on their

imagination. Students can understand the content of the whole series of
pictures because the pictures are related. Pictures series are arranged as
media to help students express their ideas and feelings fluently.
Students will be easier to speak or write because these pictures have
events arrangement that help them to improve their speaking. Because
the subjects are senior high school students that already have many
vocabularies to produce speech, it will be very interesting. A number of
pictures each of which is related to some ways to other, especially to
the one before it. Series of picture is really serviceable for teaching
speaking purpose, because from these kinds of pictures the students get
a complete idea and their imaginative are stimulated.
There were three picture series used, they are chain picture or
picture series that was arranged from comic books. The second is
picture that was arranged from capturing animation movie. The third is
picture that was taken from google image.

2. Picture Media
The students need media to help them increase their imagination.
One of media that can be used to solve this case is chain picture or
picture series. Visual aid in visual instructional concept is every
picture, model, object, or other tools which give real visual experience
to the students. The visual aids aim at: introduce, form, enrich, and
clarify comprehension or abstract concept to the students, develop
desired behavior and support students‟ more continuous activity. 18 So,
basically, visual media in learning is everything can be seen by eyes
18
OKARA Journal of Languages and Literature, Vol. 1, 1 Mei, 2016.
 10

and brought into class room as visual teaching media to support

learning process run well.
In learning instructional media picture can be presented in the
form of posters, cartoons, comics, and photography pictures. The
making process of these is through printing process. These media
include English text books, magazines, newspapers, journal, bulletins,
and dictionary. The use of these media in teaching English is necessary
and meaningful because it can help learners to get more knowledge and
information through reading widely, and provide more enjoyment from
various sources of facts. Besides, there are also other kinds of printed
media. They are graphic media. These media are in the forms of
photographs, graphics, pictures, maps, models, game, puzzle, wall
charts, comic script, flash card or cue card, brochure, poster, etc.
Based on explanation above, chain pictures can make students
more creative and easy to develop their idea. They have also interest
and motivate to learn English, especially to speak English by using
media chain pictures.
Applying picture in teaching learning process absolutely enables
the students to achieve the lesson. Pictures can be drawn by the teacher.
It is taken from magazine or newspaper, poster, brochure, or it is found
on the internet. The teacher must consider that pictures can engage the
students‟ interest. The use of pictures should be appropriate with the
students‟ level and it is visible by the students. 19 Teacher can use the
pictures to make students more understand the material, picture easy to
take and use.

19
The Second International Conference on Education and Language (2nd
ICEL), (Bandar Lampung University (UBL), Indonesia,2014). P2
 10

Students improve their formal speech when teachers provide

insights on how to organize their ideas for presentation. Students can
give better speeches when they can organize their presentation in a
variety of different ways, including sequentially, chronologically and
thematically. They need practice in organizing their speech around
problems and solutions, causes and results, and similarities and
differences. After deciding about the best means of organization, they
can practice speeches with another student or with the whole class. 20
When students using chain picture to deliver their speech, they were
speech structurally and not widen to the others so, the students were
focus in one topic.

a. Criteria in selecting Picture

1). Picture must not violate security, accuracy, propriety and policy
(SAPP) guidelines.
2). Picture must relate to the story. Images must enhance and help
clarify the story.
3). Picture must communicate information to the reader.
4). Picture must be clear. Each one should have one center of interest,
and there should be no potential to misread the photograph.
5). Picture must be of good composition, focus and exposure, and the
picture quality should be technically sound.21

20
Trudy Wallace, Winifred E. Stariha, and Herbert J Walberg, Teaching
Listening, Speaking and Writing, international bereau of education, 1986, Australia,
p.10
21
Defence Information School, Picture editing and selection (Basic Public
Affairs specialist course: Photojournalism) 2006. P2
 10

