DESIGN OF SURFACES

& GUIDEWAYS
 HIGHWAY PAVEMENT

The durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain

vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the past, gravel
road surfaces, cobblestone and granite were commonly used, but these
surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete.
Surface

- the term surface refers to roadway pavements which includes

Portland Cement concrete, Asphalt concrete and gravel or other
aggregate materials.
There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e.
flexible pavement and rigid pavement. Difference between flexible and
rigid pavements is based on the manner in which the loads are
distributed to the subgrade.

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

 Types of Pavements

► Flexible Pavement

- is a structure that maintains intimate contact with and distributes

loads to the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock, particle
friction, and cohesion for stability.
 Flexible Pavement

It can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or

bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted
granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade.
Typical Flexible Pavement Structure
Flexible pavements support loads through bearing rather than flexural
action. They comprise several layers of carefully selected materials designed
to gradually distribute loads from the pavement surface to the layers
underneath.

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials
used, the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the
surface. Thus the strength of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of
the flexible pavement.
 Design of Flexible Pavement is based on the principle that for a load
of any magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is
transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of spreading over an
increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground
through successive layers of granular material.

Distribution of load stress in

flexible pavement
The Various Layers Composing A Flexible
Pavement and the Functions they Perform:
 Bituminous Surface (Wearing Surface)

- is made up of a mixture of various selected aggregates bound together with

asphalt cement or other bituminous binders.

- this surface prevents the penetration of surface water to the base course;
provides a smooth, well-bonded surface free from loose particles, which
might endanger vehicles or people; resists the stresses caused by vehicle loads;
and supplies a skid-resistant surface without causing undue wear on tires.
 Material Requirements

• The aggregate shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of

stone or gravel and sand or other fine mineral particles free from
vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay and of such nature that it
can be compacted readily to form a firm, stable layer. It shall conform to
the grading requirements shown in table 300.1
 Table 300.1 - Grading Requirements

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing

Alternate
Standard
U.S. Grading A Grading B Grading C Grading D
(mm)
Standard
25 1” 100 100 100 100

9.5 3/8 50-85 60-100 - -

4.75 No. 4 35-65 50-85 55-100 70-100

2.00 No. 10 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100

0.425 No. 40 15-30 25-45 20-50 30-70

0.075 No. 200 5-20 5-20 6-20 8-25

• The coarse aggregate material retained on the 2.00 mm (No.10) sieve shall have a mass
percent of wear by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test (AASHTO T 96) of not more than 45.

• The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No.200) sieve shall not be greater than two-thirds of the
fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No.40) sieve.

• The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 35
and a plasticity index range of 4 to 9, when tested by AASHTO T 89 and T 90, respectively.

• Materials for gravel surface course and crushed aggregate surface course shall have a soaked
CBR Value of not less than 80% as determined by AASHTO T 193. The CBR Value shall be
obtained at the maximum dry density and determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D.
 Base Course

- is layer of very high stability and density. Its principal purpose is to

distribute or spread the stresses imposed by wheel loads acting on the
wearing surface so that the stresses transmitted to subgrade will not be
sufficiently great to result in excessive deformation or displacement of that
foundation layer.
 Material Requirements

• Aggregate for base course shall consist of hard, durable particles or

fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed or natural gravel, and
filler of natural or crushed sand, other finely divided mineral matter. The
composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls
of clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted readily to
form a firm, stable base.
 Table 201.1 - Grading Requirements
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing
Alternate U.S.
Standard (mm) Grading A Grading B
Standard
50 2” 100
37.5 1-1/2” - 100
25.0 1” 60-85 -
19.0 ¾” - 60-85
12.5 ½” 35-65 -
4.75 No. 4 20-50 30-55
0.425 No. 40 5-20 8-25
0.075 No. 200 0-12 2-14
• The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (two thirds)
of the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.

• The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 25
and plasticity index not greater than 6 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 90,
respectively.

• The coarse portion, retained on a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear
not exceeding 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion test determined by AASHTO T 96.

• The material passing the 19 mm sieve shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than 80% as
determined by AASHTO T 193. The CBR value shall be obtained at the maximum dry
density (MDD) as determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D.
 Subbase Course

- this layer is used in areas where frost action is severe or the subgrade soil
is extremely weak. The subbase course functions like the base course. The
material requirements for the subbase are not as strict as those for the base
course since the subbase is subjected to lower load stresses.

