Adult Basic Skills Professional

Development Manual

Numeracy

Edited by:
Dianne B. Barber
Cheryl S. Knight
Janice F. Voss

Appalachian State University

North Carolina Community College System
Graphic Design: Dianne Barber
Editorial Assistants: Elizabeth Johnston, Nathan Karner,
Jenna McNeill, David Thompson

Copyright

Appalachian State University exclusively grants to the North

Carolina State Board of Community Colleges, its officers and
employees, and volunteers affiliated with North Carolina
community based literacy organizations acting within the scope of
their duties a royalty-free, irrevocable license to reproduce and use
the work(s) in connection with education, research, and public
service functions.

This manual may not, in whole or in part, be copied, photocopied,

reproduced, translated, or converted to any electronic or machine
readable form by any individual or organization other than the
above mentioned parties without prior written consent of the
Adult Basic Skills Professional Development Project acting in
partnership with Appalachian State University.

© 2004 Adult Basic Skills Professional Development Project and

Appalachian State University.

Adult Basic Skills Professional Development Project

Edwin Duncan Hall
Appalachian State University
ASU Box 32047
Boone, NC 28608-2047
(828) 262-2269
www.abspd.appstate.edu
 Contents
Acknowledgments vii

Preface to Trainers and Instructors ix

Cheryl S. Knight

Part I Research, Theory, and Practice 1

1 The Need for Numeracy 3

Dianne B. Barber

2 Dealing with Math Anxiety 13

Dianne B. Barber

3 Adult Learners 23
Dianne B. Barber

4 Learning Styles 39
J. Pat Knight

5 Teaching the Content 55

Dianne B. Barber and
William D. Barber

6 Make it Real with Realia 81

Dianne B. Barber and
Laurie L. Weston

iii
 7 Project-based Teaching and Learning 91
Dianne B. Barber and
Rebecca K. Sanders

8 Using the Calculator 103

Dianne B. Barber

Part 2 Training and Teaching Plans 155

9 Defeating Math Anxiety 159

Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

10 Learning with Intelligence and Style 187

Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

11 Real Learning with Realia 223

Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

12 Projects to Enhance Learning 247

Dianne B. Barber and
Janis M. Holden-Toruño

13 Teaching Multi-level Learners 259

Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

14 Fun with Beginning Math 273

Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

15 Fun with Algebra, Geometry and 321

Graphing
Dianne B. Barber and
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

iv
Part 3 Resources 359

16 Internet Resources 361

Dianne B. Barber
Elizabeth A. Johnston

17 Mathematical Terms 373

Dianne B. Barber

Bibliography 395

v
vi
 Acknowledgments
The Adult Basic Skills Professional Development Manual:
Numeracy was made possible through the collaboration of many
individuals who generously shared their expertise from years of
teaching mathematics in adult education. To them we extend our
heartfelt gratitude. In addition, we extend our appreciation to the
countless people serving in numeracy roles across the state.
We thank the North Carolina Community College System
for its financial and professional support. We extend thanks to
President Martin Lancaster, Dr. Randy Whitfield, Ms. Linda Ray,
Ms. Katie Waters, Ms. Sillar Smith, Mr. Robert Allen, and Ms. Lou
Ann Parker for continued contributions to the Adult Basic Skills
Professional Development Project.
Without the contributions of the Adult Basic Skills directors,
instructors, and trainers this manual would be incomplete. We
extend to each a hardy "Thank You!" for their input.
A special thanks goes to Institute 2004 participants who
contributed to the training and teaching plans and to Elizabeth
Johnston, Nathan Karner, Jenna McNeill, and David Thompson
who worked as editorial assistants.
The ABSPD Project also owes a debt of gratitude to our
Advisory Council members for their guidance in making decisions
on the best means to meet the needs of Adult Basic Skills
instructors and students. The members of the 2004-2005 Advisory
Council are:

vii
Robert Allen, NC Community College System
Sabra Barfield, Brunswick Community College
Linda Battle, Nash Community College
Keith Clayton, Fayetteville Technical Community College
Mike Davis, Isothermal Community College
Kathy Gardner, Stanly Community College
Leo Kelly, Jr., Vance-Granville Community College
Sandra Loyer, Catawba Valley Community College
Sharon McGinnis, Coastal Carolina Community College
Michele Meischeid, Roanoke-Chowan Community College
Patricia Phillips, Davidson County Community College
Lou Ann Parker, NC Community College System
Linda Ray, NC Community College System
Sillar Smith, NC Community College System
Vicki Tate, Robeson Community College
Katie Waters, NC Community College System
Frances Wheeler, Western Piedmont Community College
Randy Whitfield, NC Community College System

Without the dedication and skill of these wonderful people, this

manual would not be possible. Thank you, Advisory Council.

viii
 Preface to Trainers and
Instructors
Cheryl S. Knight

The purpose of this manual is to provide research-based

information on planning and presenting high-quality interactive
numeracy training to meet the professional development needs of
Adult Basic Skills professionals. Much research and experience in
providing numeracy training for Adult Basic Skills professionals
precedes its writing.
This inviting manual is reader friendly. Margins and white
spaces provide areas to record reflections, notations, and
adaptations. The manual’s efficacy as a reference encourages
customization to meet your needs.
The field of numeracy training and instruction continually
advances. Theories change, new technology develops, and the
descriptive terminology evolves. However, basic elements persist
within the changing environment. This manual presents
fundamental research-based strategies proven to be effective for
numeracy instruction and professional development for Adult Basic
Skills educators.
This manual is divided into three parts and 17 chapters
organized with headings and sub-headings to guide reading.
Included are suggestions to help users make the transition from
instructor-centered teaching to student-centered activity-based
learning.
The Need for Numeracy emphasizes how we use numbers
and logical reasoning every day without recognizing what we are

ix
doing. With this in mind chapter 1 discusses the concept of
numeracy, its goals, and importance. Chapter 2 deals with math
anxiety and the impact that fear and excuses make on the ability to
learn and apply numeracy skills. Since learner characteristics
greatly affect outcomes in mathematics’ classes, chapters 3 and 4
address distinctions and similarities among adults and how
instruction should be designed to meet the variety of learning
styles they bring to our classes. Since effective teaching requires
learning substantial information chapter 5 gives ideas for teaching
content. Numeracy lends itself well to hands-on, manipulative
learning; textbooks have never effectively represented numeracy
skills for some adult learners. Chapter 6 teaches the use of realia, or
authentic materials, situations, and problems, to teach numeracy
skills, giving meaning and application to concepts as they are
learned. An integrated approach to teaching numeracy is through
the project-based method which emphasizes the need to integrate
the learning of numeracy skills with other subject matter while
making application to a problem or project. Complete details for
application are found in chapter 7. One numeracy instrument that
has made its way into purses, pockets, and pouches is the
calculator, yet many people do not know how to use it to make
their lives simpler. Chapter 8 serves as an easy to understand guide
on how to use the calculator. Portions of the chapter may even be
shared directly with learners. Chapters 9 through 15 use
information from previous chapters, combined with new material
to generate professional development plans for training Adult Basic
Skills trainers and instructors in the fundamentals of numeracy
instruction. To be in tune with today’s world the manual has
included chapter 16, Internet Resources. A glossary of
mathematical terms comprises chapter 17, which is followed by an
extensive bibliography. It is our goal that this manual serves you
and your students well as a guide to the teaching of numeracy.
Use this manual extensively to make your workshop
facilitation and classroom instruction efficient and effective.
Regardless of the model employed, planning is the most important
aspect of success. The better prepared you are, the more effective
you will be as a trainer and/or instructor.

x
 This manual is the 10th in the Adult Basic Skills Professional
Development Instructor Training Manual Series. The content of
each manual is intended to enrich the user’s knowledge base and
provide opportunities for professional development. For a
complete listing of training manuals, videos, and CD-ROMs visit
our web site at www.abspd.appstate.edu.

xi
xii
 Part 1
Research,
Theory, and
Practice

-1-
-2-
 Chapter

The Need for

Numeracy

Dianne B. Barber

The harmony of the world is made manifest in

Form and Number, and the heart and soul and
all poetry of Natural Philosophy are embodied
in the concept of mathematical beauty.
D’Arcy Wentworth

-3-
-4-
 Introduction
“It is far easier to calculate a percentage than it is to drive a
car” (Dewdney, 1993, p. 1). However, many people think the words
“math” and “simple” do not belong in the same sentence. Math has
such an aura of difficulty surrounding it that even people who are
quite competent in other areas of life are not ashamed to admit they
cannot “do” math. Innumeracy is more socially acceptable and
tolerated than illiteracy (Dewdney, 1993; Withnall, 1995).
Math inundates our days.
For instance, adult students begin
each day by calculating the time
needed to get to work or
accomplish a particular task, and
they continue using math
throughout the day. In our
society most days include one or
more purchases which usually
require the calculation of whether
one has enough money to make a
purchase, how much tax will be Math inundates our days.
added, and how much change Most adults calculate time
will be returned. Periodically, and money daily.
each of us calculates how much
paint, fertilizer, or other materials
are required, but usually, after
we calculate the area to be covered. Many of us cook on a daily
basis and sometimes follow recipes. These activities require
numeracy skills.
Just as literacy has become increasingly important in our
society, so has numeracy. We are exposed to numerical data every
day, through sales pitches, budget considerations, shopping and
buying, and most occupations including homemaking. Many of us
do math routinely without realizing we are doing math, such as
when we estimate lengths, areas, volumes, or total costs. These
applications of math provide an obvious source for illustrations of
the importance of math to everyone. Practical problems tend to
inspire and maintain student interest in math.

-5-
 Everyday tasks, as well as many occupational uses, provide
a wealth of examples both to show the value of math and to
provide practical applications for encouraging students in
developing numeracy skills. Adult students expect practicality in
learning. The Adult Basic Skills instructor must provide practical
examples to inspire and involve students, followed with sufficient
practice to develop appropriate numeracy skills. Using everyday
applications greatly increases the chance of success in learning
mathematics.

What is Numeracy?
Numeracy is more than being proficient at basic math
calculations. According to Withnall, “Numeracy is the type of math
skills needed to function in everyday life, in the home, workplace,
and community” (1995). In the book, Adult Numeracy Teaching:
Making Meaning in Mathematics, numeracy is described as

a critical awareness which enables us to build a bridge

between mathematics and the real world, with all its
diversity. Being numerate also involves the personal
responsibility of reflecting that same critical awareness in
one’s social practice. Thus, being numerate means being able
to situate, interpret, critique, and use math in context, taking
into account all the mathematical as well as social and
human complexities which come with that process.
(Johnston, Agars, Marr, Tout, & Yasukawa, 1998, p. 234)

Numeracy requires a range of problem solving skills that

allow citizens to function in a free enterprise society. Even hobbies
and leisure activities require, or at least are enhanced by, basic
mathematical skills. Cooking, gardening, and home improvement
are common activities that illustrate math applications. Researchers
in the field of ethnomathematics demonstrate that all cultures
recognize mathematical concepts and use them, much as language
is recognized and used, as a system for making meaning of the
world (Numeracy in Focus, 1995).

-6-
 “Numerate behavior is observed when people manage a
situation or solve a problem in a real context; it involves
responding to information about mathematical ideas that may be
represented in a range of ways; it requires the activation of a range
of enabling knowledge, behaviors, and processes “ (Gal, van
Groenestign, Manly, Schmitt, & Tout, 1999, p. 11). Different people
require different sets of math skills, and their numeracy needs
change in response to changes in life circumstances, such as buying
a car or house or learning a new hobby (Gal, 1993; Withnall, 1995).
Like literacy, numeracy “is not a fixed entity to be earned and
possessed once and for all” (Steen, 1990, p. 214), nor a skill one
either has or does not have. Instead people’s skills are situated
along a continuum of different purposes and levels of
accomplishment with numbers (Kerka, 1995).

Just as adults’ budget needs change

in response to life circumstances, so
do their numeracy needs.

Schmitt (2000) reported the following:

Numeracy has to do not only with quantity and number but

also with dimension and shape, patterns and relationships,
data and chance, and the mathematics of change. Adult Basic
Education and General Education Diploma (GED)
mathematics instruction should be less concerned with school
mathematics and more concerned with the mathematical
demands of the lived-in world: the demands that adults meet

-7-
 in their roles as workers, family members, and community
members. Therefore we need to view this new term,
numeracy, not as a synonym for mathematics but as a new
discipline defined as the bridge that links mathematics and the
real world. Adult Basic Education and GED mathematics
instruction need to draw upon what is known about the
development of children’s mathematical thinking and extend that
research to address the development of adults’ numerate
thinking and practice. (p. 4)

According to Glass (2001):

The communication skills associated with literacy may be

refined into such categories as listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. This facilitates the creation of a more
manageable framework for delivering those literacy skills.
Similarly, the concepts and skills associated with numeracy
necessarily become much further qualified. Different
“categories” or “subdivisions” of numeracy emerge to allow
for the creation of a manageable, sensible framework for
delivering numeracy education. In a general sense, Steen
identified five categories of numeracy, each linked directly
to its use or application. These include practical numeracy,
civic numeracy, professional numeracy, numeracy for
leisure, and cultural numeracy. (p. 13)

Similarly, John Dingwall, in his March 2000 report, Improving

Numeracy in Canada, identifies five purposes for numeracy:

 everyday-life,
 community,
 work-related,
 personal organization, and
 further learning.

-8-
 Numeracy includes major and lasting educational skills and
concepts that contribute to successful functioning in society. It is an
aggregate of skills, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, problem solving
skills, and communication skills that enable people to effectively
handle real-world situations. Therefore, adults need to seamlessly
integrate their use of mathematical skills with linguistic or
communicative skills. Careful observation of the world around us
makes that obvious and can help students refute the rather popular
image of math as something incomprehensible and often irrelevant.

Goals of Numeracy Education

The Adult Basic Skills math instructor should approach
every class preparation, as well as instruction, with an acute
awareness of the students’ needs for numeracy. The teaching of
computation skills should be embedded in a practical application
approach that enhances students’ abilities to understand and
communicate math.
Yasukawa, Johnston and Yates (1995) listed the following
seven general aims in numeracy education:

1. Make explicit the concept of mathematics as a social

construction through engaging both presenter and
participants in a negotiated process of constructing a
blueprint to realize the educational objectives.
2. Develop an appreciation that individual human
construction of knowledge is a sub-process of, but not
equivalent to, social construction of knowledge.
3. Reinforce the value of reflective practice as a way of
enriching personal knowledge as well as the learning
environment.
4. Develop an awareness of the political nature of
numeracy, and the sensitivity to power required in the
practice of engendering numeracy in and out of a
classroom.

-9-
 5. Critically examine the politics of ‘content and coverage’
versus ‘meaning and connections’ in teaching and
learning environments.
6. Critically analyze the relationships and interactions
between teachers’ and learners’ views of mathematics
and numeracy, their espousal and their enacted models
of learning and teaching, and the factors influencing
them.
7. Become familiar with more areas of mathematics as they
emerge and become resourceful in the process of learning
math.

Incorporating these goals into lesson planning contributes

significantly to the learning of math and numeracy by Adult Basic
Skills students. It makes math more interesting. It enhances
learning by serving as a student tool for prying out strongly held
beliefs that they “can’t do math.”

Why Is Numeracy Important?

John Dingwall (2000) identified numerous aspects of, and
needs for, numeracy in a report entitled Improving Numeracy in
Canada. The following items were included in his list:

1. Economy and Workplace. In the economy, some of the

key driving factors for the increased use of numeracy are:
 Widespread use of networked computers into which
there is a constant flow of data, e.g., from “sensors”
such as scanners at check-out counters. This
information is collected and analyzed using
databases, spreadsheets, and “business intelligence”
and other reporting tools. All of this requires high
degrees of numeracy on the part of everyone
concerned.

- 10 -
  Concern for quality in both manufacturing and
services. This involves the use of data for control and
analysis.
 Availability of more information through the Internet,
e.g., in areas such as comparative pricing (where
buyers must analyze competive prices and merits of
different products and services).
 Increasing knowledge content in all areas, most
notably in the trades and professions, but also in
many other fields; much of this knowledge has a
mathematical or numerical dimension.
 Increased teamwork. In teams, people need to
develop and exercise a wider range of skills, e.g.,
planning, budgeting, scheduling, and process control.
2. Personal Life. Numeracy is also becoming more
important in personal life, in areas such as:
 Budgeting and money management. Numeracy has
always been important, but now the choices are more
numerous and complicated.
 Health. Numeracy helps in understanding health
related information, e.g., in areas such as medications,
health risks, diet, and exercise. Increasingly, the
discussion of these matters involves numbers. An
example would be the increasing number of
references to fat grams and the body mass index, a
new subject within the past ten years.
 Household. Numeracy has always been important in
home repairs and in renovation and construction. In
recent years, there has been a vast expansion of “do it
yourself” products and services. There is a wider
range of choices in products and services and
comparison shopping is becoming ever more
complex.

- 11 -
  Family. Many parents want to help children with
math homework that seems to have become more
challenging in recent years.
3. Education and Knowledge. Numbers and math are
becoming more important in all areas of knowledge.
4. Citizenship and Public Life. As citizens, taxpayers, and
stakeholders, people need to understand math and
numbers, e.g., in discussions of taxes, expenditures,
interest rates, employment levels, public opinion polls,
and elections.

Summary
Unfortunately, our society popularizes the misconception
that it is okay not to be able to do math; many otherwise very
literate people almost seem to brag in those terms. Of course,
numeracy is essential in everyday life. Adult students need to be
encouraged to set goals and develop motivation. Reference to the
everyday applications of math and numeracy, as well as to the
opportunities to enhance hobbies, occupations, and family welfare
by developing numeracy skills, can encourage the development of
appropriate goals. Allow adult students to search for meaning and
discover relationships between prior competence and new learning.

Numeracy includes major and lasting educational

skills and concepts that contribute to successful
functioning in society. It is an aggregate of skills,
knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, problem solving
skills, and communication skills that enable
people to effectively handle real-world situations.

- 12 -
 Chapter

Dealing with Math

Anxiety

Dianne B. Barber

Multiplication is vexation,
Division is just as bad;
The Rule of Three perplexes me,
And Practice drives me mad.
Old Rhyme

- 13 -
- 14 -
 Introduction
Many Adult Basic Skills students have experienced failure in
mathematics. Adult Basic Skills instructors across the state often tell
me that math stands in the way of their students completing their
GED. For too long, our society has excused math failure with
statements like: “My parents couldn’t do math either,” “Most
people that learn math never use what they learn,” or “A lot of very
successful people can’t do math.” Students will not learn what
they are not expected to learn. It is no wonder that so many careers
are limited by inadequate understanding of mathematics.
College students often let math requirements govern their
choice of majors thus restricting their career choices. People who
would like to change careers often do not because they lack certain
math skills and lack confidence in their ability to master them.
Imagine how people at a dinner party would react if
someone admitted he/she could not read; picture how differently
the same people would react to someone claiming he/she could not
do math. The tragic fact that Americans practically brag about their
inabilities in math at least enhances, if not actually causes, rampant
math anxiety.
Many students in the Adult Basic Skills numeracy classroom
are convinced that they are not good in math, a conviction that is
usually the result of a history of painful and embarrassing failures,
ultimately justified by one or more of the quotes given in the first
paragraph. This means that adult students are doomed to failure in
the classroom unless they can be shown how they can learn. One of
the most challenging, but
potentially most satisfying,
tasks for an Adult Basic Skills
instructor is to guide students
from the mistaken belief that
they “can’t do math” to the
truth that it is possible,
rewarding, and even
Math anxiety not confronted enjoyable to be able to use
may lead to frustration which this vital tool in everyday life.
may result in failure.

- 15 -
 Math Anxiety
In Science News Online, Bower reported on a series of
experiments which demonstrated that math anxiety causes
physiological changes and interferes with working memory and
math performance (2001). Students who reduce math anxiety
improve math performance and better performance reduces math
anxiety and improves self-esteem.
Consider the elementary classroom environment where
math work consists of repetitive calculations that seem to have no
application to the real world and where perfection is demanded.
Compound this image by picturing the first student to complete the
problem being regularly recognized, while other students are left
feeling inferior. Imagine a teacher who has no patience with those
who do not catch on quickly, or a teacher whose personal dislike
for math is made obvious by omitting math instruction or
otherwise giving math a low priority. Many adult students are a
product of that type of educational background.
Johnston, et al. (1998) list ten factors that contribute to math
anxiety:

ÿ dislike of school,
ÿ fear of a particular teacher,
ÿ uncomfortable learning methods,
ÿ pressure to be “clever,”
ÿ emphasis on product rather than process,
ÿ myths about the importance of math,
ÿ gaps in schooling,
ÿ definitions of masculinity/femininity,
ÿ lack of math use since leaving school, and
ÿ introduction of calculators.
Do your students suffer from math anxiety? The answer is
usually, “Yes, without exception.” In most classes, that answer
would be affirmed if you polled the students. Will it help to
introduce the topic and lead a discussion on math anxiety? More

- 16 -
often than not, this is a good use of class time. The first step in
overcoming any phobia (dare we call it “math phobia”) is facing up
to it, defining its effects on performance, and determining its
causes. Arem (1993) begins the preface to her self-help workbook,
Conquering Math Anxiety, by telling about a student who would run
from the math classroom and vomit uncontrollably. That student
reported dreaming that numbers were chasing her, trying to hurt
her.

Dealing with Math Anxiety

When the author taught math during a previous career, she
would ask students to draw their “math monster.” This activity not
only helped students analyze their fear of math, but it provided an
opportunity to show students a possible reason for previous math
failures. It gave them a way to redirect their math learning by
explaining that freehand drawing is an activity which is primarily
governed by the right side of the brain. Since math computations
are a left-brain activity, students can be advised that many of them
were right-brained dominated students being taught by left-brain
dominant math teachers. Since numeracy involves many
visualization and communication skills that are “right-brain”
activities, students can be advised that learning math from a more
right-brain approach helps the left side of the brain develop needed

Signs of Math Anxiety: going

blank, paranoia, tuning out,
guilt, panic, and avoidance.

- 17 -
reasoning and computational skills. Stated another way, this
explanation gives students a rationale for past failures and hope for
learning from a new approach to math.
To initiate a discussion of math anxiety, ask students if they
exhibit one or more of the following symptoms:

ÿ Going Blank – At the mention of math, suddenly you

cannot reason or remember anything, as though a tall
wall has been built between the world and your brain.
ÿ Tension – Your body tightens up, your neck gets stiff,
your hands shake, and/or your stomach gets queasy.
ÿ Paranoia – You think everyone can figure this out but
you, and they know it.
ÿ Tuning Out – You start thinking about what you are
going to have for supper, or you wonder how the coffee
stain got on your sleeve.
ÿ Guilt – You feel that you have been found out. The
illusion that you are a functioning adult has been
breeched, and the little math that you thought you knew
is a fraud.
ÿ Panic – Your pulse races, and you perspire. Disaster
looms, and you will be destroyed.
ÿ Avoidance – When math enters the scene, you remember
that phone call you have to make or a colleague who is
really good at this sort of thing who would love to do it
for you.

Students who suffer from severe math anxiety may also feel
threatened by computers or calculators. Hence the statement, “We
can do this on the calculator,” may be as frightening to some
students as it is reassuring to others. Students need to learn to use
calculators, but the instructor must be careful not to allow
technophobia to aggravate math anxiety.
Likewise severely affected students may be threatened by
topics such as measurements. Even calculating change may elicit
feelings of insecurity. For example, try to get a cashier to complete a

- 18 -
transaction if the cash register is not working; they panic at having
to actually count the amount of change due the customer. Students
who overcome math insecurities will probably succeed; those who
do not have little chance of becoming good at math.

Instructor Goals
The goal of the Adult Basic Skills math instructor is to help
students see that it is possible, rewarding, and even enjoyable to be
able to use math in real life. Nothing is achieved if students
memorize steps and types of problems to pass the test and
therefore, "carry" little math with them. What little they remember,
they cannot apply in the real world. They leave the classroom with
the same negative attitude with which they entered, if not worse,
by continuing to think "math is a waste of time because it isn't used
in real life." To help students break this cycle and learn the skills
needed for success on mathematics tests and in real life, instructors
must:

ÿ address self-doubt and math anxiety,

ÿ teach critical thinking skills,
ÿ include a variety of teaching strategies,
ÿ use real-life materials, and
ÿ make math interactive with students.