3. Method to Use Picture in Speaking Lesson

a. Mechanical practice
In mechanical practice the teacher wants students to concentrate
primarily on imitating the sound of the language and less concerned
with meaning. In other way, with mechanical practice, the students
concentrate chiefly on grammatical or phonological accuracy. Pictures
can be used to motivate the learner and to remind him or her what to
say. In any case, the teacher usually knows exactly what the student
should say. The ability to remember is a key factor in successful
language learning. The activities in this section contribute not only to
the remembering of words but, more significantly, to general
techniques for improving memory.
b. Remembering a scene
The student looks at the wall picture carefully and then stands with
his or her back to it. He or she then tries to describe the picture form
memory. The class can see the picture and are allowed to ask questions.
The activity can also be done by asking the students if they can
remember what is behind them in the classroom or what it is possible to
see from the front door of the school.
c. Remembering a sequence
The teacher tells a story illustrated by a number of picture cards
which are shown to the class and then propped up, for example, on the
board self. The teacher then turns the pictures to face the board. On the
back of each picture card there is a number. Students, working in pairs,
try to remember the story, making written notes related to the each
number. Then the class reconstructs the story orally, discussing and
then agreeing on a final version. The teacher then turns the pictures to
 10

face the class and rereads the original story so that it can be compared
with the class‟s version. 22

G. Speaking Assessment
1. Accent
a. Pronunciation frequently unintelligible
b. Frequent gross errors and very heavy accent make
understanding difficult, require frequent repetition.
c. „Foreign accent‟ requires concentrated listening, and
mispronunciation lead to occasional misunderstanding and
apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary.
d. Marked „Foreign accent‟ and occasional mispronunciations
which do not interfere with understanding.
e. No conspicuous mispronunciations, but would not be taken for a
native speaker.
f. Native pronunciation with no trace of “foreign accent”.
2. Grammar
a. Almost entirely in accurate a phrases.
b. Constant errors showing control of very few major patterns
and frequently preventing communication.
c. Frequent errors showing some major pattern uncontrolled and
causing occasional irritation and misunderstanding.

22
Andrew Wright, Pictures for Language Learning, (New York : Cambridge
University Press, 1989), p115
 10

d. Occasional errors showing imperfect control of some patterns

but no weakness that causes misunderstanding.
e. Few errors, with no patterns of failure.
f. No more than two errors during the interview.
3. Vocabulary
a. Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation.
b. Vocabulary limited to basic personal and survival areas (time,
food, transportation, family, etc).
c. Choice of words sometimes inaccurate, limitations of
vocabulary prevent discussion of some common professional
and social topics.
d. Professional vocabulary adequate to discuss special interests
general vocabulary permits discussion of any non-technical
subject with some circumlocutions.
e. Professional vocabulary broad and precise general vocabulary
adequate to cope with complex practical problems and varied
social situations.
f. Vocabulary apparently as accurate and extensive as that of an
educated native speaker.
4. Fluency.
a. Speech is so halting and fragmentary that conversation is
virtually impossible.
b. Speech is very slow and uneven except for short or routine
sentences.
c. Speech is frequently hesitant and jerky: sentences may be left
uncompleted.
 10

d. Speech is occasionally hesitant. With some unevenness caused

by rephrasing and groping for words.
e. Speech is effortless and smooth, but perceptibly non-native in
speech and evenness.
f. Speech on all professional and general topics as effortless and
smooth as a native speaker‟s.
5. Comprehension
a. Understands too little for the simplest type of conversation.
b. Understands only slow, very simple speech on common social
and touristic topics; requires constant repetition and
rephrasing.
c. Understands careful, somewhat simplified speech when
engaged in a dialogue, but may require considerable repetition
and rephrasing.
d. Understands quite well normal educated speech when engaged
in a dialogue. But requires occasional repetition or rephrasing.
e. Understands everything in normal educated conversation
except for very colloquial or low; frequency items,
exceptionally rapid or slurred speech.
f. Understands everything in both formal and colloquial speech
to be expected of an educated native speaker.

The components which must be measured in speaking, those are

accent, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. The rating
sheet of speaking test as the follow:
 10

Table 2.1
Conversational English Proficiency weighting table 23

Weighting table
Proficiency 1 2 3 4 5 6 Score
description
Accent 0 1 2 2 3 4
Grammar 6 12 18 24 30 36
Vocabulary 4 8 12 16 20 24
Fluency 2 4 6 8 10 12
Comprehension 4 8 12 15 19 23
Total
Adopted by Arthur Hughes

To interpret the students score, the researcher identifies the total

of the students score based on level as follow :

Table 2.2
The level of students‟ speaking
Total Score Level
16-25 0+
26-35 1
36-42 1+
43-52 2

23
Arthur Hughes, Teaching for Language Teacher, (New York: Cambridge
University Press) p.113
 10

53-62 2+
63-72 3
73-82 3+
83-92 4
93-99 4+