- it may also be used, in the interest of economy, in locations where suitable

subbase materials are cheaper than base materials of higher quality.
 Material Requirements

• Aggregate for subbase shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments

of crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed or natural gravel and filler of
natural or crushed sand or other finely divided mineral matter. The
composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of
clay, and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a
firm, stable subbase.
 Table 200.1 - Grading Requirements

Sieve Designation
Mass Percent Passing
Standard (mm) Alternate U.S. Standard

50 2” 100

25 1” 55-85

9.5 3/8” 40-75

0.075 No. 200 0-12

• The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (two thirds)
of the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.

• The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 35
and plasticity index not greater than 12 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 90,
respectively.

• The coarse portion, retained on a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve, shall have a mass percent of wear
not exceeding 50 'by the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO T 96.

• The material shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than 30% as determined by AASHTO
T 193. The CBR value shall be obtained at the maximum dry density and determined by
AASHTO T 180, Method D.
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

- is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of natural

ground, subgrades and base courses beneath new carriageway construction.

- it is carried out using a cylindrical plunger which penetrates the soil at a given
rate. The relationship between the force and penetration can then be used to
calculate the CBR value of the soil being tested.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Testing Apparatus
 Procedure of CBR Test
The selected sample subgrade soil is compacted in a mold that is 6 inch. (152mm) in diameter
and 6 to 7 inches (152 to 178 mm) high. The moisture content, density, and compactive effort
used in molding the sample are selected to correspond to expected field conditions. After the
sample has been compacted, a surcharge weight equivalent to the estimated weight of pavement
and base is placed on the sample, and the entire assembly is immersed in water for four days. At
the completion of this soaking period, the sample is removed from the water and allowed to drain
for a period of 15 minutes.

The sample, with the same surcharge imposed on it is immediately subjected to penetration by a
piston 1.95 inch in diameter moving at a speed of 0.05in/min. The total loads corresponding to
penetration of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 inch are recorded.
 CBR% = (P/Ps) * 100

where:

P = Measured Pressure for Site Soil (N/mm²=MPa)

Ps = Pressure to achieve equal penetration on standard soil (N/mm²)

Ps = 6.9 MPa (1000psi) for 0.1"(2.54mm) ; 10.3 MPa (1500psi) for 0.2"(5.08mm)
 Subgrade

- is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the pavement
system. Subgrade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the surface, base,
and subbase courses. Since load stresses decrease with depth, the controlling
subgrade stress usually lies at the top of the subgrade. The combined
thickness of subbase, base, and wearing surface must be great enough to
reduce the stresses occurring in the subgrade to values that will not cause
excessive distortion or displacement of the subgrade soil layer.
Elements of Thickness Design

Traffic Loading

Climate or Environment

Material Characteristics
Traffic Loading (Primary Loading Factors)

• Magnitude of Axle Loads

• Volume and Composition of Axle Loads

• Tire Pressure and Contact Area

Load Quantification

 Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) 80 kN

- converts wheels loads of various magnitudes and
repetitions to an equivalent number of "standard"
or "equivalent" loads. Standard Axle

- commonly used standard load is 80 kiloNewton or 18,000 pounds

equivalent single axle load.
 Axle Configurations

Single Axle With Single Wheel Single Axle With Dual Wheel
(Legal Axle Load = 6t) (Legal Axle Load = 10t)

Tridem Axle Tandem Axle

(Legal Axle Load = 24t) (Legal Axle Load = 18t)
 Truck Configurations

2 Axle Truck – 16t 4 Axle Semi Articulated – 34t 5 Axle Truck – 40t

3 Axle Truck – 24t 4 Axle Articulated LCV

 Load Equivalency
4
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
80 𝑘𝑁

Instead of converting each axle pass into equivalent standard axle passes, It will be
convenient to convert one truck pass into equivalent standard axle passes.