Educators have used various techniques to address math

anxiety. Effective remedies invariably involve student discussion of
their attitudes toward math, followed by the instructor
emphasizing that previous failures do not mean a lack of math
ability. Instructors essentially must help students change their
thought processes. Previously we mentioned the possibility of
discussing left-brain versus right-brain skills. Making students
aware that learning styles differ enhances the approach. Be sure
students understand that failure to excel in an environment created

- 19 -
by a particular teaching style may reflect a mismatch of teaching
and learning styles rather than a lack of ability.
Two vital steps for addressing math anxiety problems are an
admission that one experiences those problems and the recognition
that others share those problems. Students with math anxiety may
believe they cannot change, so testimonials from former sufferers of
math anxiety can be extremely helpful. The most effective
testimonials are from peers; look for ways and opportunities to let
students read, or better yet, hear, how others who were recently in
their shoes conquered math anxiety.
Addressing self-doubt is important, particularly in learning
mathematics. Many adult students do not feel confident,
competent, or comfortable with math. Math anxiety is not an
indicator of ability. Many students find that hard to accept. Some
students remember when they liked math and were good at it.
Students can write about the episode that caused their self-doubt.
Writing can help put things into
perspective.
As students regain
confidence in their ability, their
math anxiety tends to drift away.
Confidence, however, does not
increase unless students experience
success in math. Students need to
see math as applicable and vital to
everyday life. Confidence builds
competence; competence builds
confidence.
When addressing math anxiety, the instructor's belief in
students' abilities is critical. Success communicates, "Anyone can do
math if they are given adequate instruction.” Supportive
environments help students overcome their fear of math. Gaining
self-confidence in math is dependent upon effective teaching.
Adult students need to perceive a change in performance if
they are to change their perceptions of their own ability. Success,
like competence, builds self-confidence.
Activating prior knowledge helps give meaning to new
concepts which are an expansion of previous knowledge. Adult

- 20 -
students possess life experiences that allow them to take a
pragmatic approach to learning. Experience and practice increases
the ability to make connections. Adult learners readily seek
connections between background experience and new concepts
when they are taught to do so. Learning environment, intensity of
learning, and relevance put new concepts into long-term memory.
Numbers Talk, a description of “Best Practices in Ontario
LBS,” notes that instructors can “do much to alleviate math stress”
(Glass, 2001). The author lists several items gleaned from student
feedback including:

ÿ Use review materials such as “self-tests” to build

confidence.
ÿ Give small tests to ease anxiety about bigger tests.
ÿ Give un-timed tests; allow retakes.
ÿ Encourage estimation as a tool to solve problems and
check the feasibility of answers.
ÿ Set the learner up for success; emphasize specifically
what the learner has done correctly.
ÿ Be patient.
ÿ Instructors’ attitudes affect learners.
ÿ Let the learner see the fallibility of the instructor to learn
that no one is perfect.
ÿ Encourage learners to talk about math anxieties and
insecurities.
ÿ Use deep breathing, lots of laughter, and breaks.
ÿ Bring an enthusiastic, “Math is fun and useful” approach
to the classroom.

Curtain-Phillips points out that math is often associated with

tasks of pain and frustration (2004). Examples include paying bills,
balancing checkbooks, and completing income tax forms. The use
of problems that deal with more pleasurable activities such as

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gardening, home repair, hobbies, sports, and vacations is a good
approach to alleviating math anxiety.
Specific feedback indicates level of performance. Immediate
feedback is essential for correcting conceptual errors. The results
reinforce new learning.

Summary
Many Adult Basic Skills students have had negative math
experiences. Previous schooling often associated intelligence with
quick recall of facts. Testing and classrooms created a cycle of
failure. Adult students may not have been taught to use prior
knowledge as a base for new learning or to make applications of
new knowledge to everyday life. Give students time to adjust to
new learning techniques as their knowledge base and everyday
applications are used to inspire interest and motivate learning.
Becoming familiar with available support services is another
way instructors can help struggling math students. Students can
hardly be expected to learn when their lives are in shambles.
Directing them to support services is helpful. In 2003, the National
Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy published a
research brief that identified several problems that are prevalent in
Adult Basic Education. Ahlstrom stated:

Finally, many teachers do not play the role in the broader

field of ABE (e.g., advocating for students’ needs, providing
professional development to other teachers), either because
they are unaware of opportunities or they are not inclined,
prepared, supported, or even expected to participate outside
of their program. (p. 3)

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 Chapter

Adult Learners

Dianne B. Barber

What you have to make them see—more than

anything—is the future—which is mathematics.
Bill Cosby

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- 24 -
 Introduction
The number of younger students, ages 16 to 22, in Adult
Basic Skills classes has increased in recent years. Many mature
adults, ages 55 and older, are also returning to school. These two
groups, combined with the "typical" adult students, create a
trichotomy in background experiences, goals, and interests. Should
all these different students fall under the classification "Adult
Learners?" What do the experts say?

Adult learners bring different

knowledge, experiences, goals,
and interests to the classroom.

The experts are divided in their opinions partly because

there is so much controversy over the definition of the term “adult
learner.” The most widely accepted definition comes from
publications of the National Commission of Higher Education
where "adult learner" is defined as an individual whose major role
in life is something other than full-time student. This definition
certainly fits the majority of students in Adult Basic Skills classes.
Most students have other roles in life and do not attend school full
time. Does this mean that the Adult Basic Skills students all learn
the same way? Probably not! Teaching in the Adult Basic Skills
classroom would be much easier if all the students fit the mold of
the adult learner and met the descriptive characteristics. Alas, that
is not the case.

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 Some educators make distinctions among "younger
learners," "adult learners," and "older learners." Making that
distinction sets the stage for approaching the Adult Basic Skills
classroom with separate teaching plans for each, however
instructors need to develop an overall plan to accommodate all
students.
Although these three student groups share common
characteristics, they often approach learning differently. The next
three sections explore characteristics of younger learners, adult
learners, and older learners. The last section relates those
characteristics and the differences among age groups to the
learning of mathematics. First, however, a note of caution is in
order. The characteristics, learning styles, and teaching strategies
presented in this chapter are generalizations. Within each group
there are exceptions. It is often helpful to plan teaching strategies
that integrate differences among these groups. Meeting the needs
of every student requires adjusting and varying teaching styles and
strategies.

Younger learners are future-oriented,

expect learning to be fun and stimulating,
and need positive reinforcement.

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 Younger Learners
Younger learners may or may not exhibit immaturity.
Obviously, those closer to age 16 are more likely to act immaturely
than those who are 20 or older. Immature behavior may include
pouting, displaying anger, or acting up when things go awry.
However, immaturity more often is expressed as irresponsibility;
the irresponsible learner is more likely to be absent from class and
less likely to complete out-of-class assignments. Younger learners
sometimes show a very casual, unconcerned attitude. Other
common characteristics of younger learners are explained below.
Younger learners are subject-oriented. Younger learners
often are motivated by a desire to be successful, regardless of how
courses relate to their personal goals. Younger learners accept
sequential topics unless they doubt that the instructor knows the
material or knows what they need to learn.
Younger learners are future-oriented. Younger students
often accept mandatory education; yet resent the educational
environment. They may not have realistic plans for achieving their
goals, but are less likely to question that education will some day
"pay off."
Younger learners are dependent on adults for direction.
Younger learners are less likely to try to find solutions because they
usually depend on older adults. Unless they find an Internet web
site that offers an explanation, they routinely expect instructors to
provide course guidance. Unfortunately, they also expect
instructors to make learning easy by presenting paced, step-by-step
lessons. Direction in math is likely to be met with skepticism.
Younger learners accept new information. When you tell
younger learners that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180
degrees or the steps in the multiplication of fractions, they are more
likely to accept that information without proof. They trust
instructors’ knowledge. They also are more likely to accept
incorrect solutions and conclusions, even when they are obviously
illogical. Hence, they are less likely to correct work even when
results are ridiculous.
Younger learners expect learning to be fun. Expended
effort often relates to the degree of fun rather than how many

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practical applications are shown. Generations who grew up with
the Internet and television shows like Mr. Wizard expect clear,
understandable instruction that makes learning fun and easy.
Unfortunately, learning requires effort. Often younger students in
Adult Basic Skills feel that few things in life are worth effort.
Instructors must find innovative and fun ways to teach math.
Younger students expect to be stimulated. This is not
surprising considering the variety of stimulating activities
available. They are accustomed to being entertained and few things
are as "awful" as being bored. They do not like to spend time on
one task but respond to projects in which they can quickly
demonstrate abilities and success. The worst option is work that is
seen as both boring and irrelevant.
“Cutting edge" information grabs the attention of younger
students. They already have access to much information, and most
have learned how to seek it. When the class material is the same
"old" stuff they heard before, they will probably react to it in the
same "old" way they did when they failed to learn it the first time.
Younger learners need positive reinforcement. Many
younger learners in Adult Basic Skills have little confidence in their
ability to succeed in an educational environment. They may suffer
psychological barriers because of previous difficulties in math.
Many older learners have had time to experience success in other
areas while younger learners may believe they have rarely been
successful at anything. These students come with a subconscious
expectation of failure. They simply do not know how to succeed.
An unclear future and no experience in planning contribute
to dependence on others for learning. Younger students require
guidance in learning to accept responsibility for their learning.

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 Adults expect learner-centered settings where
they can set their own goals and organize their
own learning around their present life needs.

Adult Learners
Adults need to have a reason for learning. “Adult learners
can’t be threatened, coerced, or tricked into learning something
new. Birch rods and gold stars have minimum impact” (Zemke &
Zemke, 1981, p. 2). Adults are not easily swayed by vague
predictions of undefined future uses. Show practical, current
mathematical applications to motivate adult learners. “Adults
expect learner-centered settings where they can set their own goals
and organize their own learning around their present life needs”
(Donaldson, Flannery, & Ross-Gordon, 1993, p. 148).
The need to see practical applications is not the only way
adult learners differ from younger learners. Additional adult
learner characteristics are detailed below.
Adult learners have a reason for enrolling. Adults engage
in learning for a variety of reasons—job advancement, pleasure,
love of learning, etc. It is equally true that for most adults learning
is not its own reward. “Adults who are motivated to seek out a
learning experience do so primarily because they have a use for the
knowledge or skill being sought. Learning is a means to an end, not
an end in itself” (Zemke & Zemke, 1981, p. 1). Since adults need to
have a reason for learning, they have a reason for being in class.

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Find out what it is. Seek examples of direct workplace applications.
Career goals are often powerful motivators for adult learners.
Sometimes the Adult Basic Skills student becomes frustrated
by their lack of opportunities. When this is the case, choose
mathematical applications from many careers thus expanding
horizons and creating opportunities for the future.
Adult learners’ pursuit of additional education is a major
decision. The decision to return to school is a major decision for
adult learners. Returning to school involves adjustments. It is
important to adult learners that they reap benefits from their
investment of time, energy, and personal sacrifices.
Adult learners are usually homemakers. They are less likely
to live in a home provided by someone else. Most adult learners
maintain a household, whether it is an apartment with or without
roommates or a house with or without a family. Almost all adult
learners must budget and make purchases to support their daily
lives. Homemaking is accompanied by a variety of other activities,
including home repairs, home building, hobbies, and leisure
activities. Learn about students' home and family situations to find
practical applications. Then teach to those needs and interests.
Adult learners see the Adult Basic Skills program as an
avenue for increasing self-esteem. Very few students enter Adult
Basic Skills programs for the sole purpose of improving self-
esteem; however, “Increasing or maintaining one’s sense of self-
esteem and pleasure are strong secondary motivators for engaging
in learning experiences” (Zemke & Zemke, 1981, p. 1).
Adult learners take errors personally. Adults are easily
embarrassed by what they perceive as inadequacies. They are self-
conscious about not having learned math, and their insecurity
makes them very cautious. When adult learners show anguish over
mistakes, create situations that diminish anguish. Correct errors
tactfully. Use sincere praise. Provide guidance to help learners
discover their errors and make improvements. Remember that
building self-esteem is a long-term project, but destroying it is
instantaneous.
Adult learners like to be in control. Although adult learners
are dependent on instructors for guidance, they like to develop
their own projects and have control over approaches and timelines.

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Although adult learners usually indicate a preference for self-
directed rather than group projects, they can excel at collaborative
learning. Adults “see themselves as proactive, initiating individuals
engaged in a continuous re-creation of their personal relationships,
work worlds, and social circumstances rather than as reactive
individuals, buffeted by uncontrollable forces of circumstance”
(Brookfield, 1986, p. 19). “Adults prefer self-directed and self-
designed learning projects 7 to 1 over group-learning experiences
led by professionals. However, self-direction does not mean
isolation. In fact, studies of self-directed projects involve an average
of 10 other people as resources, guides, encouragers, and the like”
(Zemke & Zemke, 1981, p. 3).
Efficiency of learning is important to adult learners. Most
adult learners have many responsibilities and thus have no
tolerance for wasting time. They want to get right to the point, do
what needs to be done, and go back to their own lives. They expect
immediate applications for each skill. Failure to show immediate
application may lead students to question the instructor's common
sense. When they start saying things like, "The instructor has a lot
of book learning but he/she doesn't understand the real world," the
instructor begins to experience problems maintaining trust,
interest, attention, and, even, attendance.
Adult learners may become impatient. Adult learners often
try to meet the demands of job, home, and family while adding
school. Few students are in a position to ignore other aspects of
their lives to focus on schoolwork. Instead, they steal a few
moments here and there to prepare. Stress and lack of sleep are
common. The opportunity to sleep late or take a few days off rarely
exists, hence, adult learners may become irritable and impatient.
They may have trouble focusing. Plan active classes that maintain
student interest even when they are tired or in a bad mood.
Adult learners have valuable life experiences. Many adult
learners are in a position to make significant contributions to class
discussions because they have had unique and interesting
experiences. They gain a sense of self-worth when called upon to
relate those experiences for the good of the class. Building on life
experiences leads to efficient and effective learning. When class
members relate practical math application other learners quickly

- 31 -
accept its relevance to the real world. “Not only do adult learners
have experiences that can be used as a foundation for learning new
things but … readiness to learn frequently stems from life tasks and
problems. The particular life situations and perspectives that adults
bring to the classroom can provide a rich reservoir for learning”
(Imel, 1998, p. 2).
Adult learners need to activate prior knowledge. “New
knowledge has to be integrated with previous knowledge; that
means active learner participation. Since only the learners can tell
us how the new fits or fails to fit with the old, we have to ask them”
(Zemke & Zemke, 1981, p. 5). Prior knowledge lays the foundation
for developing self-confidence and learning. “Information that has
little ‘conceptual overlap’ with what is already known is acquired
slowly” (Zemke & Zemke, 1981, p. 3). When new information
conflicts with prior knowledge acceptance occurs more slowly.
New concepts may extend previous knowledge through
experience and practice. Lessons can teach adult learners to connect
background experience and new concepts.
Adult learners crave positive feedback. They are insecure,
impatient, and need to do well. When those feelings are combined,
adult learners are very anxious to know how well they are doing. It
is important that you return written assignments promptly, and
explain to students how they are evaluated. Give suggestions for
improvement and make understandable corrections.

Older Learners
Some older learners simply want a high school diploma.
Students who are fifty-five or older are less likely to be motivated
by their job or career. One way to define "older learner" is to base
the distinction on diploma goals versus career goals. This
difference in goals produces a distinct group of learner
characteristics.
Hiemstra (1993) defines older students as age fifty-five and
older. However, it is hard to define an age at which there is a major
change in learner characteristics. Obviously, goals and
characteristics of sixty-year olds may parallel those of "traditional"

- 32 -
adult learners more than those of many fifty-year olds; age becomes
an arbitrary distinction. Older learners may have a unique set of
problems and characteristics such as those identified below.
Older learners may have age-related health problems.
Instructors should be sensitive to potential health problems of all
students, but older students are more likely to have geriatric-
related problems, such as digestion and bladder control. Students
may be reluctant to request a break; therefore, plan frequent breaks
or arrange instructional activities so students feel comfortable
leaving the room as needed.
Mobility or agility may make
participation in certain activities
painful or undesirable. Be especially
careful of activities that involve getting
down on the floor. “The learning
environment must be physically and
psychologically comfortable. Adults
report that long lectures, periods of
interminable sitting and the absence of
practice opportunities are high on the Older learners are less
irritation scale” (Zemke & Zemke, likely to be motivated
1981, p. 5). Uncomfortable students are by their jobs or careers.
not likely to be good learners.
Older learners may be easily embarrassed. Use non-
offensive humor in the classroom. Strive to create an atmosphere
that respects individuals. Adults’ emotional states are inextricably
tied up in their ability to learn. Adults must be emotionally
comfortable with the learning situation (Draves, 1984). J. Roby Kidd
in How Adults Learn states, “Feelings are not just aids or inhibitors
to learning; the goals of learning and of emotional development are
parallel and sometimes identical and can probably be most
conveniently stated as self-realization and self-mastery” (1973, p.
95).
Older learners may be involved in reading or travel. Many
older students have time to read, travel, and keep abreast of current
events. One effective way of showing practical applications of
course content is to relate it to travel and current issues, such as the
difference in currency, cost of goods, global warming, cloning, or

- 33 -
the war on terrorism. These are valuable resources for discussions
and activities.
Older learners have lived history. Many instructors do not
realize that younger learners were not alive during Vietnam, when
the TV remote was invented, when there was no Internet, etc. By
the same token, older adults have experienced these events. Older
students can discuss where they were when Neal Armstrong
walked on the moon or when John F. Kennedy was assassinated.
Learners who relate personally to historical events, and even
learned arithmetic skills without a calculator, can be valuable
classroom resources.
Older learners may experience difficulty with
memorization. The ability to learn new things often fades with age.
Older learners may depend very heavily on experience, practice,
and understanding to make connections with and learn new
concepts because memorization skills decline with aging (Nelson &
Albert, 2004).
Older learners may like to talk. Many older students enjoy
companionship and enjoy talking. Some tend to get carried away
with irrelevant tales, so tactful guidance of class discussion
becomes very important. The instructor enhances self-esteem,
provides motivation, and inspires effort while giving valuable
classroom time for discussion. Balance the presentation of new
material, debate and discussion, sharing of relevant experiences,
and the clock.
Older learners may enroll in classes to prepare for, or deal
with, a life-changing event, such as the loss of a job or the loss of a
spouse, whether due to death or divorce. Moving to a new
location, retiring from a job, or experiencing the "empty nest"
syndrome can inspire a decision to pursue additional education.

Different Yet Alike

Instructors must understand what motivates students to
learn. Directors of basic skills programs report that a common goal
of students returning to basic skills programs is to earn their GED
or Adult High School Diploma. Why do students want additional

- 34 -
education? Will it make them better parents or better employees?
How will it empower them or help them to take control of their
lives? To provide situations that stimulate motivation, instructors
must understand what originally motivated students to enroll.
Understanding student motivation allows instructors to tailor
instruction and enhance and draw upon that motivation.
Students should recognize what motivates them to learn. In
Stein's (1995) report, adults gave reasons for wanting to improve
their literacy. They saw it as a tool to become more informed
individuals and to take control of their lives. A powerful
motivation is to become empowered to make major decisions in life
as parents, citizens, employees, and members of communities.
In a different study on adult motivation by Beder and
Valentine (1990), students gave a variety of reasons for returning to
school, such as:

ÿ self-improvement,
ÿ provide family role-modeling,
ÿ social interaction or entertainment,
ÿ increase literacy skills,
ÿ increase involvement in community or church activities,
ÿ improve employment potential,
ÿ prove they can take control of their lives,
ÿ increase earning potential, and
ÿ complete high school or enter college.

Attaining a high level of literacy and numeracy skills allows

students to develop power over their own lives and personal
situations, improving the quality of their lives. Job advancement
and career opportunities are not always the primary motivator. As
service industries replace manufacturing industries, positions
continue to exist in the service sector. Improving literacy and
numeracy skills does not guarantee a better paying or more
interesting job nor does it ensure job success or advancement.
Becoming aware of all factors that motivate students enables
instructors to better address students' needs.

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 Regardless of age, learners hold high expectations for their
instructors. Imel (1998) describes the major expectations for
instructors in Teaching Adults: Is it Different? They are described
below.
Students expect instructors to be knowledgeable. Students
want to learn from an instructor who knows the content.
It is equally important that students have faith in what the
instructor tells them. They want the instructor to be honest about
his or her knowledge, so they can believe in what they are being
taught. Admitting to not knowing something does not destroy the
instructor’s image unless it is too frequent. Admitting to making an
occasional mistake will not decrease students’ respect. However,
defending errors, refusing to admit mistakes, and bluffing quickly
destroys instructor effectiveness.
Students expect instructors to show concern. Students need
to know the instructor has faith in their ability and cares if they
learn. It is usually more important for students to believe the
instructor wants them to learn out of concern for their welfare than
because knowledge is vital to their future success. Of course,
students should believe both. We all respond best when people care
about us. Students are no exception. Believing the instructor cares
is a vital component of changing one’s approach to learning.
Students expect the instructor to present material clearly.
Organization and preparation for teaching are vital contributors to
student success. Even simple concepts can be difficult when the
instructor shows confusion or makes repeated errors.
Students expect the instructor to be enthusiastic.
Enthusiasm for learning math is vital to encourage students to
accept the relevance of material. Tired, bored, and/or indifferent
instructors cannot motivate learning or convince students the
material is important.
Students expect the instructor to respect their cultural and
ethnic heritage. The Adult Basic Skills classroom is a group of
students who may be culturally and ethnically diverse, differing in
age. Weinstein-Shr (1996) recommends that instructors be sensitive
to this diversity and make learning relevant by using teaching
methods and activities that address the ethnic, cultural, and age
diversity of adult students.

- 36 -
 Engaging in participatory adult learning begins by
respecting learners’ culture, their knowledge, and their experiences
(Auerbach, 1992). According to Imel:

A growing number of adult literacy educators are

advocating for understanding learners both as individuals
and as members of their particular communities or groups
(Nonesuch, 1996; Sissel, 1996) and tailoring instruction to
address those particular contexts. Nonesuch (1996) describes
how the experiences of women can be used effectively in
developing curriculum. (1998, p. 3)

Tailoring math to diverse populations requires problems that

respect cultures. Historical or cultural references may inspire
interest and make new information easier for students to
comprehend and assimilate. Naturally, instructors developing
adult-centered activities must remember to consider differences in
individual learning styles, abilities, experiences, and backgrounds.

- 37 -
- 38 -
 Chapter

Learning Styles

J. Pat Knight

Tell me and I’ll forget.

Show me and I may not remember.
Involve me and I’ll understand.
Native American Saying

- 39 -
- 40 -
 How Do People Learn?
Instructors of mathematics can better introduce adult
students to the fascinating aspects of mathematics through
understanding how people learn, by knowing how to teach to
individual needs, and by building an extensive repertoire of
student-related problems and associated concepts.
Thinking back to our school days we quickly remember
exciting classes and dynamic instructors who filled their classes
with exciting approaches, who attended to how students learned
best, who incorporated intriguing and creative ideas, and who
connected content and real-life situations. Those instructors were
enthusiastic and insightful. The enthusiasm was contagious and
remembered.
Sadly, adults seldom remember mathematics classes as
places of enthusiasm and creativity or as places where they
experienced a “learning high.” They feel obligated to express their
lack of enthusiasm about mathematics and often respond with,
“You know, I have always been terrible in math.” Adults profess
their lack of interest in math. Instructors cringe at the number of
students who fail mathematics. They shake their heads. “What a
loss!”
What causes this failure, this lack of enthusiasm; this
apathetic sense of being? It may be that mathematics instructors do
not demonstrate beauty and wonder in mathematics. They do not
make achievement a dynamic and worthwhile process. Maybe
achievement is not about books and worksheets, mandated
philosophy or perceived IQ. Maybe the process of mathematics
achievement stems from resourceful instructors who understand
individual learning styles, who relate relevant topics to students,
and who are genuinely enthusiastic about teaching and learning
the subject. The National Research Council stated, “…the quality of
instruction is a function of teachers’ knowledge and use of
mathematical content, teachers’ attention to and handling of
students, and students’ engagement in and use of mathematical
tasks” (Bradford, Brown & Cocking, 2001, p. 315).
During the late 19th century the mental disciple theory of
learning greatly influenced mathematics teachers. The theory

- 41 -
projected the mind as a muscle and benefited from exercise just as
other muscles. Early in the 20th century Edward Thorndike’s
Stimulus-Response theory replaced the mental disciple theory. This
theory was based on the belief that learning occurs when a
connection is established between a stimulus and an appropriate
response. Drill was heavily emphasized to establish a strong
connection between number patterns.
In the mid-twentieth century researchers such as Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner, and Robert Gagne emphasized the development of
understanding as fundamental to learning mathematics. The
meaning theory is predicated on the concept that students
understand if learning is to be permanent. The theory supports the
use of manipulatives to establish the meaning of new concepts.
Piaget emphasized that the process of learning as one of
continual assimilation and accommodation (Atherton, 2003 and
Wadsworth, 1984). That is, a student confronted with new
experiences actively makes sense of the new idea in relation to old
experiences and ideas. Basically Piaget’s theory of learning is
known as “constructivism.” Learners construct meaning rather
than passively receive information.
Skemp (1998) separates learning into two stages. Level one
suggests that the manipulation of objects provides students with a
basis for further learning and the internalization of ideas. These
manipulative experiences form the background for the second level
and later learning at the abstract level.
Gagne (1985) believed that learning improved when
participants mastered tasks in a sequential manner.

Cognitive theories of learning have made a significant

contribution to knowledge about learning. The computer can
be used as a metaphor for describing how learning takes
place according to cognitive, or information processing,
theories. Short-term memory stores new information that is
received, but it has a limited capacity and a limited duration.
Long-term memory is a complex web, or schema, of
concepts, ideas, and relationships that represent important
existing knowledge. For learning to occur, new ideas and
experiences must be transferred from short-term memory

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 into long-term memory. These ideas can then be retrieved
and used repeatedly if they are stored with many
meaningful connections. (Kennedy & Tipps, 1991, p. 27)

In planning effective and inviting lessons instructors must

be familiar with learning theories and assume several important
rules.
Identify and evaluate students’ learning needs. The
instructor determines and prioritizes the most important concepts
to be learned. Included are student goals, development of problem
solving and metacognition skills, knowledge of student learning
styles, possession of varied teaching strategies, the development of
creativity, and expanding mathematical confidence.
Determine learning styles and teaching strategies.
Instructors are most effective when they align their teaching styles
and methods to student needs, learning styles, interests and
concept relevancy. This complicated task reflects student
uniqueness. Backgrounds, interests, abilities and learning styles
may be similar, but never the same. An additional complication is
that students not only differ from one another, but their differences
vary from day to day. What appeals to a student today may not
appeal tomorrow.
Organize concepts hierarchically. The understanding of
facts, concepts, and procedures requires prerequisite knowledge.
Students must understand previously presented concepts and
strategies in new ways and combinations. Understanding must go
beyond mere exposure to previous material; it must include
internalization and adoption.
Develop activities that stimulate the development of
proposed concepts. Students must discover the importance of new
concepts. They should receive only as much structure or modality
(methodology) as they need or can internalize.
Without question each student comes to class with a
different mode of confronting learning tasks and problem solving.
What can instructors do to respond to the variety of differences?
“One approach is to tailor all instruction to the specific needs
and predispositions of individual students” (Witkin, Moore,
Goodenough & Cox, 1977). Field-independent students, for

- 43 -
example, are encouraged to work on independent projects, while
field-dependent students work in small groups. The opposite
position works against students’ style by (Shipman & Shipman,
1985) striving for balance and attempting to direct impulsive
students into reflecting and vice versa.
The attention to learning styles has definite merit; but how
realistic is the concept with reference to classes of 10-20 students? It
appears that the concept of learning styles, though it may be
difficult to implement, has at least two very important applications
to teaching.

