Nucleosynthesis – How Elements Are Made

Nucleosynthesis is the formation of new

atomic nuclei or elements. It includes
processes in the Big Bang, in stars, fission,
and radioactive decay.

Nucleosynthesis is the process of making

new atomic nuclei from pre-existing
nuclei, protons, and neutrons. Essentially,
it is the creation of the elements of the
periodic table. The two broad ways atomic
nuclei form are by fusing together smaller
nuclei and nucleons (protons and
neutrons) or by breaking apart larger
nuclei through fission, radioactive decay,
and other processes.
The first few light elements formed during the Big Bang in the process of Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Later,
new elements formed in stars and from their explosions in stellar nucleosynthesis. Still more elements
formed from neutron star mergers in the r-process, cosmic ray spallation, fission, and radiogenesis. The
superheavy synthetic elements form by nuclear reactions between pre-existing superheavy nuclei and other
nuclei or nucleons.

Nucleosynthesis Processes
While Big Bang nucleosynthesis and stellar nucleosynthesis account for the creation of most elements, there
are actually several processes occurring.

 Big Bang nucleosynthesis: The Big Bang produces most of the protium (hydrogen-1), deuterium
(hydrogen-2), helium-3, and helium-4 found in the universe today. A small amount of lithium-7 and
beryllium-7 formed in the first 100 to 300 seconds after the Big Bang. Possibly, some boron formed.
But, after the first 20 minutes, no new elements formed until the birth of the first stars. Today, some of
these isotopes form via other processes.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the formation of new nuclei by stars. Stars fuse
hydrogen and helium into heavier nuclei. All stars produce carbon via the triple-alpha process. Carbon
releases neutrons, which feed the slow neutron-capture or s-process. The s-process produces elements
heavier than nickel and iron.
 Supernova nucleosynthesis: A supernova produces many intermediate-mass elements between oxygen
and rubidium. Largely, this involves rapid neutron-capture, although rapid proton-capture (rp-process)
may occur, too.
 Neutron star collision: The collision of binary neutron stars is a major source of rapid neutron-capture
or r-process elements. These elements include gold and heavy metals. About half of the atomic nuclei
heavier than iron form via the r-process.
 Black hole accretion disks: The intense gravity of a black hole brings nuclei and nucleons together,
forming elements.

Prepared/Compiled by:
Miss Ledelane Tampus Pantilo
SST-I
 Cosmic ray spallation: Cosmic rays (mostly protons) interact with the interstellar medium and
planetary atmospheres. The process produces light elements, such as 3He, Li, Be, B and well as carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen as impact fragments.
 Radioactive decay: Radioactive or radiogenic decay forms daughter nuclides. Some of these nuclides
decay into several intermediate elements before finally becoming stable isotopes. On Earth, radon,
polonium, helium-4, and argon-40 largely result from decay of heavier elements.
 Spontaneous fission: Thorium-232, uranium-235, and uranium-238 undergo spontaneous fission,
forming natural technetium and promethium.
 Other nuclear reactions: Neutron-capture and reactions due to cosmic rays change one nucleus into
another. Some neon-21, neon-22, carbon-14, and iodine-129 forms from these reactions. Thermonuclear
weapon explosions produce a limited r-process that forms heavy elements, such as einsteinium and
fermium.

Timeline of Element Formation

 13.8 billion years ago: Hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and possibly boron formed in the first 20
minutes after the Big Bang. These are the primordial elements.
 13.795 billion years ago to the present: Stars started forming about 500 million years after the Big
Bang. Carbon and most heavier elements up to atomic number 90 formed within stars, from their
explosions, and from cosmic ray fission. Niobium and heavier elements up to atomic number 94 form
from merging neutron stars. Radioactive decay and fission continuously form lighter elements from
heavier nuclei.
 20th century to the present: Technetium and elements from atomic number 95 (americium) to 118
(oganesson) are synthesized in labs. Note stars do produce technetium and heavier radioactive elements,
but they decay before planets form.

History of Discoveries
In the late 19th and early 20th century, scientists believed elements formed at the beginning of the universe.
Gradually, researchers gathered data on element abundances. Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant
elements, accounting for around 98% of matter. The next two abundant elements are oxygen and carbon.
In 1920, Arthur Stanley Eddington proposed that stars fuse hydrogen and make helium. He suggested the
process may account for the formation of other elements. But, the idea was not popular because nuclear
physics was a very new field. Before World War I, Hans Bethe described the mechanism of hydrogen fusion
into helium. Georges Lemaître proposed the Big Bang in 1931. After World War II, Fred Hoyle explained
mechanisms for making heavier elements and how the composition of the universe changes over time. Hans
Seuss and Harold Urey prepared a graph of element abundances that displayed the Oddo-Harkins rule.
Basically, the abundance of elements with even atomic numbers is greater than the abundance of the odd-
numbered elements on either side of it on the periodic table. The theories of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and
stellar nuclear synthesis supported the empirical data.
But, nucleosynthesis remains a highly active field of research. Scientists seek to unravel the natural
processes of element formation and continue to synthesize new elements.

Prepared/Compiled by:
Miss Ledelane Tampus Pantilo
SST-I
 ACTIVITY # 02
STAR LIFE CYCLE

Direction: Label the sequence of STAR LIFE CYCLE. Use the hints/clues found in the table below this
diagram.

AVERAGE STAR MASSIVE STAR

Prepared/Compiled by:
Miss Ledelane Tampus Pantilo
SST-I
 HINTS/CLUES

AVERAGE STAR
The star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of hydrogen in its core leading to its
expansion. It cools down and glows red. The Helium fused into Carbon. The star is now RED
GIANT
Red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer material is blown off into
space leaving the inert Carbon. The remnant is known as WHITE DWARF.
Giant cloud of gas and dust known as NEBULA.
It is formed from nebula due to the gravity that pulled Hydrogen gas together until it
spins faster and faster and becomes ignited. A PROTOSTAR rises.
MAIN SEQUENCE STAR starts to form when nuclear fusion occurs at the core of the star,
it begins to contract, glow and become stable. Hydrogen is converted into Helium.
This is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled down and no longer emits
light and heat. The hypothetical BLACK DWARF.
MASSIVE STAR
It is believed that a NEUTRON STAR is formed from supernova explosion. This is also the
smallest star.
Explosion of star or SUPERNOVA releases large amount of energy. Because of that,
elements are dispersed into the space.
BLACK HOLE is a region in space where gravity is too strong that no matter can escape
from it.
Amore massive main sequence star evolves, cools and expands faster than low mass
star. Carbon fusion still occurs and Oxygen formed.

PART II
Were you able to label the stages of star? Review the hints/clues above. You will notice that following the
sequence will reveal what happens in each stage of star.

To understand further, answer the following questions below.

1. What element from space is pulled by gravity and turn into a protostar?
2. What will happen if a low massive main sequence star runs out of hydrogen fuel?
3. How are heavy elements such as Carbon, Oxygen and Neon formed during star formation?
4. Why is it important for any matter such as light and radiation to escape from a black hole?
5. Why do you think massive star has shorter life span than average star?

Prepared/Compiled by:
Miss Ledelane Tampus Pantilo
SST-I