The factor that converts the number of trucks into equivalent standard axle repetitions is
termed as vehicle damage factor or truck factor

Therefore, Vehicle damage factor is the number of standard axles per truck.
 Flexible Pavement Distress and Failure

 Cracking  Distortion  Disintegration  Skidding

• Longitudinal • Rutting • Raveling • Polished
• Transverse • Upheaval • Aging Aggregates
• Reflection • Depression • Potholes • Bleeding
• Slippage • Patch Failure
• Edge • Corrugation
& Shoving
 CRACKING
• Longitudinal Cracks – are cracks approximately parallel to pavement centerline and are
not in the wheel path. Usually fatigue or top-down cracking.
• Transverse Cracks – are cracks predominantly perpendicular to pavement centerline.
Usually type of thermal cracking.

• Reflection Cracks – cracks under the overlay can cause stress concentration at the
bottom of the overlay. Due to the repeated stress concentration, a crack starts in the
overlay that has a similar shape to the crack in the old pavement.
• Slippage Cracks – are crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two ends
pointed into the direction of traffic.

• Edge Cracks – edge loads tend to cause failure of this type of cracking by breaking off
the pavement edge.
Longitudinal Transverse Edge

Slippage Reflection
 DISTORTION
• Rutting – is a depression or groove worn into a road or path by the travel of wheels.
They can be form through the deformation of the asphalt concrete pavement.
• Upheaval – is a localized upward movement in a pavement due to swelling of the
subgrade.
• Depression – localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations that the
surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeably after a rain when they fill with
water.
• Patch Failure – the rate at which a patch deteriorates is influenced by compaction,
materials selection, and the quality of the surrounding or underlying pavement.
• Corrugation & Shoving – the distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction. Usually
occurs at points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a
rigid object (shoving).
Rutting Upheaval Depression

Patch Failure Corrugation & Shoving

 DISINTEGRATION

• Raveling – the progressive disintegration of a HMA layer from the surface downward as
a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.

• Aging – pavement surface deterioration by oxidation causes loss of the asphalt binder.

• Potholes – small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the
way through the HMA layer down to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole.
Raveling & Aging Potholes
 SKIDDING

• Polished Aggregate – areas of pavement where the portion of aggregate extending

above the asphalt binder is either very small or there are no rough or angular aggregate
particles.

• Bleeding– is shiny, black surface film of asphalt on the road surface caused by upward
movement of asphalt in the pavement surface. Common causes of bleeding are too much
asphalt in asphalt concrete, hot weather, low space air void content and quality of asphalt.
Bleeding is a safety concern since it results in a very smooth surface, without
the texture required to prevent hydroplaning.
Polished Aggregate

Bleeding or Flushing
► Rigid Pavement

- is applied to wearing surfaces constructed of Portland cement concrete

or reinforced concrete slab that is assumed to possess considerable
flexural strength that will permit it to act as a beam and allow it to bridge
over minor irregularities, which may occur in the base or subgrade on
which it rests.
Portland Cement Concrete

- A plastic and workable mixture composed of mineral aggregate such as sand,

gravel, crushed stone, or slag, interspersed in a binding medium of Portland cement
and water.
Portland Cement Concrete Pavement
Material Requirements
o Portland Cement

It shall conform to the applicable requirements of Item 700, Hydraulic Cement. Only
Type I Portland Cement shall be used unless otherwise provided for in the Special
Provisions. Different brands or the same brands from different mills shall not be
mixed nor shall they be used alternately unless the mix is approved by the Engineer.

Cement which for any reason, has become partially set or which contains lumps of
caked cement shall be rejected. Cement salvaged from discarded or used bags shall not
be used.
Portland Cement is produced in five basic categories, designated as Type I through Type V. Three of these
classes of cement are commonly used in highway construction: Type I, II, III. Where an air-entraining agent
is introduced into these compositions, they are designated types IA, IIA, IIIA, respectively.

 TYPE I – is what might be termed standard or “normal” Portland cement and is intended for use in
general concrete construction where the cement is not required to have special properties.
 TYPE II – is also regarded as a standard type of Portland cement and is used for general concrete
construction. It is specifically recommended for use in situations in which the concrete will be exposed to
moderate sulfate action or where a moderate heat of hydration is required.
 TYPE III – is “high early strength” cement. It differs from the standard types described in that concrete
made from it attains in a much shorter period of time compressive and flexural strengths that are
comparable to those attained by concrete in which the same amount of one of the standard types is used.
o Fine Aggregate
• It shall consist of natural sand, stone screenings or other inert materials with
similar characteristics, or combinations thereof, having hard, strong and durable
particles.