People are different, and it is good

practice to recognize and accommodate
individual differences.

First, instructors need to vary instruction and practice. It is

evident that instructors who vary strategies are more effective than
those who teach the same way every day. The importance of
instructional variety is supported by research (Rosenshine &
Stevens, 1986).
The second concept suggests that attention to learning styles
reminds instructors that students are different, and they must
become more sensitive to student behavior.
“People are different, and it is good practice to recognize
and accommodate individual differences. It is also good practice to
present information in a variety of ways through more than one
modality” (Eggen & Kauchak, 1996).

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 Learning modalities refers to the sensory portal (input
avenue) by which a student receives information (modal
preference) or the actual way a student learns best. Some students
learn best by using the visual modality, others prefer to gain
instruction through talking and listening to others (auditory
modality), still others may prefer to gain information through
doing and being physically involved (kinesthetic modality), while
others prefer to learn by touching objects (tactile modality).
Usually modality preferences can be determined by
observing the student, but several check lists provide a means of
evaluation. It should be noted that a student’s modality preference
is not always a student’s modality strength. It should also be noted
that a student’s primary modality strength can be mixed and
altered as a result of experience and intellect. It is evident that
engaging more than one of the students’ modality preferences can
contribute to greater achievement.
Instruction utilizing only one modality restricts students
who learn more easily using a different sense. For example, student
achievement is greatly restricted by an instructor who prefers to
lecture or uses discussion continuously when the student has a
strong preference for tactile, kinesthetic, or visual modality.
Dunn (1995) presents several learning style traits that
significantly discriminate between poorer achievers and
outstanding performance. Dunn reports that a majority of the low
achieving students need:

ÿ frequent opportunities for mobility;

ÿ choices;
ÿ a variety of instructional resources, environments, and
sociological groupings rather than routines and patterns;
ÿ low illumination, because bright light contributes to loss
of attention; and
ÿ seating in an informal setting rather than a formal one
with hard, uncomfortable chairs.

Integrating learning modalities provides the greatest success.

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 Related to learning modality is learning style or cognitive
style. Individuals have a preferred learning style for processing and
organizing information and for responding to environmental
stimuli. Learning styles are the cognitive, affective, and
psychological ways learners perceive, interact with, and respond to
the learning environment (Schmeck, 1998). Students with different
learning styles understand and try to solve problems in different,
and possibly, relatively static ways.
Students vary not only in their skills and preferences for
attaining knowledge, but in mentally processing information.
Processing reflects learning style.
There are probably as many learning styles as individuals. It
must be noted that learning styles do not indicate intelligence, but
rather how a person learns. David Kolb suggests two major
differences in how people learn, “how they perceive situations and
how they process information” (1985, p. 89).
On the basis of perceiving and processing, Bernice McCarthy
(1990) describes four major learning styles.

1. Imaginative learners perceive information concretely

and process it reflectively. They learn best by listening to
and sharing with others to integrate ideas with past
experiences. The traditional classroom setting of lecture
and seatwork creates difficulty for imaginative learners.
2. Analytic learners perceive information abstractly and
also process it reflectively. This type of learner prefers
thinking in a sequential manner, needs details, and
values the opinions of “experts.” The analytic learner
performs well in traditional classrooms.
3. Common-sense learners perceive information abstractly
and process it by relating to its value. This type of learner
needs much hands-on activity. They need to see
immediate use for new information.
4. Dynamic learners perceive information concretely and
process it according to use. This type of learner is a risk
taker and becomes frustrated with tedious situations. (p.
89)

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 The Piaget Theory of learning suggests that as students learn
they “move” or are guided from concrete hands-on learning
experiences to the abstract formulations of concepts and their
applications. Bernice McCarthy (1990) has modified this learning
cycle to include three phases:

1. exploring, hands-on phase where students are

encouraged to explore ideas that facilitate their own
questions and perceived answers;
2. concept developmental phase where the instructor
guides students to invent concepts which help them
answer their questions and reorganize their ideas; and
3. concept application phase where students try out their
newly conceived ideas by applying them to relevant and
meaningful situations.

Through effective teaching and learning, students are

encouraged to sense, feel, experience, watch, and then reflect, think
and develop theories. Ultimately, they evaluate what they
experience and attempt to apply the information to a new
experience. An additional concept in the area of learning
differences is the approach identified as Howard Gardner’s
“Theory of Multiple Intelligences” (1999). Gardner refers to the
theories as learning capacities. The following seven intelligences
are traditionally accepted:

1. verbal-linguistic: sensitivity to the meaning and order of

words;
2. logical-mathematical: ability to handle chains of
reasoning and to recognize patterns and orders;
3. visual-spatial: ability to manipulate the nature of space,
such as through architecture, mime, or sculpture;
4. musical-rhythmic: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm,
and tone;
5. bodily-kinesthetic: ability to use the body skillfully and
to handle objects with dexterity;

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 6. interpersonal: ability to understand people and
relationships; and
7. intra-personal: sensitivity to one’s emotional life as a
means to understand oneself and others.

Two additional capacities are currently associated with

Gardner:

8. naturalist: ability to draw on the natural environment to

solve problems or fashion products and
9. spiritual: sensitivity to the supernatural.

The theory of Multiple Intelligences has very strong

implications for adult learning and development. Many adults find
themselves in situations that do not make optimum use of their
individual intelligences. For example, a bodily-kinesthetic
individual may be assigned to a desk task when that individual
might be more conducive to learning in an informal environment
that allows movement.
The theory of Multiple Intelligence suggests several unique
strategies for facilitating effective learning.

Students will decide which pathways are of interest and

appear to be their most effective learning capacities. For
example: if one is teaching or learning about the law of
supply and demand in economics, that individual might
read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that
express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart
that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in the
natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of
commerce (interpersonal); examine the law in terms of their
own body, i.e., when the body is supplied with sufficient
food, the hunger demand goes down; when there is very
little supply, the demand for food goes up and the
individual becomes hungry (body-kinesthetic and intra-
personal); and/or write a song or find an existing song, such

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 as Dylan’s ‘Too Much of Nothing,’ that demonstrates the
law. (Armstrong, 1994)

Implications for Mathematics

In the previous description of how students learn, learning
situations are not portrayed as the presentation in clear, precise
explanations, or procedures to be practiced by students. Instead
knowledge/learning is constructed by each student as he/she
engages in various mental activities, aligning his/her specific
learning competencies (skills) to the learning situation, building
relationships between and among mathematics ideas through
reflection, relating the new situations to prior knowledge, and
articulating the explored mathematics concepts.
Only when instructors begin to understand the aspects,
skills, and stages of mathematical learning will they be able to help
students receive instruction most appropriate to their individual
learning styles.
The instructor of mathematics should pose tasks that are
based on the following:

ÿ sound and significant mathematical concepts;

ÿ knowledge of students’ understandings, interests, and
experiences;
ÿ knowledge of the diverse ways students learn
mathematics; and that
ÿ knowledge that engages students’ intellect;
ÿ developing students’ mathematical understandings and
skills;
ÿ stimulating students to make connections and develop a
coherent framework for mathematical ideas;
ÿ problem formulation, problem solving, and mathematical
reasoning;
ÿ communication about mathematics;
ÿ mathematics as ongoing human activity;

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 ÿ sensitivity to students’ diverse background experiences
and dispositions; and
ÿ development of students’ dispositions to mathematics.
(Blythe & Gardner, 1990, p. 35)
Quality mathematics instruction emerges from tasks an
instructor provides and expects from students. The overriding
purpose of this section is to provide instructional concepts that help
students develop understanding of and make sense of
mathematical precepts due to a match between teaching and
learning styles.
Because individuals learn differently and instructors and
adult learners have different personalities, it is inappropriate to
recommend a single approach to teaching mathematics. Instructors
must vary and adapt strategies to specific student needs.
The National Research Council (Bradford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2001) and the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (1980) have developed specific guidelines for
instructors in designing mathematics instruction.

1. Provide developmental instruction. Instructors must

attend to the cognitive growth of their adult students.
Learning how adults think and the levels of their
thinking is vital in the development of mathematics
instruction.
2. Engage adults in active learning. The use of concrete
and relevant examples is the cornerstone of successful
mathematics instruction. The brain learns best and
retains more when the organism is actively involved in
exploring physical sites and materials and asking
questions to which it actually craves answers. Merely
passive experiences tend to attenuate and have little
lasting impact. (Gardner, 1999, p. 82)
3. Develop adults’ mathematical power. Adults gain
mathematical power when they understand the concepts
and procedures they have constructed.

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 4. Provide opportunities for adults to construct and
communicate mathematics. When adults construct
mathematics through their experiences and through
interaction with instructors and colleagues they develop
schemas that continue to serve them as they advance to
higher mathematical concepts.
5. Continually introduce new techniques. Instructors
should accept the role as change agent for mathematics
instruction with adults.

As previously noted, both students and instructors have

distinct needs and styles of operation in the teaching/learning
process. Adults’ personal learning styles are unique to them. Style
determines how and when adults develop mathematics concepts.
It is most important for the instructor of adults to
understand that their personal teaching style affects how they
teach. Beliefs, experiences, education, and expectations of adult
learners cause the instructor to be a specific type of teacher.
When organizing for numeracy instruction, base instruction
on sound principles of learning. Instructors of numeracy must
reflect that each particular strategy is a function of itself and may
be successful only under certain unique situations. Consequently,
instructors of mathematics must continually try new and
imaginative approaches to adult learning.

Age and Learning Preferences

As older adults increasingly participate, instructors are
being forced to find ways to improve teaching strategies delivered
to these individuals. However, very little is known about the
learning styles of older adults.
A study utilizing D. A. Kolb’s (1985) Learning Style
Inventory was enacted in an attempt to identify preferred learning
styles of older adults. Types were fairly evenly distributed across
accommodators who learn by feeling and doing, assimilators who
learn by thinking and watching, and divergers who learn by feeling

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and watching. Few preferred the converger style that involves
thinking and doing while learning.
No significant effects were determined between learning
style preference and gender, age or educational level. Truluck and
Bradley (1999) noted that:

1. more of the 55-65 age group preferred the accommodator

learning style;
2. more of the 66-74 age group preferred the diverger
learning style; and
3. the 75 and older age group seemed to prefer the
assimilation style.

It appears that as age increases learners tend to become more

reflective and observational in the learning environment. Data
suggests that age may not be a factor in learning style preference.
However, the typical twenty-something student seems to prefer
direct hands-on learning situations, while older students prefer to
learn by listening and reading. It appears that younger adults tend
to be more active in their approach to learning, and older
individuals tend to be more reflective and abstract.

Instructional quality and value of the learning

environment directly relates to the quality of
interpersonal relationships between the adult
learner and the instructor.

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 Student-Instructor Interaction
The importance of informal student-instructor interaction
has long been upheld. Numerous studies have found that the
instructional quality and value of the learning environment directly
relates to the quality of interpersonal relationships between the
adult learner and the instructor. The more accessible the instructor
is in sharing experiences, ideas and personal times outside the
classroom, the more effective the instruction. The operative phrase
is sharing personal time outside the classroom. The degree of
accessibility of an instructor has a positive influence on the
academic performance and overall instructional satisfaction of the
adult learners (Thompson, 2001).
It appears that adult students benefit from a higher quality
of informal interaction as well as the modern and affective
approaches to teaching that encompass different learning styles
and learning preferences.

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- 54 -
 Chapter

Teaching the
Content

Dianne B. Barber
William D. Barber

Just as houses are made of stones, so is mathematics

made of facts; but a pile of stones is not a house and a
collection of facts is not necessarily mathematics.
Henri Poincaré

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- 56 -
 Introduction
“At the end of the day, we are tired from working, she
expects us to think.” This comment was reportedly made to a
counselor about a math instructor at a community learning center
in Massachusetts (Leonelli, 1999, p. 8). Would you want this
comment to be made about you? Would you have it any other way?
When Esther Leonelli reported the above quote made by one
of her students, she was describing how her approach to teaching
math has changed in recent years. She now uses a set of teaching
strategies that relies heavily on analyzing real world situations to
develop problem-solving techniques. This approach replaces a
heavy emphasis on number drill and practice that she reported
using years ago.
What does the above quote say about learning math in Adult
Basic Skills classrooms? It seems to describe the students that enter
most classes, particularly evening classes. It points out why
teaching Adult Basic Skills is especially challenging. It captures the
challenge of teaching and learning math. Perhaps most
significantly, it emphasizes that math can, and in fact must, be
learned by thought and application to real world problems.
Teaching and learning are active processes.

Make It Relevant
Whether they need additional skills to advance their careers
or have specific learning goals, adults appreciate the value of an
education. Having a group of interested and motivated students
creates an opportunity to be seized and developed.
The instructor must quickly offer students a chance to build
self-confidence through success. Without confidence in their ability,
adults quickly succumb to the suspicion that they “just can’t
succeed.” The instructor must facilitate immediate success and
build self-confidence through a series of subsequent successes in
math that obviously relate to the real world. There are several

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instructional strategies which have been used effectively by
experienced instructors. Holt (1995) lists techniques that involve
beginning level learners as active participants. Although taken
from techniques for teaching ESL, they are equally applicable to
teaching math.

 Build on the learners’ experiences.

 Use learners as resources. Ask them to share knowledge
and expertise with others in class.
 Sequence activities from less to more challenging.
 Encourage interaction by providing cooperative learning
activities in which learners must negotiate with partners
or group members.
 Include a variety of techniques to appeal to diverse
learning styles.

Whether deciding what concepts to teach or how to teach

them, the most important guideline is relevance of the math to the
learner. Relevant math generates enthusiasm instead of boredom,
interest instead of disdain, and success instead of failure.
Many learners feel learning math at work was most
beneficial. Math learned on the job was directly applicable to them
(Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996). Too many adult learners view
classroom math as totally unrelated to the workplace. To pave the
road to success, strive to make it impossible for students to say, “I’ll
never use this” by using obviously relevant examples and
problems.

Just as a structural foundation provides

support for walls, etc., so number sense
provides support for developing math skills.

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 Teach Numbers and Number Sense
There is a parallel between learning math and building a
building. In both cases, one must start with a solid foundation. The
foundation necessary for learning math consists of a basic
understanding of sorting, classifying, ordering, counting and
pattern recognition. Students who possess this foundation can
proceed with the construction of a frame for their math learning;
those who do not possess this foundation need to build or rebuild
it.
Just as a structural foundation provides support for walls,
etc., so number sense provides support for developing math skills.
Students have gained number sense when numerical values create
pictures in their minds. These “mind” pictures should be generated
by a wide range of numbers stated in many forms, such as 17, 1.67,
2 1/3, 7/3, and 20%. When values are expressed in different forms,
the students are comfortable sorting, ordering, and classifying.
“Number sense includes calculation skills with numbers as well as
a sense of number and operation and an ability to appropriately
use estimation, mental math, computation, calculators, or other
tools” (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996, p. 34). The Massachusetts
ABE Math Standards state:

To be efficient workers or consumers in today’s world,

adults must have a strongly developed understanding of
arithmetic operations as well as procedural knowledge of
computation and number facts. They must be able to
perceive the idea of place value and be able to read, write,
and represent whole numbers and numerical relationships
in a wide variety of ways. Simple paper and pencil
computation skills are not enough. Adults must be able to
make decisions regarding the best method of computation
(mental math, paper-and-pencil, calculator/ computer) to
use for a particular situation. (Leonelli & Schwendeman,
1994, p. 38)

The ability to choose the most appropriate computation

procedure has obvious value in a workplace setting, and is equally

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 as important when maintaining
personal records or making
daily decisions. A calculator is
not necessary when determining
the cost of an item at a 50% off
sale or when deciding what time
to leave home to arrive at a
meeting on time, but it is a good
computational aid when
completing federal income tax
forms or balancing a checkbook.
Sometimes estimation is the
Pencil and paper only technique required; in
computational skills many instances it provides
are not enough. valuable protection from major
errors.

Teach Estimation
Number sense is essential for being able to make estimates
of numerical values that result from a variety of mathematical
operations. Practicing estimation skills solidifies and enhances
one’s number sense.
Virtually everyone estimates throughout the course of daily
life. Estimation often involves time, size, distance, number of items
that will fit in a given space, quantity, and total cost. The first step
in teaching and enhancing estimation skills is to get students to
recognize how well they already use estimation on a daily basis.
With guidance, students can identify home and workplace
situations when estimation provides a sufficiently accurate value,
and is actually preferred because it is timelier or more efficient.
Identifying situations where estimating is appropriate helps
students to recognize estimation as a legitimate component of
math.
The vast majority of math computations in the real world are
word problems. Estimating a reasonable answer may help students
choose appropriate computational procedures. However, the most

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important value of estimation is to guard against errors that can
result from incorrectly entering values into a calculator or
multiplying instead of dividing. The author once weighed a
textbook in front of a class to determine its weight in grams, then
asked students to calculate the weight of the textbook in pounds.
For obvious reasons, those students who obtained an answer of
more than 100 pounds should have realized the answer could not
be correct. When estimation is used as a check, it can help one
avoid major errors.
Estimation is a critical life skill. Often a calculator is used to
solve problems. Being off by a factor of 10 will certainly change an
answer even if the digits are correct. Usually in life, we do the
“number crunching” with a calculator; we check the reasonableness
of the answer using estimation. If students are to learn estimation
skills, they must be practiced.
Estimation is one place where the instructor helps students
realize there is often more than one way to get the correct answer.
Being freed from erroneous beliefs about only one correct way to
solve a given math problem allows students to become thinkers
rather than memorizers. Estimation can be improved with practice,
while it provides an opportunity to invent one’s procedures. Many
students find estimation to be more stimulating and enjoyable than
memorizing and following rules and procedures.
Students should be encouraged to share how they use
estimation in their jobs and their lives. Sharing stimulates other
students to recognize and share how they use estimation.
Estimation is probably the most used and most useful skill for
adults. Adults use informal estimates in activities such as cooking,
shopping, buying clothes, or estimating the time required for daily
tasks. Good estimators use a variety of strategies and techniques for
computational estimation (Leonelli & Schwendeman, 1994).
Life is seldom a multiple-choice exam, but in an educational
setting many assessments are multiple choice. Even for those
multiple-choice questions where the correct choice is not obvious
with estimation, it will tell the student which choices are obviously
incorrect.
Exploration, class discussion, and collaborative learning are
excellent techniques for teaching estimation. Instructors may wish

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to share some estimation tips, but should try to do so as a
discussion participant rather than an authority.

Teach Geometry, Spatial Sense, and

Measurement
Most adult students recognize a variety of geometric shapes,
and many are quite good at estimating surface areas or volumes. A
wealth of pragmatic experience is likely to include building
projects, calculating areas for home decorating, sewing, quilting, or
gardening. Generating discussion of such experiences can “trick”
the student into verifying their knowledge and skills before they
“freeze” upon hearing the word geometry.
Everyone estimates distances and nearly everyone has
measured distances. Measurement by volumes is practiced in many
aspects of daily life ranging from food preparation to auto
maintenance. Many students have calculated areas so they would
know how much paint, wallpaper, or fertilizer to purchase. “For
many adult students, geometry is one math topic that immediately
makes sense to them and gives them confidence in their ability to
learn” (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996, p. 37). “Because

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measurement is used so often and in so many contexts, many
learners have great confidence in their measurement skills” (p. 51).
Adult Basic Skills instructors must strive to solidify and
enhance students’ understanding of how many things are routinely
measured. In addition to lengths, areas, and volumes people
measure time, temperature, height, weight, capacity, and angles.
Geometry involves the use of measurement in practical, real-world
applications.
The Adult Basic Skills classroom should be a place for
practicing applications of mathematics to everyday life. The
necessary materials for designing a learning environment to
enhance teaching geometry, special sense, and measurement are all
around us. A wealth of free or inexpensive materials can be used to
illustrate geometrical concepts. An excellent source comes from the
students. After all, students are in the best position to determine
how they use, and need to use, mathematics.
By asking why students want to learn mathematics, the
instructor gets teaching ideas. The instructor no longer has to be the
source of all knowledge but can depend on learners to supply
authentic materials to supplement standard materials. Why make
up real-life contexts when the genuine article is at our fingertips?
Use product labels, blueprints, lumber dimensions, or metric
weights, cups, and gallons when teaching geometry, spatial sense,
and measurement.
Give real-world meaning to math by basing problems on
measurement or other data obtained by class members. The
classroom should be stocked with manipulatives, such as rulers,
measuring cups, spoons, tape measures, etc. that can be used to
create real-life problems. McDevitt states:

Another suggestion is that you use authentic materials,

supplied by the learner if possible, to enhance your
instruction and increase the learner’s understanding. If we
begin by asking why the learner wants to learn math, we not
only establish a new context but we also begin to reframe
our instruction as numeracy rather than simple math. For
example, in real life, math problems are complicated; they
use real numbers that can be messy, and there is rarely only

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 one way to get the answer. So another suggestion is that you
conduct your classes to encourage development of problem-
solving skills that will be useful beyond the classroom walls.
Encourage learners to wonder why things are, to practice
solving problems even when they are not familiar with or
aware of procedures, to solve problems in a variety of
different settings, and to use what is familiar to them to
explain what is not. (2001, p. 5)

Extend students’ skills in measurement and geometry by

determining acceptable tolerances, usually in the form of upper and
lower limits. Just as the consequences of driving on a tire that is
under-inflated or over-inflated can be very costly, many workplace
situations as well as personal life applications dictate actions when
measurements fall outside an acceptable tolerance range.
One instructional goal should be the enhancement of spatial
reasoning skills. Spatial reasoning requires measurement and
geometry skills plus the ability to visualize shapes. Many have
unrecognized spatial reasoning skills, particularly artistic students.
Build on students’ prior knowledge. Geometry may be the
best example of the opportunity and value of doing so.

Teach Algebra
How can we avoid algebra? It is an unfortunate fact that
many Adult Basic Skills students would like to do just that. It is
even more tragic that many instructors share those sentiments.
However, there is a way to skirt around, if not totally avoid, the
stigma attached to the word algebra.
DO NOT begin with algebraic equations such as x + 3 = 5.
When students see a variable in an equation their math thought
processes go blank and math anxiety kicks in. Almost all students
will be able to tell you what number added to three gives a sum of
five. Students can learn algebra concepts before they even have to
hear the word algebra and before they ever see an algebraic
equation such as x + 3 = 5. As students grasp this concept, make the
problem practical. If all the players on a basketball team are late

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except 3, how many more players must arrive before 5 players can
be put on the court? That is the same exercise as x + 3 = 5.
Approach algebra by completing simple word problems,
and then write the problems as algebraic equations. It may be
necessary to complete many such exercises to convince students
they really can do algebra, and it is very important to do so.

According to Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron (1996):

Algebra supports the key purposes for literacy. How can

algebra be a door-opener rather than the gatekeeper to
higher education and well-paying jobs? Skills and
knowledge in the area of algebra help adults access
information that is presented in written and oral
mathematical symbols. Conversely, the ability to represent
information and relationship with algebraic symbols,
graphs, or everyday language strengthens voice. The ability
to reason algebraically (to think logically), to recognize
patterns and generalizations, provides a scaffold for problem
solving and decision-making. (p. 56)

Algebra is a bridge between arithmetic and more broadly

generalized mathematical situations. Mathematics is the study of
patterns. “Learning to recognize and analyze patterns and number
relationships connects math to the world” (Leonelli &
Schwendeman, 1994, p. 42). Generalizations can be expressed as
formulas and graphs; many life experiences can be expressed in
algebraic terms.
Teach algebra by letting students set the pace. Of course,
students must be stimulated to continue working and learning, but
advancing to a new topic before students are ready may generate
failure, especially if students have experienced “being lost” in
previous classes.
Consider using group work and collaborative learning to
teach algebra. The most effective way to learn is to explain
something to someone else. Students who talk about algebra gain a
better understanding of the concepts which leads to confidence in
their own abilities.

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 Teach Probability
Just as students are surrounded by math, so they are
surrounded by probability. We hear and see probability applied
practically every day. Probabilities appear as percentage estimates
of the chance of particular events, and practically everyone uses
chance to discuss the likelihood of something happening. During
election years we frequently hear predictions and voting
percentages based on poll results. News broadcasts and
newspapers report statistics on the percent of people who do or do
not favor something.
“Employers are clear about the need to understand and use
decimals, fractions, and percents” (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron,
1996, p. 37). Students practice by working with probabilities.
Probabilities can be expressed in fraction, percent or decimal form.
Weather reports traditionally use percents, such as, “There is a 30
percent chance of rain tomorrow.” The student who does not
realize that 30% is considerably less than 50% may assume it is
going to rain when actually there is a 70% chance that it will not
rain.
About 25% of smokers die in middle age of an illness that is
known to be caused by smoking (McManus, 2003). For smokers,
this number can be interpreted as a probability that they will meet
the same fate. Smokers who know and understand probability
must choose to stop smoking, ignore the probability, or make light
of it with rationalizations such as, “We all have to die of
something.” Of course, some of these same people will bet on the
lottery where the odds against winning are astronomical. For
example, the probability of successfully guessing three numbers
where each is a single digit (0 through 9), as in “pick 3”, is one in
one thousand or one-tenth of one percent. The chance of winning
other lottery drawings is considerably smaller than 0.1%.
Baseball fans know that batting averages, earned-run
averages, and winning percentages are expressed in decimal form.
These statistics are often used comparatively to determine which
individual or team is better, but most baseball fans have gained
perspectives on what “percent” would be considered “good,” even
if it is less than 50%. For example, a batting average of .400 or above

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is considered phenomenal. Batting averages are an example using
decimal notation to indicate statistics and probability. By
convention, the batting average is rounded to the nearest
thousandth, so a batting average of .345 means the individual has
gotten a hit 34.5% of the times he has batted during the time
represented, usually the current season. If no other information was
available, such as batting slumps, the identify of the pitcher, or the
handedness of the pitcher and the batter, one could interpret a
batting average of .345 as a 34.5% probability of a hit the next time
the batter is at the plate. The use of decimal statistics is not unique
to baseball. Many other sport statistics also take that form.
When tossing a single die, the
probability of getting a given result (say a
“5”) is 1/6. In this example, it is definitely
easier to describe probabilities as
fractions, rather than as decimals or
percents. What proportion of die rolls
would be expected to result in a five? The
answer is one out of six.
How many heads would you expect if you tossed a fair coin
10 times? How many girls would you predict in a family with 5
children? If a new cancer treatment estimated to reduce the
recurrence rate by 32% more than the old treatment is given to 50
people, how many lives might be saved? If 10% of the light bulbs in
a display sign fail during the first 6 months, and the sign has 42
bulbs, how many replacement bulbs should be ordered?
Determining expected values has both workplace and
personal applications. At least three skills are involved. Students
must be able to identify the total number of trials and the
probability of a particular outcome from the data available.
Students need arithmetic skills to calculate percents or fractions of
the total number of trials. Finally, students must be able to state the
result in as a logical answer. For example, 5 might be a logical
answer for the number of heads expected from 10 tosses of a fair
coin, but 2.5 girls in a family of 5 children is not a logical answer.
Very few families actually have 2.5 girls. A more reasonable answer
would be 2 or 3 girls. In the question about the number of light
bulbs that should be ordered, it would not be a good idea to tell the

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boss (or anyone else) to order 4.2 light bulbs. A much better answer
would be “at least 5 bulbs.” That answer would demonstrate that
the student/worker knew that rounding up would be more
appropriate to this situation than rounding to the nearest whole
number, and that the student/worker realizes that more bulbs
might burn out than is predicted by the estimate.

Teach Statistics
More than any other area, the study of statistics incorporates
a wide variety of math skills and practical applications. The
Massachusetts ABE Math Standards state, “Adult learners need to
have the opportunity to systematically collect, organize, and
describe data; and construct, read, and interpret tables, charts, and
graphs” (Leonelli & Schwendeman 1994, p. 50).
“Adults, often without even realizing it, make decisions
based on statistical information. It may be via the television, radio,
or it may be through print materials” (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron,
1996, p. 43). Many people design graphs to illustrate statistical
information, and often make decisions based on graphical
representations of information. “Statistical information is used to
communicate information and sometimes influence others.
Understanding the flood of statistical information allows adults to
make more informed decisions” (p. 44).
Mode. Mode is defined as the most frequently occurring
value or values. Mode is easily demonstrated and understood.
Count the number of times each value occurs to determine which
value occurs most often. Counting and ordering skills are
enhanced.
Although the mode is not a reliable indicator of the
“middle” when using a small sample (Kitchens, 2003), it is very
meaningful for larger samples. For example, if you ask the class to
determine the mode of ages of students in the class, the mode
might turn out to be the youngest age, because no more than one
student is any other specific age, such as 30. This exercise would
demonstrate how to find the mode, and just might show that the
mode is unreliable as an indicator of the “center” of a small sample.

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The instructor can enhance that illustration by asking what the
result would have been if a specific person, or two specific people,
had been absent.
Values tend to concentrate around the “center” of a
distribution. Most students agree that there are more 5 foot, 10 inch
men than there are 6 foot, 10 inch men. For most measured
variables, the average is much more common than the extremes;
this is true of most size and speed measurements, as well as test
scores. Students should be taught to ask, “Is the mode a good
indicator of the center in this situation?” (Curry, Schmitt, &
Waldron, 1996, p. 41).
Students gain a better understanding of the mode if they
learn to determine the mode of a sample of manageable size. The
mode often becomes apparent after the values are arranged in
either ascending or descending order. Students can make frequency
tables to illustrate that the value with the highest frequency is the
mode.
Frequencies are counts of the number of times a particular
value occurs in a data set and helps determine mode. The
frequency table below is from a statistics course taught by the
author. What is the mode? The mode is one sibling.

Number of Siblings Frequency

0 5
1 14
2 8
3 3
4 0
5 0
6 1

Another valuable skill is determining the mode from a

frequency plot, such as a line graph, or frequency curve.
Understanding that the tallest line or lines on a line graph occur at
the mode or modes helps students appreciate what is illustrated by
a line graph and how to read values on the X-axis. These skills are
easily transferred to the reading of a frequency curve, where
students can determine the mode or modes by visualizing, or

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drawing, a perpendicular from the highest point(s) to the X-axis.
“Reading charts and graphs, interpreting the data, and making
decisions based on the information are key skills to being a
successful worker and an informed citizen. Being an informed
citizen includes understanding statistics and probability as well”
(Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996, p. 41).
Some data distributions are bimodal, meaning that they have
two modes. Although the distribution of values for females and
males often overlaps so much that there is only one mode, there is
the potential for bimodal distributions in human measurements
with one mode for each sex. That is true of body weight because
males and females have distinct modes. It should be noted that
classroom illustrations of weight data should be done with
fictitious data and still may be embarrassing to some class
members. An alternate example would be a skill, such as typing
speed. In some skill activities, there would be one mode for those
who have had training and another mode for those who have not.
Median. The median is also a simple concept to illustrate
and understand. The median is the middle value when data are
arranged in ascending or descending order (Kitchens, 2003). A
good way to illustrate this concept is to ask class members to line
up by height and count to the middle individual. Since the median
is most obvious when there are an odd number of individuals, the
instructor may choose to be part of the “line-up” if the number of
students present is an even number, or can ask one class member to
direct the activity rather than participate.
When the number of data points is an even number, the
median is correctly determined by “averaging” (i.e., finding the
mean) of the two individuals in the middle. Students should be
able to find the median from any list of values provided. The
instructor should ask students to find the median of at least one
unordered list, so students become fully aware that they must first
arrange the values in rank order.
As sample size increases, locating the median becomes a
more tedious activity and the mode becomes more reliable as the
sample size increases. Students then learn to make judgments about
which statistic is a better choice.

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 There are situations in which the median is the preferred
statistic, because the mode and the mean (which many people call
the average) do not adequately describe the variable being studied.
This is true when the data is significantly skewed, such as may (but
may not) be true of ages of class members. If the mode is at one of
the extremes, students can readily see why the median is a more
appropriate value for finding the “center” of a small sample.
Another example can be obtained from data on income of
Americans. The mode would be a very low income, and the mean
would be too high to be a good description of income of Americans
because the extremely high incomes of Bill Gates, Oprah Winfrey,
etc. add so much to everyone’s total income. Because of a few
extremely high values, over 90% of Americans earn a “below
average” income. Using the median to locate the middle income
provides the most meaningful number.
Mean. The mean, or more correctly the arithmetic mean (there
are other means including the geometric mean and the harmonic
mean), is called the “average” by most non-statisticians. Mean is
the correct name, because the broad definition of the word
“average” would allow it to be used for any statistic that might
approximate the “center” of the data (Kitchens, 2003).
The calculation of the mean is taught early in the public
schools, and most students know how to average a set of values.
The mean is equal to the sum of the values divided by the number
of values. For example the mean of the values 3, 7, and 8 is 6,
because

3 + 7 + 8 = 18 and 18 ÷ 3 = 6 therefore the mean is 6.

Calculation of the mean for a larger sample is simply a matter of

working with more numbers.
One shortcut is to calculate the mean of a frequency table by
adding a column for “value times frequency.” The new frequency
table has been reproduced on the following page.

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 Number of Frequency Value X
Siblings Frequency
0 5 0
1 14 14
2 8 16
3 3 9
4 0 0
5 0 0
6 1 6
Sum = 31 Sum = 45

The mean number of siblings is 45 ÷ 31, which equals 1.451.

The calculation of statistics from a frequency table can be
contrasted with the calculation of the same statistics from an
unordered list by asking the students to complete the calculations
on a list of the same 31 values. This demonstration will be more
effective if students calculate from the list before the frequency
table, or without knowing they are the same values that were
summarized in the frequency table.
Upper and lower limits. There are many situations in which
it is important to know the lowest and highest values. In some
cases, such as the data in the frequency table, the minimum value
can be predicted before the data is collected. Zero is often the
obvious minimum, but not always.
Knowing the minimum and maximum allowed gauge
readings in the workplace may allow workers to be alerted by
unusually low or high readings. Sometimes such values need to be
identified by observing a recording chart that makes a running
graph of readings.

Teach Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs are essential in the workplace. Often front
line employees are required to collect the data used for charting the
manufacturing process; therefore, employees at all levels should be
knowledgeable about and comfortable with a variety of charts
(Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996). According to SCANS

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documentation, tomorrow’s workers must
have reading skills that enable employees
“to read well enough to understand and
interpret diagrams, directories,
correspondence, manuals, records, charts,
graphs, tables, and specifications. Without
the ability to read a diverse set of materials,
workers cannot locate the descriptive and
quantitative information needed to make
decisions or to recommend courses of
action” (1991, p. xvi).
Adequately reading gauges helps
determine trends and direction of change.
However, be alert to deception when trends are made to appear
more or less dramatic by expanding or collapsing the scale of the Y-
axis.
Get a laugh from the class by illustrating this concept with a
fictitious graph of percent of students who think you are a good
instructor, by showing a theoretical increase from 55% to 60% (or
whatever values you choose to use) in one graph with the Y-axis
beginning at 0 and another with the Y-axis beginning at 50%.
Students should practice reading both axes on various types of
graphs. As students practice reading and designing graphs and
charts and collecting and summarizing data, they utilize most if not
all basic math skills and add to their number sense.
Comparative graphs. Students should learn to make and
read comparisons of categories shown in simple graphs.
Comparison graphs often use different colored bars for comparing
data, such as morning and afternoon productivity. Several days
might be plotted on a graph. Students should look for the higher
color-coded level. They should also be able to state when there is
no real difference. Finally, they should look for a decreasing or
increasing trend from left to right.
Students should be taught to make comparisons from bar
graphs and pie charts (also called circle graphs). Not only should
students be able to identify the most frequent classification by
finding the tallest bar or the largest slice, but they should also be
able to rank order the classifications and compare frequencies. In a

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pie chart it is merely a matter of determining what proportion one
slice is of another, i.e. if one slice is twice as large as another, three
times as large, only slightly larger, etc.
Making graphs. The ability to
make bar graphs is dependent on
students’ abilities to identify the X and
Y-axes, index the axes properly, and
locate intersections given X and Y
values. The same skills are necessary
for students to plot data showing
relationships between the two variables
plotted on the X and Y-axes.
Graphs and charts touch on all areas of math and numeracy.
Massachusetts Adult Basic Education Curriculum Frameworks for
Mathematics and Numeracy states the following:

We learn about preferences, predictions, and group

characteristics when we read and interpret data. We learn
about the power of evidence as we develop the skills to
make statements and evaluate arguments based on data. We
learn the power of the question and the framer of the
question when we collect and represent data, and we learn
that sometimes true, sometimes false, pictures are created
when we compress data into statistics. Data is a powerful
descriptive tool. (Donovan, Goodridge, Froelich, Leonelli,
Moses, Mullen, et. al., 2001, p. 18)

Instructors must provide experience collecting, organizing,

and interpreting data. It is not enough to give learners practice in
simply reading charts and graphs. To give adult learners a better
understanding of graphs and charts, they need to actually gather
data, interpret results, and decide how to represent information in
charts and graphs.

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 The most effective way to learn and
understand math is to explain it to
someone else.

Use Collaborative Learning to Teach

Problem Solving
Prior classroom experiences probably taught learners that
working with other students is equivalent to cheating. The latest
work in cognitive psychology points to the importance of social
interaction for effective adult learning. Develop collaborative
learning groups. Using class discussions in addition to
collaborative learning reassures students of the value of learning
together. It also gives students the chance to become more skillful
in group discussion and problem solving.
Adult students have the capacity to help and encourage their
peers. In fact, many respond much better to guidance from other
students than to direction from the instructor. In collaborative
learning, students model problem solving techniques that may be
adopted by others. Collaborative learning fosters shared
responsibility in order for all group members to make satisfactory
progress. Rewards take the form of self-satisfaction.
The challenge is forming the most effective group learning
environments. The choice of exercises and timely guidance has
major effects on the learning environment of a collaborative
learning group.

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 Collaborative learning can be used effectively in any subject
matter and is especially valuable in problem solving. The instructor
should group students to work on concepts they find difficult.
Having heterogeneous groups allows students to teach each other.
Simply hearing a concept in different words from those used by the
instructor may be a key to learning for some students. Sometimes
students who just learned a concept are better able to explain it
because they see it on a simpler level and are more cognizant of the
blocks to understanding. Of course, the instructor needs to closely
monitor the progress of collaborative learning groups and look for
occasions to clarify basic ideas, thus enhancing groups’ progress.
Collaborative groups are especially effective tools in the
struggle to counter and correct math anxiety. Students can build
self-confidence from successful group problem solving activities
and assignment completion. Students who suffer the greatest
degree of math anxiety avoid the “spotlight” as they develop their
own skills. Success is enhanced by the alternate learning
opportunities provided by the various problem solving approaches
portrayed in group discussions. The emotional support and
academic assistance provided by the group is especially important
for adult students.

Use Inquiry to Teach Problem Solving

Inquiry opens worlds of learning for many adult students.
When students succeed with the inquiry approach, they
simultaneously develop self-confidence that translates into
enhanced successes both in and out of the classroom. The inquiry
method requires students to collect their own data, then draw
inferences and reach conclusions for themselves.
Investigating math related writing samples or math
problems effectively teaches the grammar of mathematics. Students
progress from framing questions to developing hypotheses about
the patterns they observe. The instructor can guide these steps or
encourage further investigation to evaluate the hypotheses formed
by the students. The instructor should interact before students
reach conclusions to insure that the evidence has been correctly

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interpreted leading to the correct conclusions. A major advantage
of this approach is the teaching of problem solving and critical
thinking skills that are invaluable in careers and life decisions.
Inquiry addresses a unique learning style, allowing students who
might not succeed with other teaching methods to achieve greater
success.

Teach How to Communicate Math

Math is language. A Framework for Adult Numeracy Standards:
The Mathematical Skills and Abilities Adults Need to be Equipped for the
Future states the following:

Mathematical communication is an overarching process

which includes understanding, expressing, and conveying
ideas mathematically in order to reflect on and clarify one’s
thinking, to make convincing arguments, and to reach
decisions. As noted in What Work Requires of Schools, a
SCANS Report for America 2000, arithmetic and
mathematics are essential basic skills and part of the
foundation each worker needs to be successful. Effective
workers must be able to interpret and communicate
information and communicate ideas. Good mathematic
communication is like all other effective communication
requiring listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills
along with interpersonal skills. (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron,
1996, p. 22)

This communication is often explaining, and perhaps advocating, a

particular position.
Without communication there would be no teaching or
learning of math. Students learn to communicate the results of
math computations, as well as communicate a lack of
understanding and the need for help.
In math, essential communication defines problems and
possible solutions. In the workplace problems are solved through
group efforts, so the ability to communicate is a valuable skill.

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 Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron (1996) states the following:

As a skill necessary for future employees, students should be

able to express mathematical ideas and concepts orally and
in writing. Also very few employees will work totally by
themselves. More and more, work will involve listening
carefully to clients and co-workers and clearly articulating
one’s point of view. (p. 31)

Teach Students to Think

The most important goal of an Adult Basic Skills instructor is
to teach adults to function effectively and efficiently in the
workplace and in everyday life. Adult Basic Skills students need to
learn to see and explore alternatives, to inquire about the nature
and ramifications of problems, and to discover mathematics as it is
used in society as a whole. In Everybody Counts, a report to the
nation on the future of mathematics education, the National
Research Council (1989) issued the challenge to:

 produce citizens with sufficient mathematical literacy to

distinguish evidence from anecdote,
 recognize nonsense,
 understand and appreciate the concepts of probability
and chance, and
 value the notion of proof.

These and other critical thinking skills enable adults to function

effectively in today’s society.

Blend Math Principles and Skills

The old way of teaching math was to teach basic skills before
teaching problem solving skills. However, those two skills go hand-

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in-hand and should be taught together. Each can reinforce the
other.
The most effective way to learn math is by exploration and
development of one’s own techniques for problem solving. That
process often seems too inefficient for the classroom. Many
students have devised skills and strategies that should not be
discarded so that everyone can do things “the instructor’s way.”
Why scrap good knowledge and start over? Students may choose to
learn new techniques and approaches, but they should be allowed
to retain and build on those they have discovered and mastered.
Students can learn both concepts and skills through problem
solving. Students learn new skills and concepts while they solve
problems. Approach sophisticated mathematical skills by treating
them as a problem to be solved. Grouws and Cebulla (2000a)
suggests that it is not necessary for teachers to focus on skill
development and then problem solving; both can be done
simultaneously. Skills can be developed on an as needed basis, or
their development can be supplemented through the use of
technology. In fact, “there is evidence that if students are initially
drilled too much on isolated skills, they have a harder time making
sense of them later” (p. 2).
According to Grouws and Cebulla, giving students both an
opportunity to discover and invent new knowledge and an
opportunity to practice what they have learned improves
achievement. Balance is needed between the time students spend
practicing routine procedures and the time they devote to
inventing and discovering new ideas. Instructors need not choose
between these. To increase opportunities for invention, instructors
should frequently use non-routine problems, periodically introduce
a lesson involving a new skill by posing it as a problem to be
solved, and regularly allow students to build new knowledge
based on their intuition and informal procedures. “Teaching that
incorporates students’ intuitive solution methods can increase
student learning, especially when combined with opportunities for
student interaction and discussion” (p. 3).

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 Encourage Participation
The Massachusetts ABE Math Standards state,

Computation skills should be practiced in the context of

problem solving and not as a set of isolated skills. Adults
should be encouraged to develop and share their own tricks
and ways of computing percentages; for example, sharing
short-cuts to determining the tip on a meal tab or finding a
discount. (Leonelli & Schwendeman, 1994, p. 40)

Encouraging students to share procedures is an invaluable

technique for overcoming math anxiety.
Adults also need to feel comfortable expressing their
frustrations with math. The instructor should strive to create an
environment that encourages students to talk about math and
about the problems they are experiencing. It helps both students
and instructors to evaluate and adjust the pace of instructional and
learning activities.
Math is problem solving. Life is repeating patterns of
reasoning and decision making to solve problems. When math class
teaches reasoning, decision making, and problem solving skills it
better prepares students for life.

Encourage learners to wonder why things are, to solve

problems in a variety of different settings, and to use
what is familiar to them to explain what is not.

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 Chapter

Make it Real
with Realia

Dianne B. Barber
Laurie L. Weston

The value of a problem is not so much coming up

with the answer as in the ideas and attempted
ideas it forces on the would be solver.
I. N. Herstein

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- 82 -
 Introduction
Math instruction in Adult Basic Skills classes has never been
an easy endeavor. Adult learners traditionally have difficulty
relating textbook lessons to practical, real situations. In fact, Adult
Basic Skills students often see little benefit in traditional math
lessons (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996). Using traditional
approaches to teaching math causes three predictable problems.

1 Adult learners often fail to see the usefulness of skills

taught from traditional textbooks with traditional
approaches. Therefore, instructors must apply math
to the real world.
2 Math classes lack motivation. Non-engaged adults
express feelings of frustration, hopelessness,
disinterest, and disconnectedness. They see little
relevance to their situations and, as a result,
experience little success. Lack of success creates
additional problems; a lack of previous learning
creates mental obstacles to future learning.
3 Students never learn the relevance and application of
math in their everyday lives. Because they never
grasp the transference of traditional math to the real
world, students often feel inadequate in the vital
areas of problem solving and decision-making.
(Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996)

These three problems are much less likely to develop when

the instructor strives to make math real by using realia. Realia is
any authentic material or activity that relates to students’
background, knowledge, and real life. Some researchers identify
realia as those materials that naturally exist in students’ lives
(Ahlstrom, 2003). Realia includes materials such as:

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• newspapers • prescriptions
• receipts • measuring utensils
• cookbooks • maps
• food labels • calendars
• bills • day-planners
• brochures • tv guides
• applications • grocery lists
• how-to manuals • diets
• cameras • formulas from work
• abacuses • schedules
• calculators • price lists
• checkbooks • catalogs
• menus • recipes
• magazines • applications
• work related documents • children’s homework

The use of realia enables most students to transfer math

skills to real-life situations. A Literacy Practices of Adult Learners
study found that when students participated in real-life activities
using authentic materials, they felt more engaged, successful, and
comfortable expanding their skills outside the classroom (Jacobson,
Degener, & Purcell-Gates, 2003). Another study, A Framework for
Adult Numeracy Standards, found that adults learned math more
effectively when lessons were relevant to real-life situations (Curry,
Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996).
The use of realia motivates and engages students in the
learning process. Several studies found that involving adult
students in planning and collecting realia, as well as in the
identification of needs and strategies, resulted in higher levels of
engagement and achievement (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron, 1996;
Ahlstrom, 2003; Jacobson, Degener, & Purcell-Gates, 2003;
Hiemstra, 2004). Adult learners remain motivated when they have

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a stake in learning, see a connection to real life, and have an
opportunity for collaboration. Realia provides all of these benefits.
Problem solving and decision making using realia provides
opportunities for meeting the diverse needs of adult learners. The
Ohio Mathematical Planning Committee Report (1996) noted that
since math is everywhere learners need to perform hands-on
problem solving activities to connect with real-life situations. Roger
Hiemstra (2004) states that problem solving is most effective when
students are involved in concrete, practical activities that relate to
prior knowledge and experiences. The Adult Numeracy Standards
study (1996) found that adults were more likely to be successful in
math and problem solving when their activities were directly
related to real situations (Curry, Schmitt, & Waldron).
One word of caution is necessary; studies cited here report
many examples of realia use in which adult learners were not able
to make connections between lessons and real-life. Adult Basic
Skills instructors must connect real-life to instructional activities
and materials. One approach relates realia to the work-related
experiences. Students given the opportunity to choose and collect
materials and activities were more likely to make the math
connection to work-related experiences (Curry, Schmitt, &
Waldron, 1996; Nowlan, 2004; Hiemstra, 2004). Moreover, students
experienced more success in math classes where collaboration and
realia were daily activities.

Sharing workplace applications helps

students see dramatic and concrete
reasons for improving math skills.

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 Realia in the Workplace
Sharing benefits everyone. Sharing work place applications
helps students see dramatic and concrete reasons for improving
math skills. Since much of the work force now uses basic algebra
and geometry, the importance of math becomes practically
impossible to ignore.
The variety of workplace applications is endless. In our free
enterprise society essentially every workplace provides money
applications in forms of costs, profits, or budgets. Figuring taxes is
only one example of the application of percents in the workplace.
Workers may need to employ measurement skills, read charts and
graphs, prepare statistical reports, calculate quantities of
ingredients or other materials, or compute costs. Cost computations
may include time estimation and cost comparison as well as
calculations related to overhead costs, insurance costs, salaries, and
benefits. Each should be the resource for a realia lesson.
Many workers identified ways to make their company more
efficient, and hence more profitable, but they do not know how to
sell their ideas to management. They can be encouraged to quantify
their ideas and share them with classmates who then provide
feedback on the style and format of a formal recommendation, thus
verifying the idea’s potential in economic terms.
If you get a 3% raise, how many more
dollars will be in your paycheck? This
question provides opportunities for creating
word problems related to percent
calculations and organizing numbers. What
would happen to your paycheck after a 5%
tax cut? This situation generates another
interesting set of questions. Similar
questions can be asked about personnel
costs to a company. How do company
changes affect the county budget?
There are many workplace
applications using fractions. Converting
production costs from a per day to a per
hour basis might involve a one-eighth

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calculation. Fractions are needed to figure weekly time cards.
Ordering parts and mixing ingredients might involve fractions.
Workplace realia includes completing applications, tax
forms, work orders, and other work-related forms. Math is
embedded throughout the workplace.

Realia in the Home

There are many practical examples
of the use of math in the home including
calculating living expenses, income and
investments, interest rates, and payment
plans. Many Americans count calories or
carbohydrates, thus contributing math
examples related to nutrition. Adjusting
recipes for different numbers of people
provides a need for fractions and
multiplication problems. Students may be
anxious to provide their own practical application materials.
Although some students may not be particularly interested
in all practical applications to family life, they will be interested in
many of them. Dividing the class into collaborative learning groups
insures that class members have opportunities to work with
applications that fit their personal interests and family situation.
How much more will an automobile cost if you finance for
one additional year or pay down $1,000 less? This problem requires
calculation of additional costs and sales tax. How much more (or
less) would it cost to purchase one of the new hybrid vehicles?
How long will it take to recover the cost from improved gas
mileage?
The above realia applications can be enhanced by
pamphlets, brochures, and advertisements or by meeting at a
grocery store, restaurant, or other business establishment.
Restaurant chains often provide menus and nutritional information
for adult classes. The class could publish a cookbook and include
recipes for different numbers of people, such as spaghetti for two or
spaghetti for 20.