• It shall not contain more than three (3) mass percent of material passing the 0.075
mm (No. 200 sieve) by washing nor more than one (1) mass percent each of clay
lumps or shale. The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the approval of
the Engineer.

• If the fine aggregate is subjected to five (5) cycles of the sodium sulfate soundness
test, the weighted loss shall not exceed 10 mass percent.
Table 311.1 - Grading Requirements for Fine Aggregates
Sieve Description Mass Percent Passing
9.5 mm (3/8 in) 100

4.75 mm (No. 4) 95-100

2.36 mm (No. 8) -

1.18 mm (No. 16) 45-80

0.60 mm (No. 30) -

0.30 mm (No. 50) 5-30

0.15 mm (No. 100) 0-10

o Coarse Aggregate
• It shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace slag, or other approved inert
materials of similar characteristics, or combinations thereof, having hard, strong,
durable pieces and free from any adherent coatings.
• It shall contain not more than one (1) mass percent of material passing the 0.075 mm
(No. 200) sieve, not more than 0.25 mass percent of clay lumps, nor more than 3.5
mass percent of soft fragments.

• If the coarse aggregate is subjected to five (5) cycles of the sodium sulfate soundness
test, the weighted loss shall not exceed 12 mass percent.

• It shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO T 96.
Table 311.2 - Grading Requirements for Coarse Aggregates
Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing
Standard Alternate U.S.
Grading A Grading B Grading C
(mm) Standard
75.0 3” 100 - -
63.0 2-1/2” 90-100 100 100
50.0 2” - 90-100 95-100
37.5 1-1/2” 25-60 35-70 -
20.0 1” - 0-15 35-70
19.0 ¾” 0-10 - -
12.5 ½” 0-5 0-5 10-30
4.75 No. 4 - - 0-5
o Water

• Water used in mixing, curing or other designated application shall be reasonably

clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, grass or other substances injurious to the
finished product.

• Water will be tested In accordance with and shall meet the requirements of Item 714,
Water.

• Water which is drinkable may be used without test.

o Admixture
• Air-entraining admixture shall conform to the requirement of AASHTO M 154.
• Admixture maybe added to the concrete if necessary, but not as partial replacement
of cement. If specified, monofilament polypropylene synthetic fibrin fibers, which
are used as admixture to prevent formation of temperature/shrinkage cracks and
increase impact resistance of concrete slabs be applied in the dosage rate
recommended by its manufacturer.

• Another admixture that is of some consequence is calcium chloride, which is

generally used as an accelerating agent. The amount of calcium chloride is generally
limited to less than 2 percent by weight of standard cement.
 Dimension of the Cross Section
(Thickness Design)
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION METHOD
The PCA design method is based on the following two design criteria:

1. Fatigue – it attempts to keep pavement stresses from repeated loads within acceptable
limits to prevent fatigue cracking.
2. Erosion – It attempts to limit the effects of pavement deflections at joints and
corners of slabs in order to control the erosion of subgrade materials and thus
minimize joint faulting.
Rigid Pavement Distress and Failure

 Blow-ups
 Surface Polish
 Faulting
 Joint/Crack Spalling
 Blow-ups

If a concrete pavement slab is subjected to a uniform increase in

temperature, the slab will increase in length. Under extreme combinations of
circumstances it may be imagined that a long length of concrete slab may “blow up”
if this expansion is prevented. In order to prevent blow-ups, relief may be provided
by the installation of transverse expansion joints.
 Surface Polish

Areas of pavement Portland cement concrete where the portion

of aggregate extending above cement paste is either very small or there are no rough
or angular aggregate particles.
 Faulting

A difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually associated with

undoweled Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement. Usually the approach slab is higher
than the leave slab due to pumping, the most common faulting mechanism.

L= x

U= 0

Poor Load Transfer L= x Good Load Transfer U= x

 Joint/Crack Spalling

Joint spalling and joint deterioration are terms which refer to cracking,
chipping, or fraying of concrete slab edges within about 0.6 m of transverse
joints.
Blow-ups Surface Polish Faulting

Joint/Crack Spalling
- END! -