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 Realia related math activities using family finances might
include checking and savings account records, credit card bills,
repair bills, utility bills, food labels, calorie charts, paint charts, rent
leases, and catalogs. Students can locate and collect other realia
after being shown examples.
Applicable realia can also be found in hobby and leisure
activities. Adult students are often shocked to learn how much
math they use in their leisure activities. Puzzles and board games
invariably involve geometric shapes, counting, and other simple
mathematics. A significant amount of math is involved in keeping
score and planning strategies when playing or watching sports.
Activities such as sewing, cross-stitching, stamp collecting, scrap
booking, or gardening have numerous math applications which can
easily be brought into the Adult Basic Skills classroom.
A leisure activity such as
planning a family vacation may be
an excellent realia math project for
Adult Basic Skills math class. There
is an endless number of tasks in
which the students can calculate,
ranging from the estimated cost of
the vacation to estimating the
amount of exercise it will take to
burn off the calories consumed while on the vacation. Map reading,
travel route selection, lodging costs, entertainment, and food
expense can have valuable real-life applications. Even simple
leisure activities, such as going to a movie, playing putt-putt, or
examining bowling scores provides numerous opportunities for
teaching math.
The math of music,
architecture, or photography can be
quite sophisticated; however, using
basic problems from these and
related areas allows adult students to
feel they are completing practical
problems while impressing them
with the diverse applications of
mathematics. Again, one can make

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these activities more meaningful by supplementing them with
realia, such as cameras, pictures, maps, and games.

Conclusion
The typical adult learner experiences frustration in the Adult
Basic Skills math class due to an inability to relate material to real
life. Using realia allows adult students to see math as a relevant
and practical skill. It also allows students to see how much math
they already know, thus helping to alleviate math anxiety. Using
realia in the classroom is an excellent strategy for alleviating
frustration with math and better preparing adult learners for the
workplace, real life, and even GED or Adult High School
completion.
Students may provide realia, or it may be supplied by
donations of relatively inexpensive material. Realia can be very
budget friendly.
The benefits of realia include the opportunity to explore the
endless variety of math applications to the real world and to
illustrate how much math adult students use and need in their
lives. When realia is used, learners become successfully engaged in
learning. In fact, the Literacy Practice of Adult Learners Survey
states, “Bringing the lives, needs, and interests of the students into
the classroom is an integral part of best practice” (Jacobson,
Degener, & Purcell-Gates, 2003). Best practice can be implemented
when the instructor thoughtfully and deliberately integrates realia
in teaching and learning activities.

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- 90 -
 Chapter

Project-based
Teaching and
Learning

Dianne B. Barber
Rebecca K. Sanders

The moving power of mathematics is

not reasoning but imagination.
Augustus De Morgan

- 91 -
- 92 -
 Introduction
As instructors we constantly search for alternative ways to
deliver instruction. Variety invigorates the class. We learn early
about learning styles and, therefore, develop a variety of teaching
methods. How can we involve reluctant learners in classroom
activities or difficult subject matter? We have found project-based
learning (PBL) to be an effective approach.
While enrolled in a graduate course in “Action Research”
one of the authors had an assignment to identify a problem within
the classroom, research possible solutions, and then choose and
apply a solution. She completed that assignment by substituting
PBL for traditional instruction after her Adult Basic Skills students
voiced their dislike for science. The results were astounding. Even
though the curriculum category was science, math was involved.
For instance, one team chose a project in nutrition involving a
significant application of math. PBL can be used effectively for
simultaneous instruction across disciplines.
The same author is now using PBL in math by having
students design a handicap-accessible house. The other author has
had math classes design a quilt, plan a garden, and help figure
materials needed and costs associated with building a house.

Project-based learning involves a group of

learners taking on an issue close to their
hearts, developing a response, and
presenting the results to a wider audience

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 Project-based Learning (PBL)
In an article entitled, Knowledge in Action: The Promise of
Project-Based Learning, Wrigley (1998) says, “In its simplest form,
project-based learning involves a group of learners taking on an
issue close to their hearts, developing a response, and presenting
the results to a wider audience. Projects might last from only a few
days to several months” (p. 1). Moss and Van Duzer (1998) state
that PBL “contextualizes learning by presenting learners with
problems to be solved or products to develop” (p. 1). The learners
work together to reach a suitable solution or conclusion. The
collaborative aspect of PBL is consistent with our understanding of
learning as a social activity that occurs within the context of
culture, community, and past experiences (Buck Institute for
Education Project Based Learning Handbook, 2002). The Buck Institute
for Education Handbook also states, “PBL can help you as a teacher
create a high-performing classroom in which you and your
students form a powerful learning community focused on
achievement, self-mastery, and contribution to the community” (p.
6).
The goal of PBL is more than creating interest; it is creating
excitement for learning. This strategy lets students select a topic
that is interesting and relevant to them. Projects involve students in
using their personal learning styles, resulting in a greater level of
learning (Railsback, 2002). PBL draws upon advantages of both
cooperative learning and inquiry/discovery instruction.
In an article entitled, Inquiry/ Discovery: Captain Cook, Barnett
(2004) describes inquiry/discovery as a teaching/learning process
based on the following four steps.

1. Define the problem for study.

2. Draw inferences/develop hypotheses.
3. Test each inference/hypothesis.
4. Draw a conclusion/solution to the problem of study.

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 These four steps are equally appropriate to cooperative
learning. When cooperative learning is properly facilitated,
students benefit from one another’s strengths and efforts. They also
seem to forget differences and come together to achieve common
goals. The combination of these strategies in PBL allows students to
simultaneously learn subject matter and gain social skills needed
on the job.
An article by Robert J. Stahl (1994) entitled, The Essential
Elements of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom, outlines the
elements needed for cooperative learning:

1. A clear set of specific student learning outcome

objectives.
2. All students in the group ‘buy into’ the targeted outcome.
3. Clear and complete set of task-completion directions or
instructions.
4. Heterogeneous groups.
5. Equal opportunities for success.
6. Positive interdependence.
7. Face-to-face interaction.
8. Positive social interaction behaviors and attitudes.
9. Access to must-learn information.
10. Opportunities to complete required information-
processing tasks.
11. Sufficient time is spent learning.
12. Individual accountability.
13. Public recognition and rewards for academic success.
14. Post-group reflection (or debriefing) on group behaviors.
(p. 2)

This exhaustive list summarizes the literature. Of course,

meeting all these specifications can be quite challenging.

- 95 -
 Another article, by Karen Yeok-Hwa Ngeow (1998) entitled,
Enhancing Student Thinking through Collaborative Learning, expanded
on the K-W-L strategy. Ngeow called her strategy K-W-H-L-S.

ÿ K is what the student knows;

ÿ W is what the student wants to learn;
ÿ H is how the student will learn the material and work
with others to attain goals;
ÿ L is what was learned; and
ÿ S is how the information was or will be shared.

Ngeow employs this strategy to insure that student goals

benefit individuals while contributing to the group’s common goal.
Since cooperative efforts are central to PBL, the instructor must be
familiar with cooperative learning elements and effective strategies.

K-W-L Model

What I KNOW What I LEARNED

What I WANT to learn

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 Implications for Numeracy
Instead of using most of the math class time to demonstrate
mathematical procedures, and assuming the student will remember
all the steps long enough to practice them, PBL creates
opportunities for active learning and immediate application to the
real world. PBL also creates context in which students want to solve
mathematical problems. This is a valuable step in the attainment of
a larger goal. By getting students to ask how, or at least look
forward to learning how, to complete the necessary mathematics
for a particular task, the instructor taps into the natural desire to
learn while alleviating math anxiety. Although the desire to learn
could be inspired by an interesting individual project, cooperative
and class projects are especially effective.
D’Ambrosio coined the term “ethnomathematics” in 1985; he
used this term to describe mathematics as practiced by cultural
groups and professional classes. Most Adult Basic Skills classrooms
are well suited for ethnomathematics. When there is significant
cultural diversity in a class, the instructor can tap students’
backgrounds to obtain examples of their math needs as well
practical applications.
A class project with multicultural applications might be the
planning and planting of a vegetable garden. Of course, this project
is suited to a homogeneous group, but a multicultural group makes
for a very interesting selection of vegetables. Either way, the alert
instructor can find many mathematical applications in the
calculation and measurement of plot layout, planting depths,
fertilizer applications, etc. The problems that can arise during the
planning process take the form of word problems, even if they are
not written. Students might be amazed to learn they solved word
problems throughout the project.
A team approach is appropriate for this project. One team
can research and propose fertilizer applications. Another team can
select the necessary and research the costs involved. A third team
could design the garden layout. Determining the area needed to
grow each type of vegetable and the cost of seeds or plants is a
good team project. Finally, a team can determine how to use the
produce of the garden and possibly how to recover expenses.

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 Planning and producing a vegetable
garden challenges students to develop skills in
estimating, counting, classifying, recording,
comparing, and measuring. Students learn
geometric shapes and determine areas and
perimeters. Most students need improvement
in estimation and measurement while sorting,
classifying, and recording may be new
experiences. Class projects also provide skills
in cooperative problem solving.
Another class project with multicultural applications is
planning and making a quilt. An instructor can find many
mathematics applications in the calculations of quilt size, block
size, amount of material needed, and investment in terms of cost
and time. Again, the planning process can provide word problems
which could be written, giving practice in communication. The
students are challenged to use skills in addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, fractions, percents, measurement, pattern
recognition, and working with geometric shapes. This project also
provides opportunities for working together.
Other potential PBL activities can create cooperative
problem solving opportunities. The students might enjoy planning
and preparing a meal or a party for a large group. Vacation or long
trip planning can provide numerous math activities. Students can
design a park, playground, or landscape plan. Moss and Van Duzer
(1998) reported that their students created a children’s coloring
book. Wrigley (1998) reported that her students developed a lunch
sharing plan which culminated in a catering business. Possibilities
are endless.
Real-life math might involve conducting a survey to
determine topics about which the students would like to learn.
Students can select an area of finance, become the experts, and then
share their knowledge and skills with classmates. Valuable
understanding of budgeting, salaries, buying a car or house,
grocery shopping, and personal banking is needed by the students.
Have students pick a destination; then plan for a trip. They
can choose transportation, date, activities, and lodging. They can
develop expense charts, timelines, and budgets.

- 98 -
 In geometry, consider designing a house, school, park,
downtown revitalization project or perhaps a school campus.
Require the use of specific geometric shapes and formulas in
designing 3-D projects. Toothpicks, straws, clay, etc. can be used in
designing simple or complex projects depending on class level.
Another project-based geometry experience is to redesign or
redecorate the classroom or building. Teams may be responsible for
flooring, walls, furniture, art, etc. Ownership and collaboration are
positive by-products of project-based learning.

PBL in the Classroom

Most PBL projects involve selecting a topic, planning the
project, researching, developing, and reporting results (Moss & Van
Duzer, 1998). Sharing projects and celebrating learning with peers
generates enthusiasm, great pride, and a sense of accomplishment.
(Wrigley, 1998; Moss & Van Duzer, 1998). The students are even
likely to admit that learning has been fun.
PBL projects provide opportunities for students to work
with real-life situations where there is usually more than one
correct answer. Students evaluate multiple solutions and develop
skills in assessing alternatives. Project involvement supports math
efforts. This teaching approach is especially beneficial because
students not only learn to perform mathematical procedures, but
they also practice choosing appropriate procedures and making
applications.
“Once a project is selected, learners work together to plan,
conduct research, and develop their products” (Moss & Van Duzer,
1998, p. 2). “As learners get involved in the inquiry process, they
become curious about answers, often digging deeper into a topic
and spending more time on task than they do when a teacher
assigns group work” (Wrigley, 1998, p. 6). The authors have
observed that PBL increases student bonding, even among friends.
Reading skills often limit the ability to solve word problems.
Using PBL creates situations where word problems are written or
voiced by the students. Students become aware of the practical
nature of word problems, and thus, become more comfortable

- 99 -
solving them. Successful completion of project-based learning
experiences contributes to self-confidence which is critical for
gaining mathematics proficiency.
In addition to the many potential PBL math applications, the
project report provides another opportunity to enhance math
learning. The final product may be measured, or otherwise
quantified. Students employ charts and graphs as well as
photographs and sketches. Summaries may include financial data.
Explaining computation provides additional opportunities for
presenters and observers to learn math.
When one of the authors employed PBL during instruction,
she heard many positive comments, including the three recorded
below:

ÿ “If we were doing another subject I would like to do it in

groups.”
ÿ “When you research it yourself, you won’t ever forget it.”
ÿ “We don’t sound like the same students you asked to
study science, do we?”

Indeed they did not sound like the same students. Students who
originally did not want to work on projects and were very hesitant
to study science demonstrated an increased interest almost daily.
Instructors change roles during PBL, serving as facilitators
rather than deliverers of knowledge. During project-based
instruction, they guide learning opportunities that help students
take ownership of their learning. Sharing with peers allows
students to teach information that ultimately becomes part of their
knowledge base. According to Wrigley (1998),

Projects require that teachers get to know their learners’

interests. Teachers must listen for what has been called the
teachable moment, that point in a discussion when learners
become excited about a topic, and start asking questions
such as, Why is x happening and what can we do about it.
Facilitating project-based learning requires the kind of
leadership skills that allow teachers to help a group of

- 100 -
 learners to move in the direction that they want to go,
pointing out potential pitfalls or making suggestions
without getting defensive when students decide they like
their own ideas better. (p. 5)

Benefits
When learners engage in projects that require budgets, they
frequently spend time on calculations and time lines, gaining
experience in practical math used in business and household
management. If time-on-task counts, and many basic skills
proponents believe it does, we can expect project work to lead to a
deeper understanding of what it takes to apply math to real-life
problems (Croll & Moses, 1988 and Wrigley, 1998).
A website entitled, “Project-based Learning with
Multimedia,” summarizes the major benefits of PBL:

ÿ PBL motivates students by engaging them in their own

learning. PBL provides opportunities for students to
pursue their own interests and questions and make
decisions about how to find answers and solve problems.
ÿ PBL provides opportunity for interdisciplinary learning.
Students apply and integrate the content of different
subject areas at authentic moments in the production
process, instead of in isolation or in an artificial setting.
ÿ PBL helps make learning relevant and useful to students
by establishing connection to life outside the classroom,
addressing real world concerns, and developing real
world skills. Many of the skills learned through PBL are
those desired by today’s employer, including the ability
to work well with others, make thoughtful decisions,
take initiative, and solve complex problems.

- 101 -
 To these benefits, Kraft (2003) adds that PBL

ÿ allows for different learning styles,

ÿ provides a risk-free environment,
ÿ encourages use of higher order thinking skills,
ÿ utilizes hands-on approach,
ÿ supports ownership of learning, and
ÿ utilizes real-time data.

Railsback (2002) emphasizes that preparation through PBL

for the workplace improves problem solving skills. She also says
that PBL enables students to see connections between disciplines,
allows them to use individual learning strengths, and provides a
practical real-world approach to learning technology.
PBL integrates learning. Students simultaneously enhance
planning and communicating skills, further preparing them for
success in the workforce. The Buck Institute for Education Project
Based Learning Handbook (2002) states,

Once teachers feel comfortable with PBL, they usually find

teaching with projects to be more fulfilling and more
enjoyable. PBL is a way of working with students as they
discover themselves and the world, and that brings job
satisfaction. (p. 9)

According to Ngeow (1998), Dewey (1938) states,

One of the philosophies of education is not to learn merely

to acquire information but rather to bring that learning to
bear upon our everyday actions and behaviors. Consistent
with this goal, we would argue that collaborative learning in
the classroom should prepare learners for the kind of team
work and critical interchange that they will need to be
effective participants in their communities and workplaces
in the future. (p. 2)

- 102 -
 Chapter

Using the
Calculator

Dianne B. Barber

The joy is in the process.

Henry Adams

- 103 -
- 104 -
 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an easy to
understand guide for learning to use a scientific calculator. The
Casio fx-260 calculator has been chosen as the model since it is the
official calculator for the GED test.
Trainers will find the content useful for planning
professional development workshops or for individual professional
development. Instructors may use this chapter to enhance their
skills or use it as a classroom teaching tool. It is written to be
effective for use in large groups, small groups, one-on-one or
independently.
This chapter discusses and demonstrates the functions most
often used in Adult Basic Skills mathematics instruction. It starts
with basic functions used in beginning math and goes through the
higher level functions used in Adult High School and GED
mathematics. However, this chapter does not cover all the
functions on the calculator.
This chapter is divided into lesson and practice sections for
each function introduced. Trainers and instructors working with
multi-level groups may find it useful to assign lessons and practice
based on participant and/or student needs. An answer key for all
practice problems is included at the end of the chapter.
Scientific calculators are very powerful and perform more
functions than discussed in this chapter. Most scientific calculators
have memory, statistical, trigonometric, and logarithmic functions.
One of the best ways to learn to use the calculator efficiently and
effectively is to experiment—try a key and see what it does.
This chapter has been adapted from the calculator chapter
published in the ABSPD GED 2002 Training Manual Series (Knight,
Barber, & Barber, 2002). It is updated with additional practice as
requested by many instructors who have been using the former
version.
For those who prefer a more multi-media approach to
learning to use a calculator, refer to the ABSPD CD-Rom Using the
Scientific Calculator which complements this chapter.

- 105 -
 The Calculator
As emphasis continues to be placed on
lifelong learning, the skills developed for using a
scientific calculator are stepping stones for skills
required in higher education and application to
workplace technology. Many adults have not
been exposed to scientific calculators. Without
instruction, most Adult Basic Skills students are
not able to use the calculator effectively. This
chapter is to help students learn to effectively use a scientific
calculator.
The information contained in this chapter is to be used as a
supplement to mathematics instruction. This chapter does not teach
mathematical concepts but addresses how to use the calculator as a
tool. It covers a large majority of the mathematical functions that
students may need from beginning level math through Adult High
School and GED math.
The GED Testing Service of the
American Council on Education adopted the
Casio fx-260 Solar Scientific Calculator as the
official calculator for use on the GED
Mathematics Test. It is the calculator
referenced throughout this chapter. The
Casio fx-260 scientific calculator is similar to
other inexpensive scientific calculators. Most
calculators have their function keys
arranged in a similar fashion, so it should
not be difficult to use this chapter to learn to
use other scientific calculators.
Calculator Instructions. Calculators
usually come with instructions that explain
the functions. Keep them; they may prove
useful. The instructions may help you figure out how your
particular calculator works or how to use functions not explained
in this chapter. If you misplace the instructions, order another set
from the manufacturer.

- 106 -
 Protective Cover. The fx-260 comes with a
plastic cover that protects the keys. To use the
calculator, remove the cover by sliding it towards
the top then sliding it onto the back. When not in
use, it is important to use the cover to protect the
keys.
Solar Power. Solar powered calculators, such as the Casio
fx-260, do not require a battery to operate. They use light as their
power source. With a solar powered calculator, a dead battery in
the middle of a test or homework assignment is not a concern.
However, if it does not have battery backup, it
means there must be ample light for the
calculator to work properly. If the calculator
display is dim or does not seem to be doing
calculations properly, place it in direct light to
correct the problem.
Small Yet Powerful. The fx-260 is really quite powerful,
especially considering its small size and inexpensive cost. It has 38
keys. Almost every key performs two functions: one printed on
each key in white and another printed above each key in gold. The
shift key allows access to the functions printed in gold.
The "SHIFT" Key. This key is located in the upper
left corner of the keypad. It is the solid black key with the
word "SHIFT" written above it. This key allows you to
"gain access" to the functions printed in gold above each of the
keys. To perform the operation printed on the key in white, just
press the key. However, to perform the function printed above the
key in gold, first press and release the "SHIFT" key. The word
"SHIFT" will appear in the upper left-hand corner of the screen, but
the number does not change. When the function key is pressed, the
word " SHIFT " disappears and the answer appears on the display.
This function will be used often as you continue learning to use the
calculator.
The "MODE" Key. This key is the second key in
the first row and changes the "mode" of the calculator.
However, ALL calculations for the GED are in the DEG
mode. The DEG mode is the computational mode of the fx-260. If in
further studies of mathematics it is necessary to change the mode,

DEG
- 107 - .
there is a guide below the display window for the different modes.
For instance, to use the calculator for statistical data, use the "SD"
mode. Remember, " DEG " should appear in the top center of the
display with a "0." on the right side of the display.

Calculators Require Strong Math Skills

Calculators require you to be strong in
mathematical concepts and mental math skills. You
must decide if the results obtained are reasonable.
The calculator is only as accurate as the person
entering the data. It can compute; it cannot think.
Not only do calculators not think, they have
no problem solving skills. The calculator does all the computations,
but you do all the thinking and problem solving. If you put
garbage in, you get garbage out.
Since you must do the thinking and problem solving, you
need to thoroughly understand the problems. If not, the calculator
only helps you calculate the wrong answer quicker. However,
since the calculator does the long and tedious calculations, you are
free to sharpen your thinking and problem solving skills.
To learn to use the new keys on the calculator, practice with
examples to which you know the answers. By doing so, you know
the calculator is being used correctly.
The first time working through this chapter you probably
will not remember how to use all the keys. Make notes of any
discoveries in the pages’ margins. Also, if there is a question about
how a key works, seek clarification.

- 108 -
 Lesson 1: Clearing and Correcting Keys
The ON Key. To use the calculator, press the "ON"
key. The key is the last key in the first row. This key
completely clears the display, the memory, and all
pending operations. It also changes the "Mode" back to the
computational mode (DEG). Pressing this key each time you begin
to use the calculator insures that everything is cleared from the last
time the calculator was used.
The AC Key. The all clear key is useful for clearing
operations and problems. It is one of the two red keys.
This key clears all pending operations but retains numbers
stored in memory as well as the mode setting. Pressing the key
prior to each new problem clears the last problem.
The C Key. There is another red key next to the all
clear key; it is the clear key. This key clears only the last
number entered. It retains other parts of the problem,
whereas the all clear key clears the entire problem. Use the clear key
to clear only a number punched in error.
For example: To compute 250 + 456, if 250 + 123 was
punched in, correct the error by punching the key, which
removes "123." Then enter "456" and press the key to arrive at
the correct answer.
The Delete Key. Another key that is handy for
correcting errors is the delete key. This is the second key
from the left on the third row from the top. This key
works similarly to the "backspace key" on a typewriter or
computer; it clears the digit(s) on the display starting with the ones
place. Each time the delete key is pressed, it deletes one digit of the
number showing in the display, thus allowing correction of an
entry without reentering the entire number.

- 109 -
 It's Your Turn
Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following.

Display
To Do This Key(s) to Press
Shows

Turn the calculator on 0.

Enter 2467 2467 2467.

Change to 2468,
i.e., delete the ones digit and 8 2468.
change it to an 8

Add 357 357 357.

Oops! I meant add 579; i.e., clear

579 579.
the entry and add 579

Oops! I meant subtract 465, i.e.,

465 465.
clear the entry and subtract 465

Calculate the result 2003.

Clear the display 0.

- 110 -
 Practice 1: Clearing and Correcting

Example 1: Display Shows

Enter 13.50, add 6.50
Change 6.50 to 7.20
Instead of adding 7.20 subtract 7.20
Calculate the result

Example 2: Display Shows

Enter 3457 and change to 3789
Then add 126
Clear 126 and change to 260
Clear 260 and change to subtract 260
Calculate the result

Example 3: Display Shows

Enter $254.88 plus $97.99 minus $79.94
Change $79.94 to $79.99
Clear $79.99 and add $79.99
Calculate the result

- 111 -
 Lesson 2: Number and Basic Operation Keys
The majority of the computations done on
calculators in today's society are basic calculations
using the four basic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.

addition

subtraction

multiplication

division

Locate the basic operation keys on the calculator. Also look

at how the numeric keys, the digits 0-9, are arranged. Now locate
the decimal and equal keys.

decimal equal

Always end problems by pressing the equal key.

It's Your Turn

Just for fun and to be sure you know
how to use the basic operation, numeric digit
(0-9), and decimal keys, complete the cross-
number puzzles on the following pages.

- 112 -
 Practice 2.1: Addition

1 2 3 4

5 6 7

8 9

10 11 12 13

14

15 16 17 18 19

20 21

Across Down
1. 7+8 2. 36 + 16
3. 2,536 + 4,891 4. 756,123 + 7,096,022
5. 87 + 206 6. 300 + 16
7. 30 + 51 7. 802,040 + 50,105
8. 9,080 + 8,755 9. 3,111 + 20
10. 762 + 3,094 11. 3,232 + 1,835
12. 59 + 63 13. 897 + 1,242
14. 3,408 + 4,903 16. 36 + 33
15. 52,000 + 4,671 17. 19 + 51
19. 94 + 49 18. 5+8
20. 1,297 + 8,406
21. 35 + 24

- 113 -
 Practice 2.2: Subtraction
1 2 3 4

5 6

7 8

9 10 11 12

13

14

Across Down
1. 523 - 478 2. 98 - 39
3. 6,019 – 2,324 4. 152 - 94
5. 1,253 - 351 6. 900 - 684
7. 11,439 – 9,731 8. 1,141 - 283
9. 4,081 – 1,245 10. 461 - 87
11. 1,005 - 951 12. 1,363 - 872
13. 1,641 - 852
14. 81,730 – 75,310

- 114 -
 Practice 2.3: Multiplication
1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8

9 10

11 12 13 14 15

16

17 18 19 20 21

22 23

24

Across Down
1. 14 x 4 2. 13 x 5
3. 623 x 3 4. 153,083 x 6
5. 5x1 5. 8x7
6. 29 x 18 7. 21 x 10
8. 4 x 39 10. 1,271 x 2
9. 1,688 x 6 12. 29 x 100
11. 36 x 20 14. 269 x 90
13. 89 x 61 15. 18,014 x 5
16. 180 x 83 18. 3x4
17. 179 x 62 19. 45 x 2
21. 94 x 30 20. 137 x 6
22. 77 x 26
23. 1 x 17
24. 9,400 x 30

- 115 -
 Practice 2.4: Division
1 2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9

10

11 12 13

14 15

Across Down
1. 865 ÷ 5 2. 15,690 ÷ 2
3. 7,506 ÷ 18 4. 5,208 ÷ 7
5. 72 ÷ 12 5. 68,607 ÷ 99
6. 369 ÷ 9 8. 16,412 ÷ 2
7. 4,890 ÷ 10 9. 8,625 ÷ 15
9. 216 ÷ 4 12. 1,300 ÷ 100
10. 60,920 ÷ 40 13. 354 ÷ 6
11. 5,665 ÷ 11
14. 7,860 ÷ 3
15. 507 ÷ 13

- 116 -
 Practice 2.5: Decimals

1 2 3 4

5 6

8 9 10

11 12

13

Across Down
1. 1.00 - .936 1. .2 x .3 x .5
3. .3 x .9 2. 246.98 + 353.02
5. 12.50 + 17.50 3. .373 - .1
6. 2.4 x 3.1 x .05 4. .08 x 900
7. .001 x 83 x 1,000 6. .3 x 1.28
9. 12.8 ÷ 20.0 8. .195 – .147
11. 345.6 + 54.4 9. 3.04 x .2
12. .99 - .63 10. .08 + .08
13. 420 x 2.1 12. .288 ÷ .9

- 117 -
 Practice 2.6: Basic Operations

1 2 3 4

5 6

8 9

11 12

13

Across Down
1. 85 + 96 1. 72 ÷ 6
3. 231÷ 7 2. . 81×1000
5. 40 −19 3. 1251− 873
6. 1.5 × 180 € 4. 100 × 300
€
7. 143.643 + 36.357 6. 185.34 + 33.66
9. 937 − 868 8. 111× 6
11. 345.5 + 321.5 9. 459,684 ÷ 678
12. .005 × 8000 12. 987,654 − 987,610
13. 1,213− 319

- 118 -
 Lesson 3: Change of Sign Key
The change of sign key is the first key in the third
row. It is used to change the sign of a number. To make a
number negative, use this key. For example, to enter a negative
number such as -3, enter the number 3 and then press to
change the sign, thus making the number -3.
Many people make a common error by
using the subtraction key to make a number
negative. Even though this works most of the
time, it does not work all the time. For this
reason, it is best to get into the habit of using the
change of sign key to make numbers negative.

It's Your Turn

A calculator may not be necessary to do these problems, but
working with easy problems to learn the keys builds confidence in
using the calculator.

To Do This Enter Display Shows

-4 + -3 4 3 -7.

5 × -20 5 20 -100.

-4.78 + 3.239 4.78 3.239 -1.541.

426 ÷ -6 426 6 -71.

- 119 -
 Practice 3.1: Negative Numbers
1

3 4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

16

17 18

19

Include the sign of the answer with the first digit of each answer.
Across Down
1. (-58) + (-14) 1. (−123) × (6)
3. (−7) × (2) × (−6) × (10) 2. (−109) + 9 − (−10)
5. (−19) × (−2) × (−29) 4. (−49) ÷ (−1)
8. (−48) ÷ (−2) € 6. (−10) + (26)
€ 10. (−100) − (−25) € 7. (−8) × (−3)
€ 12. (−12) + (27) € 9. (−71) × (−6)
€ 13. (−216) × 0 € 11. (−416) + 916
€ 15. (−.8) × .8 ×10 × (−10) € 14. 200 − (−45)
€ 16. (−1026) ÷ (3) € 17. (−672) ÷ (−12)
€ 19. 32 + 96 + (−68) € 18. (−1) × (−1) × (−1)
€ €
€ €
€ €

- 120 -
 Practice 3.2: Negative Numbers

Perform the indicated operations:

1. -7.9 + 5.6 2. -8.1 - 3.5

3. -0.3 x 4.2 4. -4.8 ÷ -0.6

5. The following transactions were made at a bank drive thru

window one afternoon:

$1,259.84 deposit
$120.00 withdrawal
$2,819.00 withdrawal
$946.83 deposit
$250.00 withdrawal

What is the average amount for these transactions?

Daily Temperature
6. Find the average temperature for
the week. Sunday 42
Monday 28
Tuesday 15
7. Find the change in temperature Wednesday 9
from Wednesday to Thursday and Thursday -10
from Friday to Saturday.
Friday -23
Saturday -16

- 121 -
 Lesson 4: Order of Operations, Grouping
Symbols, and Missing Multiplication Signs
Order of Operations. Remember the "order of
operations?" The order of operations may have been
learned using the mnemonic, "Please excuse my dear
Aunt Sally." The first letter of each word is used to
help you remember the correct order of operations
when solving math problems. Calculations should
always be completed in the following order:

1. Work within Parentheses (grouping symbols)

2. Exponents
3. Multiplication and Division in order of appearance from
left to right
4. Addition and Subtraction in order of appearance from
left to right

Most small and inexpensive scientific calculators do not

have "order of operations" as a built-in feature, but the fx-260 does.
When evaluating an expression that includes several operations,
the fx-260 "knows" to compute exponents before multiplying or
dividing and to multiply or divide before adding or subtracting. It
also "knows" to perform operations within parentheses before
performing operations outside parentheses.
You may think, "Great, I won't need to know order of
operations since the calculator has it built in." WRONG, WRONG,
WRONG! You still need to know order of operations and
sometimes you may need to add parentheses so the calculator
calculates using the correct order. Let's investigate how the built-in
feature, order of operations, works by completing an example.
To compute 2 + 3 x 4, enter the expression into the calculator
as written, 2 + 3 x 4 , then press the key. The fx-260 will
compute the correct answer, which is 14. However, many small and
inexpensive calculators will compute 2 + 3 and then multiply by 4
which results in an incorrect answer of 20.

- 122 -
 As you are exposed to different calculators, notice if they
have a built-in order of operations. Test to see if a calculator has built
in order of operations by doing a computation similar to the one on
the previous page. Anytime you test a feature or function, use
examples for which the answer is known or that can easily be
calculated using paper and pencil.
Grouping Symbol Keys. In the third row of keys
on the calculator there are two grouping symbol
(brackets and parentheses) keys:

Left Grouping -- Open parentheses/bracket

Right Grouping -- Close parentheses/bracket

On the calculator, grouping symbols always work in sets,

i.e., every time you open a set you must also close the set. Use these
keys to complete a computation that involves grouping symbols,
parentheses, and/or brackets. Enter the grouping symbols as they
are written in the problem. The calculator also allows the use of
nested grouping symbols. Remember, when grouping symbols are
used, they are used in pairs. Each time you open a set you must
close the set.

It's Your Turn

Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following
examples.

To Do This Enter Display Shows

(3+2)x4 3 2 4 20.

40-(9+21) 40 9 21 10.

- 123 -
 Sometimes it is necessary to "add" parentheses so the
calculator correctly computes the answer. One example is working
with complex fractions.
7 + 13
For instance, if there is a complex fraction such as ,
2+3
include parentheses around the numerator and around the
denominator since the fraction bar acts as a grouping symbol. If
doing this problem using mental math, follow these steps:
Missing Multiplication Symbols. Scientific calculators
evaluate expressions involving parentheses; the calculator "knows"
to evaluate what is inside the parentheses first. However, you must
always "tell" the calculator what operation to perform. When there
is a missing multiplication symbol, include the multiplication
symbol when entering the expression.
For example, to compute 3(4 + 5) using mental math or with
pencil and paper, add 4 + 5 and then multiply by 3. However, to
compute this on the calculator, enter "3 x (4 + 5)=" which results in
the correct answer of 27.

It's Your Turn

Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following
examples.

To Do Display
Enter
This Shows
7 + 13
7 13 2 3 4
2+3
9−3
9 3 3 3 1
3+ 3
€
8(3+9) 8 3 9 96

2(4+6) 2 4 6 20

ALWAYS THINK about what you are doing. YOU must

enter correct information for the calculator to compute the correct
answer.

- 124 -
 Practice 4: Order of Operations, Grouping
Symbols, and Missing Multiplication Signs
Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following
examples.

Record Results

1. 3(5 − 2) + 6 × 1

2. 3 + 12 – 5 x 2

3. (1 + 9) × (7 − 3)

20 + 30
4.
5×5
5. 2(4 + 6) − 3(7 − 5)

6. Aaron budgeted $3,600 for rent, $780 for

utilities, and $1,800 for food for a year. How
much is his monthly budget for these expenses?

7. The Voss family is building a swimming pool

that will be 32 feet by 18 feet. They want a fence
around the pool that will be built 7 feet from each
side of the pool. How much fencing will be
required for the pool?

- 125 -
8. A car rental agency is advertising a full size car
for $14.95 per day plus $0.29 per mile. If you
rent this car for 2 days, how many whole miles
can be driven on a $100 budget?

9. Rebecca owns a catering business and has been asked to quote a

price per person for catering fruit salad at an afternoon
reception for 20 people.

a. Use Rebecca's recipe and the prices given to calculate the

cost per person. Remember to charge the 7% sales tax on
purchases.

b. What additional amount should Rebecca charge per person

if she hopes to receive a total of $90 for the catering job?

c. How much total profit will she make on this job?

Rebecca's Fruit Salad

$1.79 /lb.
2 lbs. grapes, halved
3 lbs. of watermelon, cubed
1 lb. fresh blueberries
$1.29 /lb.
1.25 lbs. of nectarines or
mangos, sliced
1 6 ounce can frozen fruit
$2.99 /lb
juice concentrate, thawed
Combine ingredients, and
serve chilled.
$1.69 /lb. Yields: Ten servings.

Rebecca buys the fruit juice concentrate in bulk. It comes

frozen in 1-ounce cubes. She gets 64 cubes for $2.56.

- 126 -
 Lesson 5: The Percent Key
The percent function is the second function of the
equals key. To compute percents using the percent
function you need to press and then the key.
Remember, to use one of the functions printed in "gold," first
press then press the key below the function to be used.
Adults work with percents when shopping,
opening a savings account, or borrowing money.
The percent key greatly reduces the time required
to calculate percents, but to learn to use this key
efficiently, you need a thorough understanding of
how percents work and be able to correctly
complete percent problems with pencil and paper.
To take "10% of 96" when using pencil and paper, there are
two choices for setting up the problem:

Choice 1: 10% x 96 or Choice 2: 96 x 10%

However, when using the percent function on the calculator,

always "arrange" the problem so that the "%" is entered last as in
choice 2 above. Try it. Find 10% of 96. Was the answer 9.6? If not,
try again.
Percent Increase/Percent Decrease: The
percent function can also be used to calculate
percent increases or percent decreases. Calculate the
percent, then press to calculate a percent
increase. To calculate a percent decrease, press after calculating
the percent. Use the calculator to work through the following
example.

Example 1: A television that regularly sells for

$400 is on sale for 25% off. Find the sale price,
the sales tax (7%), and the total cost of the
television.

- 127 -
Step 1: Find the sale price.
To calculate the sale price enter the following:
400 25
This calculates the discount ($100). Press to calculate
the sale price ($300).

Step 2: Find the sales tax.

To calculate the sales tax enter the following:
300 7
The sales tax is $21.00.

Step 3: Find the total cost.

Press at the end of step 2 to increase the sale price by
7% resulting in a total cost of $321.00.

It's Your Turn

Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following.

Display
To Do This Enter
Shows

Find 25% of 180. 180 25 45.

Increase 180 by 25%. 180 25 225.

A store is having a 40% off sale

on walking shoes. If the pair you
60 40 36.
really like has a regular price of
$60, what is the sale price?

What number is 60% of 95? 95 60 57.

24 is 4% of what number? 24 4 600.

- 128 -
 Practice 5.1: Basic Percents
1 2 3

4 5

6 7

9 10

Across Down
1. .4% of 5,000 1. 8% of 300

2. 96% of 900 3. 300% of 141

5. 5% of 500 4. 23% of 14,000

6. 4% of 300 6. 25% of 780

7. 37.5% of 88 7. 12.5% of 2904

8. 20% of 3960

9. 40% of 125

10. 1% of 34,000

- 129 -
 Practice 5.2: More Percents
1. In a recent survey, 61 out of 300 drivers responded that they do
not exceed the speed limit. What percent of the drivers exceed the
speed limit?

2. A real estate agent earns 6% commission. If she sells a house for

$135,000, how much commission does she earn?

3. The bookstore is advertising a 10% discount on calculators that

have a regular price of $9.95 each. The discount increases to 15% if
purchased by the case. One case contains 6 calculators. The sales
tax is 7%. Use this information to fill in the chart.

One One Dozen

Regular Price

Discount

Sale Price

Sales Tax

Total Cost

- 130 -
4. Use the information in the chart to solve the following
problems. Chris plans to buy 2 pairs of pants and 3 shirts at the sale
price.

Item Regular Price

Shirts $29.95 $23.96

Pants $49.96 $37.47

Jackets $89.95 $53.97

How much will he save by buying the clothing at the sale price
instead of the regular price?

If sales tax is 7%, how much sales tax will he pay?

What can he expect to pay total, i.e. including sales tax?

What is the percent discount for the pants?

What is the percent discount for the shirts?

What is the percent discount for the jackets?

- 131 -
 Lesson 6: The Fraction Key
Is finding common denominators and reducing
fractions difficult? Is there an easier way? The fraction
functions on the Casio fx-260 make operations with
fractions as easy as operations with whole numbers. These
functions allow you to add and subtract fractions with ease; i.e.,
you do not have to find a common denominator. The same goes for
division, i.e., no more “flip and multiply.” The calculator displays
all results in reduced form. If all you need to do is reduce a fraction,
the calculator will do that for you too.
The fraction key, , is the first key in the second row; it is
used to enter fractions. Another fraction function is printed in gold
right above the key. These functions are used to convert fractions to
decimals or mixed numbers to fractions.
When entering fractions on the calculator the fraction is not
displayed as you might expect. For example, a mixed number such
4
as 3 will be displayed as
5

3 __| 4 __| 5.

When reading the display, read from left to right. If there are three
parts then you know it is a mixed number with the first number
being the whole part, the second number being the numerator and
the last number being the denominator. If only two numbers are
showing, such as 3 __| 4., then the first number is the numerator and
3
the last number is the denominator, i.e., .
4

- 132 -
 To Enter a Mixed Number

Enter the "whole number part," press the fraction key, enter
the numerator, press the fraction key, and then enter the
denominator. Enter other fractions the same way. For example:

To Enter
Enter Display Shows
Fractions
4
3 3 4 5 3 __| 4 __| 5.
5

7
7 8 7 __| 8.
8

Note, do not press the fraction key after entering the last part
€ of a mixed number or fraction.

To Reduce a Fraction

Enter the mixed number or fraction as described above and

press . You try it.

To Reduce
Enter Display Shows
Fractions

4
4 6 2 __| 3.
6

6
5 5 6 8 5__| 3 __| 4.
8
€
20
20 3 6__| 2 __| 3.
€ 3

32
32 4 8.
4
€

€
- 133 -
 To Change a Fraction to a Decimal

After entering the mixed number or fraction, press and

then press ; the display shows the decimal. By pressing
again the display changes back to the mixed number. You try it.

To Change
Fractions to Enter Display Shows
Decimals
4
4 5 .8
5
6
5 5 6 8 5.75
8
€
20
20 3 6.666666667
3
€
32
32 4 8.
4
€

To Change a Mixed Number to an Improper Fraction

€
First enter the mixed number using the key and then

press and the function to change the mixed number to an

improper fraction. You try it.

To Change
Mixed Numbers Enter Display Shows
to Fractions
4
3 3 4 5 19__| 5.
5
6
5 5 6 8 23 __| 4.
8

- 134 -
 To Add, Subtract, Multiply, or Divide Fractions

To perform basic operations, just enter each fraction using

the key and continue just as you would with any other type
problem. You try it.

Display
To Do This Enter
Shows

1 1
7 ÷1 7 1 5 1 1 3 5__| 2__| 5.
5 3

3 1
6 + 6 3 4 1 2 7__| 1__| 4.
€ 4 2

5 1
− 5 6 1 12 3__| 4.
€ 6 12

Most adults like using the calculator when working with

€ fractions. However, learning to properly use the fraction key takes
more practice than some of the other keys. Complete the practice
problems on the following pages to sharpen your skill using the
calculator as a tool.

It's Your Turn

Use the calculator to find the answers to the cross-number
puzzle and the solutions to the word problems on the following
pages.

- 135 -
 Practice 6.1: Fractions
1 2 3 4

6 7 8

9 10

11

12 13

Each fractional part; i.e., whole number, numerator, and

denominator, fills one square. If there are only two squares and you
get a mixed number answer, change it to an improper fraction.

Across Down
1 2 11 1
1. 5 −4 2. +
2 3 21 3
3 1 1 2
3. 1 +2 +3 3. 1−
8 4 2 9
3 9 1 5
€ 5. 2 +1 € 4. 1 −
5 10 3 6
3 12 3 1
€ 9. × € 6. 1 ÷
4 5 4 2
15 4 9 3
€ 10. + € 7. −
45 18 10 10
2 1 1 2
€ 11. 1 ×2 € 8. ×
5 2 3 3
4 4 1 1
€ 12. ÷ € 10. 7 ÷1
5 3 5 3
1 1
€ 13. 6 −5 €
8 2
€ €

- 136 -
 Practice 6.2: More Fractions
1. Cindy is working on a craft project which requires the
3
following lengths of ribbon: 2 pieces 2 feet
4
1
long, 3 pieces 1 feet long, and 1 piece
8
1
3 feet long. The ribbon sells for $1.19 per
2
yard.

a. How many yards of ribbon does she need?

b. What is the total cost of the ribbon including 7% sales

tax?

2. Calculate the perimeter for the scale drawings below.

- 137 -
3. The carpet shop is running a "Buy one, get one free" sale on
all the carpet and padding they have in stock. The carpet
chosen for the bedroom (scale drawing below) sells for $1.98
per square foot when not on sale. The regular price of the
padding is $4.95 per square yard.

a. How many square yards of carpet will it take to carpet

the bedroom? Give answer as the number of “whole”
yards that must be purchased.

b. How much will the carpet cost for the bedroom? Be sure
to include the 7% sales tax. Round the answer up to the
nearest dollar.

- 138 -
 Lesson 7: Exponents
Exponents are a shorthand way of writing repeated
multiplication. The fx-260 has three exponential functions that are
often used. They are as follows:

This key is used to square a number (or raise a

number to the second power). This key is the third
key on the first row.

The second function of this key is used to cube a

number (or raise a number to the third power). This
function is above the second key on the third row.

This key is used to raise a number, x, to any power,

y. This key is the next to last key on the third row.

These functions are extremely useful when working with

geometric shapes and problem solving. The calculator has other
exponential functions, however those functions are used when
working with negative exponents and logarithms.
As you work, notice how exponents are expressed in
different ways. For example:

Exponent Ways to Express

42 four to the second power
four squared
four times four
53 five to the third power
five cubed
five times five times five
64 six to the fourth power
six times six times six times six
x5 x to the fifth power
x times x times x times x times x

- 139 -
 It’s Your Turn
Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following
examples.

Display
To Do This Enter
Shows

62 6 36.

53 5 125.

25 2 5 32.

3.5 2 3.5 12.25

54 5 4 625.
†

2 3 ¥ 32 2 3 72.
†

- 140 -
 Practice 7.1: Exponents
Use the exponent keys on the calculator to simplify each of
the following:

Square Answer Cube Answer Mixed Answer

1. 12 13 110

2. 22 23 24

3. 32 33 35

4. 42 43 44

5. 52 53 54

6. (-2)2 (-2)3 -22

7. (-3)2 (-3)3 -33

8. (-4)2 (-4)3 -42

9. (-5)2 (-5)3 -53

10. A positive number squared plus six squared equals one

hundred. What is the number?

11. Four times a positive number squared minus that number

squared is seventy-five. What is that number?

- 141 -
 Practice 7.2: More Exponents
1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9

10 11

12 13 14

15 16

Across Down

1. 53 1. 27

3. 112 2. 83

6. 134 x 100 4. 33

9. 7.4 x 101 5. 122 x 102

10. 74 7. 73

13. 62 + 3 8. 46

14. n2 = 900, n = 11. 90

15. 44 12. 52

16. n2 = 400, n = 14. 25

- 142 -
 Lesson 8: Roots and Radicals
The Casio fx-260 has two root keys. They are as follows:

Use the square root function to find the square

root of a number. This function is the second
function of the x2 key. It is located above the
third key on the first row. To use this function
you will need to use the shift function.

Use the cube root function to find the cube root

of a number. This function is the second
function of the change of sign key. It is located
above the first key in the third row. To use this
function you will need to use the shift function.

It's Your Turn

Use the calculator to compute the answers for the following
problems.

Display
To Do This Enter
Shows

Find the square root of 36 36 6.

Find the cube root of 27 27 3.

Simplify 64 64 8.

Simplify
3
64 64 4.
†

- 143 -
 Practice 8.1: Roots
1 2 3

4 5

6 7

8 9 10

11 12 13

14 15 16 17

18

Across Down
1. 144 1. 169
2. 729 2. 625
4. 225 3. 1681
† †
5. 3
1331 5. 10000
† †
7. 400 6. 1156
† †
8. 2025 7. 529
† †
10. 900 9. 3136
† †
11. 4096 12. 2116
† †
14. 2401 13. 3
1728
† †
16. 4225 15. 8281
† †
18. 3
2744 17. 2809
† †
† †
† †

- 144 -
 Practice 8.2: More Roots
1. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a
right triangle whose legs have lengths of 3
centimeters and 4 centimeters.

2. Romeo is standing 20 feet away from the wall below Juliet’s

balcony. Juliet is on the balcony, 12 feet above the ground.
How far apart are Romeo and Juliet?

3. Fernando frequently drives to a movie theatre in a nearby

town. If he drives on the main roads, he must drive 6 miles
east and then 8 miles north. There is a shorter route through
the woods that runs directly from his house to the theatre.
How many miles is the route that runs directly from his
house to the theatre? How many miles shorter is this route?

4. Amber lives in Raleigh. Chris lives nine miles east of Amber.

Sarah lives twelve miles north of Chris. How far does Amber
live from Sarah?

- 145 -
 Lesson 9: Pi
The Pi function is the second function of the middle
key on the bottom row. Notice that pi ( p ) is not written in
gold, therefore you do not need to use the shift ( ) key to
use this function. The Pi function is most often used when working
† and cylinders. For
with geometric formulas for circles, cones
example, the Pi function is used to calculate the circumference or
area of a circle and the volume or surface area of a cone or cylinder.

The key is used for computations when numbers are

written in scientific notation and/or to change numbers written in
scientific notation to standard notation. However, it does not work
for negative exponents.
You try it. Use the calculator to compute the answers for the
following problems.

Display
To Do This Enter
Shows

Find the value for Pi 3.1415…

Find the circumference

of a circle with a 6 18.849…
diameter of 6 inches
Find the area of a circle
3 28.274…
with a 3 inch radius

Write 2.5 x 103 in

2.5 3 2500.
standard notation

Find the value of

3 2 4 3 4300.
(3 x 102) + (4 x 103)

- 146 -
 Practice 9: Pi and Scientific Notation
1. How many miles of rope are needed to wrap
it around the Earth at the equator, if the
radius of the Earth is 4000 miles.

2. A circular garden, 24 feet in diameter, has a 3-foot wide gravel

walk around it. What is the approximate area of the walk in
square feet? Round the answer to the nearest tenth.

If edging is put between the walk and garden, how many feet
would it require? Round the answer to the nearest tenth.

3. Find the amount of space occupied by a ball that

has a diameter of 3 feet.

4. Find: (5 x 107)(9 x 10-4)

5. The population of the world is approximately 5.506 x 109. What

is the population of the world in standard form?

- 147 -
 Answers for Practice Exercises
Practice 1: Practice 2.1: Addition
Clearing and Correcting

Example 1 1 2 3 4

6.50 1 5 7 4 2 7
7.20 5 6 7

7.20 2 9 3 8 1
6.30 8 9

Example 2 1 7 8 3 5
3789. 10 11 12 13
126. 3 8 5 6 1 2 2
260. 14
3529. 0 8 3 1 1
Example 3 15 16 17 18 19
79.94 5 6 6 7 1 1 4 3
79.99 20 21
79.99 9 7 0 3 5 9
432.86

Practice 2.2: Subtraction

1 2 3 4

4 5 3 6 9 5
5 6

9 0 2 8
7 8

1 7 0 8
9 10 11 12

2 8 3 6 5 4
13

7 7 8 9
14

6 4 2 0 1

- 148 -
Practice 2.3: Multiplication

1 2 3 4 5

5 6 1 8 6 9 5
6 7 8

5 2 2 1 5 6
9 10

1 0 1 2 8
11 12 13 14 15

7 2 0 5 4 2 9
16

9 1 4 9 4 0
17 18 19 20 21

1 1 0 9 8 2 8 2 0
22 23

2 0 0 2 1 7
24

2 8 2 0 0 0

Practice 2.4: Division

1 2 3 4

1 7 3 4 1 7
5 6

8 6 4 1
7 8 9

4 8 9 5 4
10

1 5 2 3 7
11 12 13

0 5 1 5
14 15

2 6 2 0 3 9

- 149 -
Practice 2.5: Decimals

1 2 3 4
.0 6 4 .2 7
5 6
3 0 .3 7 2
7
0 8 3
8 9 10
.0 .6 4 .1
11 12
4 0 0 .3 6
13
8 8 8 2

Practice 2.6: Basic Operations

1 2 3 4
1 8 1 3 3
5 6
2 1 2 7 0
7
0 1 8 0
8 9
6 6 9 0
11 12
6 6 7 4 0
13
6 8 9 4

- 150 -
Practice 3.1: Negative Numbers

1
-7 2
2
3 -9
3 4
8 4 0

9
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-1 1 0 2 2 4 -7 5

6 4 2 0
12 13 14 15
1 5 0 2 6 4 0
16
-3 4 2

5
17 18
5 -1
19
6 0

Practice 3.2: Negative Numbers

1. -2.3
2. -11.6
3. -.126
4. 8
5. -196.47
6. 6.43
7. -19º, +7º

- 151 -
Practice 4: Order of Operation …

1. 15
2. 5
3. 40
4. 2
5. 14
6. $515
7. 128 ft.
8. 241 miles
9. $.69, $3.81, $76.31

Practice 5.1: Basic Percents

1 2 3

2 0 8 6 4
4 5

4 3 2 5
6 7

1 2 3 3
8

7 9 2 6
9 10

5 0 3 4 0

Practice 5.2: More Percents

1. 80%
2. $8,100
3. Regular Price $9.95 $119.40
Discount $.99 $17.91
Sale Price $8.96 $101.49
Sales Tax $.63 $7.10
Total Cost $9.59 $108.59
4. $42.95, $10.28, $157.10, $25%, 20%, 40%

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Practice 6.1: Fractions Practice 6.2: More Fractions

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 1 8 1. 4 1/8 yards, $5.25

bedroom - 57.75 ft,
5 2.
kitchen/breakfast – 55.25 ft.
7 9 2
3. 21 yards, $201
6 7 8

3 3 2
9 10

1 4 5 5 9
11

2 7 2
12 13

3 5 5 8

Practice 7.1: Exponents

Square Answer Cube Answer Mixed Answer

1. 12 1 13 1 110 1
2. 22 4 23 8 24 16
3. 32 9 33 27 35 243
4. 42 16 43 64 44 256
5. 52 25 53 125 54 625
6. (-2)2 4 (-2)3 -8 -22 -4
7. (-3)2 9 (-3)3 -27 -33 -27
8. (-4)2 16 (-4)3 -64 -42 -16
9. (-5)2 25 (-5)3 -125 -53 -125
10. The number is 8.
11. The number is 5.

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Practice 7.2: More
1 2 3 4 5
Exponents
1 2 5 1 2 1
6 7 8 9
2 1 3 4 7 4
10 11
8 2 4 0 1 4
12 13 14
2 3 9 3 0
15 16
2 5 6 6 2 0

Practice 8.1: Roots 1 2 3

1 2 2 7 4
4 5
3 1 5 1 1
6 7
3 2 0
8 9 10
4 5 3 0
11 12 13
6 4 1
14 15 16 17
4 9 6 5 2
18
1 4 3

Practice 8.2: More Roots Practice 9: Pi and

Scientific Notation

1. 5 centimeters 1. about 25,133 miles

2. 23.3 feet 2. 254.5 feet, 75.4
3. 10 miles, 4 miles shorter 3. 14.1 ft3
4. 15 miles 4. 45,000
5. 5,506,000,000

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 Part 2
Training and
Teaching Plans

- 155 -
- 156 -
 Introduction
Part 2 presents research-based training and teaching plans.
Our goal is to present adaptable plans and activities and encourage
modification and tailoring that allows you to best meet your
training and instructional needs. The 7 chapters include the
following topics:

ÿ Defeating Math Anxiety

ÿ Learning with Intelligence and Style
ÿ Real Learning with Realia
ÿ Projects to Enhance Learning
ÿ Teaching Multi-level Learners
ÿ Fun with Beginning Math
ÿ Fun with Algebra, Geometry, and Graphing

As is always the case, knowledge is best understood and

interpreted when it meets the needs of the learner. Knowing the
needs of the participants, the trainer is in the best position to
customize activities. Each chapter includes a variety of activities so
that you can customize training for both new and experienced
participants.
When using the classroom activities in a workshop setting
let participants know the purpose of the training, “To help you help
students learn how to ...” Explain, “I will act as instructor to model
activities so that you experience the benefits of actually taking part
just as if you were a student in the Adult Basic Skills classroom.”

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- 158 -
 Chapter

Defeating Math
Anxiety

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

Math anxiety is an emotional reaction ...

which harms future learning. A good
experience … can overcome these feelings and
… future achievement in math can be attained.
Ellen Freedman

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- 160 -
 Overview
In the 1970s the term “math anxiety” was coined to describe
the “panic, helplessness and mental disorganization that arises
among some people when they are required to solve a
mathematical problem” (Tobias, 1978).
Many students enter the Adult Basic Skills classroom with
math anxiety, therefore instructors need teaching strategies that
help students increase a personal sense of self and open doors to
interesting classes, college majors, and careers that they previously
shunned due to their fear of math.
This training plan focuses on the nature, causes, and effects
of math anxiety and provides a variety of ideas and tools.

Goal
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods, strategies,
and techniques for empowering instructors to help
students overcome math anxiety.

Objectives
Participants will

• define math anxiety;

• identify characteristics and underlying
causes of math anxiety;
• develop strategies to dispel math
myths; and
• apply strategies and techniques to help
students reduce math anxiety.

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 Summary of Activities

Activity Materials Time

Activity 9.1: Math “Math Anxiety is…” and “Math Myths” 60 minutes
Anxiety and Math Myths handouts, flip charts, markers, and scrap
paper or sticky notes

Activity 9.2: My “My Experiences with Math” and “Do you 20 minutes
Experiences with Math Have Math Anxiety? A Self Test”
handouts, flip charts, and markers

Activity 9.3: “Characteristics of Math Anxiety” 40 - 60

Characteristics of Math handout, definition of math anxiety for minutes
Anxiety display, sticky notes, flip charts, and
markers

Activity 9.4: “Breathing to Relax,” “Games We Play, 60 - 90

Techniques to Reduce Games Others Play,” “Positive Self-talk minutes
Anxiety Statements,” “Math Anxiety Bill of Rights,”
“Math Anxiety Code of Responsibilities,”
and “Math Teachers’ Ten
Commandments” handouts

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following
2004 ABSPD Institute participants.

Beth Agnello, Pamlico Community College

Olivia Andrews-Beard, Durham Technical Community College
Heidi Austin, Appalachian State University

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Carole Brown, Catawba Valley Community College
Brenda Childers, Appalachian State University
Brenda Cousins, Halifax Community College
Sonja Godwin, Southeastern Community College
Leta Hartley, Appalachian State University
Nathan Karner, Appalachian State University
Helen Keller, Western Piedmont Community College
Jean Lilly, Western Piedmont Community College
Sarah Loudermelk, Catawba Valley Community College
Lisa Mauney, Western Piedmont Community College
Evelyn McCray, Fayetteville Technical Community College
Barbara Percell, Brunswick Community College
Mary Tucker, Catawba Valley Community College

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 Activity 9.1: Math Anxiety and Math Myths
What is math anxiety? What causes it? Why do some people
experience math anxiety and others do not? Many commonly held
views are based on myths, thus giving false impressions about
math. Having a clear definition of math anxiety enables learners to
discuss their fears. This activity is designed to help learners
understand math anxiety and its causes.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Math Myths” handout
and cut the myths apart. Prepare enough
individual myths so that each participant will
have one. You may want to make copies of the “Math
Anxiety is…” and “Math Myths” handouts so each
participant has a copy at the end of the activity.
2. Set up a flip chart with markers for use
during discussion.
3. Have available flip charts, markers and scrap
paper or sticky notes for each small group.

Conducting the Activity

1. Ask participants to complete the sentence, “Math anxiety is …”
2. Divide participants into small groups.
3. Each group combines their responses into one definition of
math anxiety.
4. Each group writes their definition on a flip chart, shares it with
the other groups, and posts it on the wall.
5. As a large group, discuss and compare the definitions generated
by the small groups with the definitions found in research.

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6. Ask participants to brainstorm beliefs about math. For example,
only smart people can be mathematicians, not everyone can do
math, etc. List beliefs on flip chart.
7. Give each participant one of the twelve math myths.
8. Participants form groups according to their math myth.
9. Each small group prepares a presentation of their myth. They
may use a skit, make a poster, do a mini lecture, write and read
a story, etc.
10. Each group presents its myth.
11. Discuss the role math myths and anxiety play in the classroom.
12. Discuss changes participants plan to make in their teaching as a
result of what was learned during this activity.

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 Math Anxiety is …

…an intense emotional

feeling that people have about
their inability to understand and
do mathematics.

…an irrational dread of

mathematics that interferes with
manipulating numbers and solving
mathematical problems within a
variety of everyday life and
academic situations.

…a feeling of tension and apprehension that interferes

with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of
mathematical problems in a variety of academic and ordinary
life situations.

…a clear-cut, negative, mental, emotional, and/or physical

reaction to mathematical thought processes and problem
solving.

- 166 -
 Math Myths
MEN ARE BETTER IN MATH THAN WOMEN.
Research has failed to show any difference between men and
women in mathematical ability. Men are reluctant to admit they
have problems so they express difficulty with math by saying, "I
could do it if I tried." Women are often too ready to admit
inadequacy and say, "I just can't do math."

MATH REQUIRES LOGIC, NOT INTUITION.

Few people are aware that intuition is the cornerstone of doing
math and solving problems. Mathematicians always think
intuitively first. Everyone has mathematical intuition; but some
have not learned to use or trust it. It is amazing how often your first
idea turns out to be correct.

MATH IS NOT CREATIVE.

Creativity is as central to mathematics as it is to art, literature, and
music. The act of creation involves diametrical opposites—working
intensely and relaxing, the frustration of failure and elation of
discovery, the satisfaction of seeing all the pieces fit together. It
requires imagination, intellect, intuition, and an aesthetic feeling
about the rightness of things.

YOU MUST ALWAYS KNOW HOW YOU GOT THE ANSWER.

Getting the answer to a problem and knowing how the answer was
derived are independent processes. If you are consistently right,
then you know how to do the problem. There is no need to explain
it.

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THERE IS A BEST WAY TO DO MATH PROBLEMS.
A math problem may be solved by a variety of methods that
express individuality and originality—but there is no best way.
New and interesting techniques for doing all levels of mathematics,
from arithmetic to calculus, have been discovered by students. The
way math is done is very individual and personal; the best method
is the one that makes you feel most comfortable.

IT IS ALWAYS IMPORTANT TO GET THE ANSWER EXACTLY

RIGHT.
The ability to obtain an approximate answer is often more
important than getting exact answers. Feelings about the
importance of the exact answer often are a reversion to early school
years when arithmetic was taught as a feeling that you were "good"
when you got the right answer and "bad" when you did not.

IT IS BAD TO COUNT ON YOUR FINGERS.

There is nothing wrong with counting on fingers as an aid to doing
arithmetic. Counting on fingers actually indicates an understanding
of arithmetic—more understanding than if everything were
memorized.

MATHEMATICIANS DO PROBLEMS QUICKLY IN THEIR

HEADS.
Solving new problems or learning new material is always difficult
and time consuming. The only problems mathematicians do
quickly are those they have solved before. Speed is not a measure
of ability. It is the result of experience and practice.

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MATH REQUIRES A GOOD MEMORY.
Knowing math means that concepts make sense and rules and
formulas seem natural. This kind of knowledge cannot be gained
through rote memorization.

MATH IS DONE BY WORKING INTENSELY UNTIL THE

PROBLEM IS SOLVED.
Solving problems requires both resting and working intensely.
Getting away from a problem and later returning to it allows the
mind time to assimilate ideas and develop new ones. Often, upon
returning to a problem, a new insight is experienced which unlocks
the solution.

SOME PEOPLE HAVE A "MATH MIND" AND SOME DON'T.

Belief in myths about how math is done leads to a lack of self-
confidence. Self-confidence is one of the most important
determining factors in mathematical performance. We have yet to
encounter anyone who could not attain his or her goals once the
emotional blocks were removed.

THERE IS A MAGIC KEY TO DOING MATH.

There is no formula, rule, or general guideline that suddenly
unlocks the mysteries of math. If there is a key to doing math, it is
in overcoming anxiety and using the same skills you use to do
everything else.

Source: Kogelman, S. & Warren, J. (1979). Mind Over Math. New

York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 30-43. Retrieved October 24, 2005, from
http://www.swt.edu/slac/math/12Myths.html

- 169 -
 Activity 9.2: My Experiences with Math
It is important for learners to understand that they share
similar math experiences. This activity allows participants to reflect
upon and discuss both positive and negative experiences.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “My Experiences with
Math” handout, one for each participant.
2. Have available flip charts and markers for each
small group.

Conducting the Activity

1. Provide each participant with the “My Experiences with Math”
handout.
2. Briefly explain to participants that you want them to write
about their math history, including positive and negative
experiences, memories of how others influenced them, and how
they dealt with recent situations involving math. Participants
complete the handout based on their personal experiences.
3. Divide participants into groups of four to six.
4. Each group chooses a recorder to record key points from the
discussion.
5. Participants share and discuss what they wrote with others in
their group paying particular attention to similarities and
differences in their experiences.
6. Groups identify key experiences, both positive and negative to
share with the large group. Ask the recorder to record these on
a flip chart.
7. Each group shares key experiences.

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8. Ask participants, “Based on the discussions and information
shared, what do you think are the causes of math anxiety?”
Record answers on flip chart.
9. Provide each participant a copy of the “Do You Have Math
Anxiety? A Self Test” handout. Ask participants to complete the
test as if they were one of their students. Allow participants to
share their findings.
10. Close with a brief review by participants of what math anxiety
is and what causes it.

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 My Experiences with Math
1. Briefly describe your chronological history in terms of the
negative and positive experiences you have had with math.
Include your earliest memories, as well as memories of how
your teachers and your family influenced you in math.

2. Describe how you have dealt with recent situations involving

math in other classes, on the job, or in daily life situations.

3. Explain how math could help to accomplish your educational

goals, earn more money, choose a career, or to succeed in any
other aspect of your life.

Adapted from Arem, C. (1993). Conquering math anxiety: A self-help

workbook. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 17-18.

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 Do You Have Math Anxiety?
A Self Test
Rate your answers from 1(disagree) to 5 (agree).

Disagree Agree
1. I cringe when I have to go to math class. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I am uneasy about going to the board in math 1 2 3 4 5
class.
3. I am afraid to ask questions in math class. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I am always worried about being called on in 1 2 3 4 5
math class.
5. I understand math now, but I worry that it is 1 2 3 4 5
going to get really difficult soon.
6. I tend to zone out in math class. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I fear math tests more than any other test. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I do not know how to study for math tests. 1 2 3 4 5
9. It is clear to me in math class, but when I go 1 2 3 4 5
home it is like I was never there.
10. I am afraid I will not be able to keep up with 1 2 3 4 5
the rest of the class.

Add answers to find your total score. Total Score ________

Check score below:
40 – 50 Sure thing, you have math anxiety.
30 – 39 No doubt! You are still fearful about math.
20 – 29 On the fence!
10 – 19 Wow! Very little anxiety here.

Adapted from Freedman, E. (2003). Mathpower.com. Retrieved November

10, 2004, from http://www.mathpower.com/anxtest.htm

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 Activity 9.3: Characteristics of Math Anxiety
Adult learners may believe they are the only ones who ever
developed a particular physical symptom or had an emotional
reaction to math. Feeling their reactions were unusually extreme
can reinforce a perception that math is more difficult for them than
for others. Learning that their reactions to math are not unique can
be a major step toward addressing math anxiety.

Preparation
1. Write the following definition of math anxiety on a flip chart,
transparency, or white board.
Not unlike a disease, math anxiety is a
clear-cut, negative, mental, emotional,
and/or physical reaction to mathematical
thought processes and problem solving.
2. Make copies of the “Characteristics of Math
Anxiety” handout for each participant.
3. Have flip charts, markers, and sticky notes available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Display and read aloud the definition of math anxiety.
2. Participants individually record characteristics of math anxiety
on sticky notes, one characteristic per note.
3. Divide participants into groups of three. Ask triads to sort notes
into three groups: mental, emotional, and physical.
4. Ask each member of the triad to select one group of notes, i.e.,
mental, emotional, physical.
5. Jigsaw into three new groups, i.e. mental, emotional, and
physical.
6. Give each group a flip chart on which to arrange their sticky
notes. Ask that the appropriate title be placed on their flip chart.

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7. Groups “weed-out” duplications and make a list of the
characteristics under their heading.
8. Each group chooses a spokesperson to share the results with the
large group.
9. Distribute the “Characteristics of Math Anxiety” handout.
10. Participants compare characteristics listed on the handout with
characteristics listed by the group. Add any missing
characteristics to the handout.

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 Characteristics of Math Anxiety

Mental Physical Emotional

Confused Tired Depressed

Uncertain Headache Angry

Lost Sweaty/Hot Frustrated

Defeated Tears/Crying Anxious

Blocked Stomachache Sad

Isolated Faster Heart Beat Impatient

Characteristics of Students with Math Anxiety

Helplessness Easily distracted Withdrawal

Concepts do not sink Nervous movement,
Asking others for
in and are not i.e., pencil or foot
answers
retained tapping
Short attention span, Avoiding eye contact
Negative comments
daydreaming with instructor
Avoidance Puzzled looks Hostility

Classroom Factors

Stressful Supportive
Rigid, one approach is Creative, different approaches
acceptable welcomed
Instructor invites questions with
Questions treated with scorn body language, tone, and
words—no stupid questions!
Small successes are celebrated
Mistakes emphasized
and built on
Student labeled, instructor Diversity is embraced (learning
allows disrespectful comments, styles, pace, and ease of
ridicule mastering concepts)

- 176 -
 Activity 9.4: Techniques to Reduce Math
Anxiety
Math anxiety is learned. With the realization that math
anxiety is a problem that many share comes the feeling that there is
hope. Learning ways to reduce anxiety through relaxation
techniques and positive self-talk help learners begin the journey to
succeed in math. We constantly talk to ourselves; however, often,
we are criticizing and condemning ourselves. Negative self-talk is
self-defeating. Consciously choose to replace negative with positive
self- talk. Breathing to relax and changing negative self-talk into
positive self-talk are just two of the many activities learners may
use to reduce math anxiety.

Preparation
1. Make copies for each participant of the following handouts:
a. Breathing to Relax: 4-7-8
b. Games We Play, Games Others Play
c. Positive Self-talk Statements
d. Math Anxiety Bill of Rights
e. Math Anxiety Code of Responsibilities
f. Math Teachers’ Ten Commandments
2. Prior to conducting the workshop you may want to prepare a
positive statement for each of the negative statements in the
“Games We Play, Games Others Play” handout.

Conducting the Activity

1. Breathing to Relax: 4-7-8. See attached instructions.
Demonstrate “Breathing to Relax” and do it several times with
participants.

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2. Discuss positive and negative self-talk. Be sure to include the
following statement in the discussion:
a. If you believe in something, whether it is good or bad, it
becomes true for you and, in effect, it becomes reality.
b. Once we believe we can do something, we start behaving
in ways to make it happen.
c. Believe you will succeed in math and you will!
3. Distribute the “Games We Play, Games Others Play” handout.
4. Participants work in pairs
to write positive
statements to replace the
negative statements listed
on the handout. Model an
example such as,
replacing the negative
statement, “I have the
right answer but I did it
the wrong way.” with a
positive statement such as, “I have the right answer. I did it a
different way but there are a lot of ways to do math.” If
participants have difficulty writing positive statements give
them the “Positive Self-talk Statements” handout.
5. Distribute the “Positive Self-talk Statements” handout.
Participants check all statements that are similar to those they
wrote, add new statement to the handout and share with others.
6. Discuss other ways that instructors might EMPOWER students.
Record suggestions on the board or flip chart. Be sure the
following are included in the discussion.
a. Ask questions.
b. Consider math a foreign language – it must be practiced.
c. Do not rely on memorization; rely on understanding.
d. Study math according to your learning style.
e. Get help when you do not understand something.

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 f. Be relaxed and comfortable when practicing math.
g. Talk mathematics with peers.
h. Take responsibility for your own successes and failures.
7. Give participants the “Math Anxiety Bill of Rights,” “Math
Anxiety Code of Responsibilities,” and “Math Teachers’ Ten
Commandments” handouts. Ask participants to read and
discuss how these might be used to EMPOWER their students.

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 Breathing to Relax: 4—7—8
By Dr. Andrew Weil
Since breathing is something we can control and regulate, it is a
useful tool for achieving a relaxed and clear state of mind. Try the
following exercise to relax, reduce stress and reduce anxiety. It is
simple, takes almost no time and can be done anywhere. Although
you can do the exercise in any position, sit with your back straight
while learning the exercise.

The Exercise
You will inhale through your nose and exhale through your
mouth. During the exhale try keeping your lips pursed (almost like
you are slowly blowing out a candle).
1. Exhale completely though your mouth making a whoosh
sound.
2. Close your mouth and inhale quietly through your nose,
mentally counting to four (4).
3. Hold your breath for a count of seven (7).
4. Exhale completely through your mouth, lips pursed, making
a whoosh sound to a count of eight (8).
5. Steps 1-4 are one breath. Now inhale quietly again and
repeat the cycle three more times for a total of four breaths.
Notes:
• Exhalation should take twice as long as inhalation.
• If you have trouble holding your breath, speed up the
exercise, but keep the ratio of 4:7:8.
• Do the exercise as often as you need it, but do not do
more than four breaths at one time.
This exercise is a natural tranquilizer for the nervous system. It gains in
power with repetition and practice. Use it whenever anything upsetting
happens are whenever you are aware of internal tension. Everyone can
benefit from it.

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 Games We Play, Games Others Play

Games We Play
Everybody knows what to do, I got the right answer, but I don’t
except me. know what I’m doing.

I don’t do math fast enough. I don’t have a math mind.

I’m sure I learned it, but I can’t I was never good in math so I
remember what to do. can’t be good now.

I knew I couldn’t do math. Math is unrelated to my life. Why

do I need math anyway?

I got the right answer but I did it This may be a stupid question,
the wrong way. but …

- 181 -
 Games Others Play
You will never be able to do You’ll just have to work harder in
math. math, and you’ll get it.

All you have to do to learn math You should know that.

is to work hard.

That’s an easy problem. You did it the wrong way.

The answer is right in front of Why learn math anyway, you’ll

you, don’t you get it? never need it?

Adapted from Kogelman, S. and Warren, J. (1979). Mind Over Math.

New York: McGraw-Hill and Arem, C. (1993). Conquering math
anxiety: A self-help workbook. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

- 182 -
 Positive Self-talk Statements
1. I’m getting better at math every day.

2. I’m starting to like doing math.

3. I remember more math each day.

4. There are a lot of ways to do math.

5. Everybody uses math and I’m learning it, too.

6. I can understand math when I give myself a chance.

7. Each day, math is a little easier for me.

8. I’m relaxed and confident in working math.

9. Working out math problems is like a puzzle—it’s fun.

10. I’m feeling better about math.

11. Knowing math helps me in everyday problems.

12. I’m becoming a good math student.

13. _________________________________________________________

14. _________________________________________________________

15. _________________________________________________________

16. _________________________________________________________

Adapted from Arem, C. (1993). Conquering math anxiety: A self-help

workbook. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

- 183 -
 Math Anxiety Bill of Rights
by Sandra Davis

I have the right to learn at my own pace and not feel put
down or stupid if I'm slower than someone else.

I have the right to ask whatever questions I have.

I have the right to need extra help.

I have the right to ask a teacher or tutor for help.

I have the right to say I don't understand.

I have the right to not understand.

I have the right to feel good about myself regardless of

my abilities in math.

I have the right not to base my self-worth on my math

skills.

I have the right to view myself as capable of learning math.

I have the right to evaluate my math instructors and how

they teach.

I have the right to relax.

I have the right to be treated as a competent person.

I have the right to dislike math.

I have the right to define success in my own terms.

Davis, S. (2004). Math anxiety bill of rights. Retrieved October 24, 2004,
from http://www.mathpower.com/billrght.htm

- 184 -
 Math Anxiety Code of Responsibilities
1. I have the responsibility to attend all classes and do
all homework as assigned.
2. I have the responsibility to recognize the rights of
others to learn at their own pace.
3. I have the responsibility to seek extra help when
necessary.
4. I have the responsibility to see the teacher … for
assistance.
5. I have the responsibility to come to class prepared,
homework finished and/or questions to ask.
6. I have the responsibility to speak up when I don't
understand.
7. I have the responsibility to give math at least the
same effort I give to other subjects.
8. I have the responsibility to begin my math study at my
current skill level.
9. I am responsible for my attitudes about my abilities.
10. I have the responsibility for learning and practicing
relaxation skills.
11. I have the responsibility to act as a competent adult.
12. I have the responsibility to approach math with an
open mind rather than fighting it.
13. I have the responsibility to be realistic about my goals
and expectations.

Adapted from Acker, K. (2004). Math anxiety code of

responsibilities. Retrieved October 24, 2004, from
http://home.capecod.net/~ tpanitz/cccchtml/responsibilities.html

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 Math Teachers’ Ten Commandments
by Donald Edge and Ellen Freedman

1. Thou shalt accept the challenge of teaching math and educate

thyself in every way so that students will learn.

2. Thou shalt recognize that some students fear or dislike math

and be compassionate and understanding when teaching.

3. Thou shalt convey to students that their self worth is unrelated

to their math skills.

4. Thou shalt adapt teaching strategies to meet the different

learning styles of students.

5. Thou shalt respect all student questions as you would have

them respect yours.

6. Thou shalt pursue the response of “I still don’t understand”

through different avenues until there is understanding.

7. Thou shalt not ask a class, “Do you understand?” Instead,

though shalt determine what each student knows and does not
know, and address student problems individually.

8. Thou shalt identify students in need of extra help and make

certain they get it.

9. Thou shalt actively involve students in class.

10. Though they may at times seem few, thou shalt count thy
blessings.

Edge, D. & Freeman E. (2004). Math teachers’ ten commandments.

Retrieved October 24, 2004, from http://www.mathpower.com/
tencomm.htm

- 186 -
 Chapter

10

Learning with
Intelligence and
Style

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations

and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences.
Dr. Howard Gardner

- 187 -
- 188 -
 Overview
People learn in a variety of ways. They can experience the
same class in different ways. Some people do well in a lecture
setting and some do not. Some people need hands-on learning to
comprehend information. Some people learn well in groups and
some people prefer working individually.
Most of our adult students have not done well in the
classroom setting. They may not have been taught in a way that
triggers their preferred learning style. Instructors of mathematics
can help frustrated and math anxious students by learning about
teaching and learning styles.

Goal
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research based methods, strategies,
and techniques for empowering instructors to enhance
the learning environment through an understanding
and application of multiple intelligences and teaching
and learning styles.

Objectives
Participants will
• use Gardner’s eight multiple
intelligences;
• recognize that students have a
combination of intelligences and
learning preferences;
• identify their dominant intelligences
and learning style; and
• use the intelligences and learning
preferences to enhance math teaching.

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 Summary of Activities

Activity Materials Time

Activity 10.1: Telling is 1 sheet of paper for each participant 10 - 15

NOT Teaching minutes

Activity 10.2: Multiple “Test Yourself” and “Engaging the 60 – 90

Intelligences Intelligences” handouts, flip charts, and minutes
markers

Activity 10.3: Learning “Learning Styles Checklist,” Learning 60 – 90

Styles Preferences,” and “Teaching Strategies minutes
for Math” handouts, flip charts, and
markers.

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following
2004 ABSPD Institute participants.

Phil Adams, III, Central Piedmont Community College

Carol Allen, Rowan-Cabarrus Community College
Randy Allen, Rowan-Cabarrus Community College
Tammy Chavis, Robeson Community College
Shereese Harris, Pitt Community College
Curtis Hildt, Coastal Carolina Community College
Jenny Huddleston, Vance-Granville Community College
Ross Huddleston, Vance-Granville Community College
Lethia Hunt, Robeson Community College
Joyce Jarrard, Appalachian State University
Samantha Mansfield, Pitt Community College
Charles Pickett, James Sprunt Community College

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Anita Powell-McDowell, Robeson Community College
Ruth Scherer, Pitt Community College
Anna Thompson, Pitt Community College
Lynne Toepke, Coastal Carolina Community College
Brian Wagoner, Fayetteville Technical Community College
James White, Central Piedmont Community College

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 Activity 10.1: Telling is NOT Teaching
This activity emphasizes the teaching-learning process.

Preparation
Have a sheet of paper available for each participant.

Conducting the Activity

1. Give each participant a sheet of paper.
2. Participants hold the sheet of paper in front of them.
3. Participants close their eyes and follow the spoken
directions. Remind participants—no peeking.
4. Directions.
a. Fold your paper in half
b. Tear off the upper right hand corner
c. Fold it in half again and tear off the upper left-hand
corner of the sheet.
d. Fold it in half again.
e. Now tear off the lower right hand corner of the sheet.
f. Open your eyes and see what you have.
5. Announce, “If I did a good job of communicating and you
did a good job of listening, all of our sheets should look the
same.”
6. Observe differences.
7. Why did your papers not exactly match mine? Discuss.
8. Point out what a poor job you did as an instructor. Use
statements such as, “I did not allow for questions.” “I failed
to recognize an important fact.” “Telling is not teaching.”
9. Close the activity by stating, “This means that what an
instructor says or does is not the measure of success; what
the students say or do is.”

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 Activity 10.2: Multiple Intelligences
Gardner (1999) developed the idea that people have eight
different potential pathways to learning. He identified those
intelligences as linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, visual-
spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal,
and naturalist. A person can have any combination of these
intelligences. We learn best by the intelligence(s) that is(are)
dominant. This activity helps individuals identify their stronger
and weaker intelligences and understand how to use different
intelligences to enhance teaching and learning.

Procedure
1. Make copies of “Test Yourself” and “Engaging the
Intelligences” handouts.
2. Complete the “Test Yourself” inventory. Plan to share your
dominant intelligences with participants.
3. Place a list of intelligences on the board before beginning the
activity.
4. Have flip charts and markers available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Discuss with participants that people have different
intelligences through which we learn.
2. Let participants choose the one intelligence from the list they
think is their strongest. Let participants who chose the same
intelligence work together to prepare a list of statements that
describe people who have that dominant intelligence. Have
them list their statements on flip chart paper and share their list
with the larger group.
3. Give each participant a copy of the “Test Yourself” handout. Let
participants complete the inventory to see which are their

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 dominant intelligences. After finishing the inventory, discuss
results with participants. Are their dominant intelligences what
they thought prior to taking the inventory?
4. Explain to participants that no one uses just one type of
intelligence; everyone uses several different intelligences
throughout their daily lives. It is just that some intelligences are
stronger than others for each individual. Explain that one of the
intelligences is not better or more important than another; each
has its own strength.
5. Give each participant a copy of the “Engaging the Intelligences”
handout. Use ideas from the handout to explain each of the
intelligences. Let participants ask questions and discuss the
concept. Then involve participants in activities so that they have
the opportunity to use each of the intelligences.
6. Provide an opportunity for participants to talk about each
activity upon completion. Ask participants how they felt after
completing the activity? Did some find the activity easy while
others found it hard? Discuss how dominant intelligences
influence how one reacts to different activities?
7. Discuss how understanding multiple intelligences might help
adult students in their learning and work environments.
8. Discuss how ideas from the “Engaging the Intelligences”
handout could be used to incorporate intelligences into math
lessons. Assign each small group one intelligence to brainstorm
how to incorporate it into math instruction. Participants could
make a list to share with the larger group.
9. Ask participants to brainstorm math applications that are used
in each career listed on the “Engaging the Intelligences”
handout. Let participants know that an activity such as this
allows their students to see the need for learning math.

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 Test Yourself
It’s not how smart you are that matters, what really counts is
how you are smart. That’s the message from noted education
professor Howard Gardner of Harvard University.
The practical implementation of Gardner’s "Theory of
Multiple Intelligences" forms a significant part of our accelerated
learning philosophy. Which of the intelligences do you favor? What
are your strengths?
By answering the following questions you will be able to
gauge which forms of intelligence are your strongest—and
weakest. This will enable you to focus on making sure you make
the most of your existing abilities and—if you so desire—see if you
can develop some of the others.
Let us emphasize that most of us have a mixed portfolio of
intelligences and that there is no purpose in trying to simply label
someone as a ‘logical-mathematical’ type or a ‘bodily-kinesthetic’
type. The checklist is designed to help you develop a fuller
appreciation of the intelligences you enjoy.
Check each statement which applies to you and add the
totals.
Compare the totals from all eight intelligences and you will
readily see your greatest strengths and weaknesses. The higher
your score, the more you favor that particular intelligence.

Source: Rose, C & Nicholl, M. J. (1997). Accelerated Learning

for the 21st Century. New York: Dell. Retrieved January 20, 2004,
from Accelerated-Learning, Inc. Website: http://www.accelerated-
learning.net/learning_test.html

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 Test Yourself
Linguistic-Verbal/Language

 You enjoy word play—making

puns, tongue-twisters, limericks.

 You read everything—books,

magazines, newspapers, even
product labels.

 You can easily express yourself either orally or in writing,

i.e., you’re a good story-teller or writer.

 You pepper your conversation with frequent allusions to

things you've read or heard.

 You like to do crosswords, play Scrabble, or have a go at

other word puzzles.

 People sometimes have to ask you to explain a word you’ve

used.

 In school you preferred subjects such as English, history and

social studies.

 You can hold your own in verbal arguments or debates.

 You like to talk through problems, explain solutions, ask

questions.

 You can readily absorb information from the radio or audio

cassettes.

_____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Logical-Mathematical

 You enjoy working with numbers

and can do mental calculations.

 You’re interested in new scientific

advances.

 You can easily balance your

checkbook; do the household
budget.

 You like to put together a detailed itinerary for vacations or

business trips.

 You enjoy the challenge of brain teasers or other puzzles that

require logical thinking.

 You tend to find the logical flaws in things people say and
do.

 Math and science were among your favorite subjects in

school.

 You can find specific examples to support a general point of

view.

 You take a systematic, step-by-step approach to problem-

solving.

 You need to categorize, group or quantify things to properly

appreciate their relevance.

____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Visual-Spatial

 You have an appreciation of the arts.

 You tend to make a visual record of

events with a camera or camcorder.

 You find yourself doodling when

taking notes or thinking through
something.

 You have no problem reading maps and navigating.

 You enjoy visual games such as jigsaw puzzles and mazes.

 You’re quite adept at taking things apart and putting them

back together.

 In school you liked lessons in art and preferred geometry to

algebra.

 You often make your point by providing a diagram or

drawing.

 You can visualize how things look from a different

perspective.

 You prefer reading material that is heavily illustrated.

____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Musical

 You can play a musical instrument.

 You can manage to sing on key.

 Usually, you can remember a tune after

hearing it just a couple of times.

 You often listen to music at home and

in your car.

 You find yourself tapping in time to

music.

 You can identify different musical instruments.

 Theme music or commercial jingles often pop into your

head.

 You can’t imagine life without music.

 You often whistle or hum a tune.

 You like a musical background when you’re working.

____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Bodily-Kinesthetic/Movement

 You take part in a sport or

regularly perform some kind
of physical exercise.

 You are quite adept at “do-it-

yourself.”

 You like to think through

problems while engaged in a
physical pursuit such as
walking or running.

 You do not mind getting up on the dance floor.

 You like the most thrilling rides at the fun fair.

 You need to physically handle something to fully

understand it.

 The most enjoyable classes in school were PE and any

handicrafts lessons.

 You use hand gestures or other kinds of body language to

express yourself.

 You like rough and tumble play with children.

 You need to tackle a new learning experience “hands on”

rather than reading a manual or watching a video.
____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Intrapersonal/Self

 You keep a personal diary or log to

record your innermost thoughts.

 You often spend “quiet time” reflecting

on the important issues in your life.

 You set your own goals—you know

where you’re going.

 You are an independent thinker—you

know your own mind, make up your
own mind.

 You have a private hobby or interest which you don’t really

share with anyone else.

 You like to go fishing by yourself or take a solitary hike.

You’re happy with your own company.

 Your idea of a good vacation is an isolated hilltop cabin

rather than a five-star resort and lots of people.

 You have a realistic idea of your own strengths and

weaknesses.

 You have attended self-improvement workshops or been

through some kind of counseling to learn more about
yourself.

 You work for yourself—or have seriously contemplated

“doing your own thing.”

____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Interpersonal/Social

 You enjoy working with

other people as part of a
group or committee.

 You take great pride in

being a mentor to someone
else.

 People tend to come to you

for advice.

 You prefer team sports—such as basketball, softball, soccer,

football—to individual sports such as swimming and
running.

 You like games involving other people—bridge, Monopoly,

Trivial Pursuit.

 You’re a social butterfly. You would much prefer to be at a

party rather than home alone watching television.

 You have several very close personal friends.

 You communicate well with people and can help resolve

disputes.

 You have no hesitation in taking the lead; showing other

people how to get things done.

 You talk over problems with others rather than trying to

resolve them by yourself.

____ Total

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 Test Yourself
Naturalist/Nature

 You keep or like pets.

 You can recognize and name many

different types of trees, flowers and
plants.

 You have an interest in and good

knowledge of how the body
works—where the main internal
organs are, for example, and you keep
abreast on health issues.

 You are conscious of tracks, nests and wildlife while on a

walk and can “read” weather signs.

 You could envision yourself as a farmer or maybe you like to

fish.

 You are a keen gardener.

 You have an understanding of, and interest in, the main

global environmental issues.

 You keep reasonably informed about developments in

astronomy, the origins of the universe and the evolution of
life.

 You are interested in social issues, psychology and human

motivations.

 You consider that conservation of resources and achieving

sustainable growth are two of the biggest issues of our times.
____ Total

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 Engaging the Intelligences
Linguistic-Verbal/Language
Linguistic-verbal intelligence is the
ability to use words and language. People
who are strong in the language intelligence
enjoy saying, hearing, and seeing words.
They like telling stories and are motivated
by books, records, dramas, and
opportunities for writing. These learners
have highly developed auditory skills and are generally elegant
speakers. They think in words rather than pictures.
Their skills include listening, speaking, writing, story telling,
explaining, teaching, using humor, understanding the syntax and
meaning of words, remembering information, convincing someone
of their point of view, and analyzing language usage. Possible
career interests include poets, journalists, writers, teachers, lawyers,
politicians, or translators.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Look at different kinds of dictionaries.
• Read plays and poetry aloud.
• Write a story for a book or newsletter.
• Keep a journal.
• Read from books written by or for new readers.
• Use a tape recorder to tape stories and write them down
later.
• Read together, i.e., choral reading.
• Read aloud to each other.
• Read a section, then explain what you’ve read.
• Explore and develop the love of words, i.e., meaning of
words, origin of words, idioms, and names. Research your
name.

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 Logical/Mathematical
Logical intelligence is the ability to
use reason, logic, and numbers. People
who are strong in the logical/
mathematical intelligence enjoy exploring
how things are related. They like to
understand how things work. They like
mathematical concepts, enjoy puzzles and
manipulative games, and are good at critical thinking. These
learners think conceptually in logical and numerical patterns
making connections between pieces of information. Always curious
about the world around them, these learners ask lots of questions
and like to do experiments.
Their skills include problem solving, classifying and
categorizing information, working with abstract concepts to figure
out the relationship of each to the other, doing controlled
experiments, questioning and wondering about natural events,
performing complex mathematical calculations, and working with
geometric shapes. Possible career paths include scientists,
engineers, computer programmers, researchers, accountants, and
mathematicians.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Arrange cartoons and other pictures in a logical sequence.
• Sort, categorize, and characterize word lists.
• Play games that require critical thinking. For example, pick
the one word that doesn't fit: chair, table, paper clip, sofa.
Explain why it doesn't fit.
• Work with scrambled sentences. Talk about what happens
when the order is changed.
• Write the directions for completing a simple job like starting
a car or tying a shoe.
• Look at advertisements critically. What are they using to
persuade you to buy their product?

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 Visual-Spatial
Visual-spacial intelligence is the
ability to perceive the visual. People who
are strong in the visual-spatial
intelligence remember things visually,
including exact sizes and shapes of
objects. They like posters, charts, and
graphics. They like any kind of visual
clues. They enjoy drawing. These learners tend to think in pictures
and need to create vivid mental images to retain information. They
enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies.
Their skills include puzzle building, reading, writing,
understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction,
sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and analogies
(perhaps through the visual arts), manipulating images,
constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, and interpreting
visual images. Possible career interests include navigators,
sculptors, visual artists, inventors, architects, interior designers,
mechanics, and engineers.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Write a language experience story and illustrate it.
• Study and create maps, diagrams and graphs.
• Color code words so each syllable is a different color.
• Take a survey. Put the information in a chart.
• Write words vertically.
• Cut out words from a magazine and use them in a letter.
• Use pictures to stimulate reading or writing.
• Visualize spelling words.
• Use the say-copy-look method of spelling.
• Use colorful newspapers like USA Today.
• Use crossword puzzles.

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 Musical
Musical intelligence is the ability to
produce and appreciate music. People who are
strong in the musical intelligence like the rhythm
and sound of language. They like poems, songs,
and jingles. They enjoy humming or singing
along with music. These musically inclined
learners think in sounds, rhythms and patterns.
They immediately respond to music either
appreciating or criticizing what they hear. Many
of these learners are extremely sensitive to environmental sounds
(e.g. crickets, bells, dripping taps).
Their skills include singing, whistling, playing musical
instruments, recognizing tonal patterns, composing music,
remembering melodies, and understanding the structure and
rhythm of music. Possible career paths include musicians, disc
jockeys, singers, and composers.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Use a familiar tune, song, or rap beat to teach spelling rules
or to remember words in a series for a test.
• Create a poem with an emphasis on certain sounds for
pronunciation.
• Clap out or walk out the sounds of syllables.
• Read together (choral reading) to work on fluency and
intonation.
• Read a story with great emotion — sad, then happy, then
angry. Talk about what changes — is it only tone?
• Read lyrics to music.
• Use music as background while reviewing and for helping
to remember new material.
• Use rhymes to remember spelling rules, i.e., "I before E
except after C."

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 Bodily-Kinesthetic/Body Movement
Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence is the ability to control
body movements and handle
objects skillfully. People who are
strong in the body movement
intelligence like to move, dance,
wiggle, walk, and swim. They are
often good at sports, have good fine
motor skills, and like to take things
apart and put them back together. These learners express
themselves through movement. They have a good sense of balance
and eye-hand coordination. Through interacting with the space
around them, they are able to remember and process information.
Their skills include dancing, physical coordination, sports,
hands-on experimentation; using body language, crafts, acting,
miming; using their hands to create or build; and expressing
emotions through the body. Possible career paths include athletes,
physical education teachers, dancers, actors, firefighters, and
artisans.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Go through your wallet and pull out three things to talk
about.
• Handle a Koosh ball or a worry stone during class.
• Use magnetic letters, letter blocks, or letters on index cards
to spell words.
• Take a walk while discussing a story, gathering ideas for a
story or reading all the words you find during the walk.
• Use your whole arm (extend without bending your elbow)
to write letters and words in the air.
• Change the place where you write and use different kinds of
tools to write, i.e., typewriter, computer, blackboard, or large
pieces of paper.

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 Intrapersonal/Self
Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability
to self-reflect and to be aware of one's inner
state of being. These learners try to
understand their inner feelings, dreams,
relationships with others, and strengths and
weaknesses.
Their skills include recognizing their
own strengths and weaknesses, reflecting and
analyzing themselves, awareness of their
inner feelings, desires and dreams, evaluating
their thinking patterns, reasoning with
themselves, and understanding their role in relationship to others.
Possible career paths include researchers, theorists, and
philosophers.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Go on "guided imagery" tours.
• Set aside time to reflect on new ideas and information.
• Encourage journal writing.
• Work on the computer.
• Practice breathing for relaxation.
• Use brainstorming methods before reading.
• Listen to and read "how to" tapes and books.
• Read "inspirational" thought-for-the-day books.
• Read cookbooks.

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 Interpersonal/Social
Interpersonal intelligence is
the ability to relate to and
understand others. People who are
strong in the social intelligence like
to develop ideas and learn from
other people. They like to talk and
have good social skills. These
learners try to see things from other
people's point of view in order to understand how they think and
feel. They often have an uncanny ability to sense feelings,
intentions and motivations. They are great organizers, although
they sometimes resort to manipulation. Generally they try to
maintain peace in group settings and encourage cooperation. They
use both verbal (e.g., speaking) and non-verbal language (e.g., eye
contact, body language) to open communication channels with
others.
Their skills include seeing things from other perspectives
(dual-perspective), listening, using empathy, understanding other
people's moods and feelings, counseling, cooperating with groups,
noticing people's moods, motivations and intentions,
communicating both verbally and non-verbally, building trust,
peaceful conflict resolution, and establishing positive relations with
other people. Possible career paths include counselors, salespeople,
politicians, or business people.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Take part in group discussions or discuss a topic one-to-one.
• Read a dialogue or a play together.
• Do team learning/investigating projects.
• Set up interview questions. Interview your family. Write the
results.
• Write notes to one another instead of talking.

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 Naturalist/Nature
People who are strong in the nature
intelligence enjoy interacting with the outside
world. They are adept at noticing patterns in
nature and can easily distinguish between
different species of flora and fauna.
Their skills include gardening,
landscaping, identifying flora and fauna,
understanding the environment, predicting
weather, and caring for animals. Career
interests include biologists, farmers,
landscapers, and park rangers.
Some ways to integrate this intelligence into your teaching
are by allowing learners to:
• Spend time outside noticing patterns in nature.
• Read books and articles about nature and the environment.
• Compare seeds, seedlings, and adult plants. Mix them up
and ask your learners to match each seed to its
corresponding seedling and adult.

Adapted from Literacyworks Web site: http://www.

literacyworks.org and LDPride Web site: http://www.ldpride.net.
Retrieved November 13, 2004.

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 Activity 10.3: Learning Styles
Understanding one’s teaching style, as it relates to students’
learning styles, is a key factor in communication between instructor
and student. Knowing students’ learning styles enables the
instructor to vary methods of teaching to enhance student success
in math. Utilizing such information results in higher levels of
success for every student.
This activity includes a “Learning Styles Checklist” or have
participants access the Internet to complete an online inventory.
Search the Internet for “learning styles inventories.” If you choose
an online inventory, adjust this activity to correspond to your
choice.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Learning Styles Checklist,” “Learning
Preferences,” and “Teaching Strategies for Math” handouts.
2. Complete the Learning Styles Checklist. Be ready to share your
learning style with participants.
3. Have flip charts and markers available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Discuss with participants that people have different learning
preferences.
2. Distribute the “Learning Styles Checklist” handout. Allow time
for participants to complete it.
3. Ask participants to compare their 3 totals, i.e., visual total,
auditory total, and tactile/kinesthetic total. The largest total is
the preferred learning style.
4. Assign an area of the room for participants to group according
to their learning styles, i.e., all visual together, all auditory
together, and all tactile/kinesthetic together. If you have a large

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 group you may want to make smaller groups by having more
than one group for each learning style.
5. Ask each group to identify someone to take notes as they share
ideas. Ask participants to identify the most effective and least
effective methods for them to learn math.
6. After a few minutes ask the note taker from each group to
briefly share the groups most effective and least effective
method for learning math. Record these on a flip chart.
7. Compare group feedback. The most effective method for some
groups will likely be the least effective for others. Point this out.
8. Distribute the “Learning Preferences” handout.
9. Give each group a sheet of flip chart paper and marker(s). Ask
participants to brainstorm and record strategies they could
incorporate into their math instruction that would enhance the
learning for students with their preferred learning style. Advise
participants that they may use ideas from the “Learning
Preferences” handout to help develop their math instructional
strategies.
10. After they have finished brainstorming ask groups to identify
several teaching strategies they feel would be most appropriate
to accommodate that learning style within their classroom. Give
them several sheets of flip chart paper to record the strategies.
11. Each group shares their strategies.
12. Facilitate a whole group discussion about how these strategies
could be used within the different learning environments in
Adult Basic Skills, i.e., labs, individual instruction, multi-level
classroom, etc.
13. Distribute the “Teaching Strategies for Math” handout. Discuss
any teaching strategies included on the handout that were not
discussed earlier.
14. Close by expressing the importance of teaching in a way that all
students get to learn in their preferred learning style some of the
time while being required to learn in their non-preferred style
other times to help them develop new learning skills.

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 Learning Styles Checklist
Source Unknown

The following three pages contains statements concerning

your like or dislike of certain tasks. Read each statement carefully
and consider whether it applies to you.

On the line beside each statement write:

5 – almost always applies

4 – often applies
3 – sometimes applies
2 – applies once in a while
1 – almost never applies

Answer honestly. There are no “right,” “wrong,” “good,” or

“bad” answers.

Total your score for each section. Record totals on the lines
below:

Visual Total __________

Auditory Total __________
Tactile/kinesthetic Total __________

The area with the largest total is your preferred learning

style.

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 Visual

Read each statement carefully and consider whether it applies

to you. On the line beside each statement write:
5 – almost always applies
4 – often applies
3 – sometimes applies
2 – applies once in a while
1 – almost never applies
_____ 1. I enjoy doodling and even my notes have lots of
pictures, arrows, etc. in them.
_____ 2. I remember things better if I write them down,
even if I do not go back to what I have written.
_____ 3. When trying to remember a new phone number or
a spelling word, it helps me to get a picture of it in
my head.
_____ 4. When recalling information during a test, I can
see in my mind’s eye the textbook page and the
information on it.
_____ 5. Unless I write down the directions to a place, I am
likely to get lost or arrive late.
_____ 6. During lectures I can listen better if I look at a
person speaking.
_____ 7. I can clearly and easily visualize people, places,
and documents in my head.
_____ 8. It is hard for me to concentrate on what a person
is saying if there is backgroud noise. It is easier
for me to get work done in a quiet place.
_____ 9. It is difficult for me to remember jokes I have
heard.
_____10. I get some great ideas but I forget them unless I
write them down right away.
______ VISUAL TOTAL

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 Auditory

Read each statement carefully and consider whether it applies

to you. On the line beside each statement write:
5 – almost always applies
4 – often applies
3 – sometimes applies
2 – applies once in a while
1 – almost never applies
_____ 1. When reading, I hear the words in my head or I
read aloud.
_____ 2. When memorizing something, it helps me to recite
it over and over.
_____ 3. If I want to understand something, it helps me to
discuss it with someone or to try to explain it to
someone else.
_____ 4. I like to finish one task before beginning another.
_____ 5. It is hard for me to picture things in my head.
_____ 6. I would rather listen to a tape of a lecture rather
than read the same information in a textbook.
_____ 7. I would rather turn in a tape-recorded report than
a written report.
_____ 8. I can easily follow what a teacher is saying even
though my eyes are closed or I am staring out the
window.
_____ 9. I talk to myself when problem solving, writing, or
doing homework.
_____10. I prefer to have someone tell me how to do
something rather than have to read the directions.
_______ Auditory Total

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 Tactile/Kinesthetic

Read each statement carefully and consider whether it

applies to you. On the line beside each statement write:
5 – almost always applies
4 – often applies
3 – sometimes applies
2 – applies once in a while
1 – almost never applies
_____ 1. I do not like to read or listen to directions; I
would rather just start doing.
_____ 2. I take notes, but I do not go back and read
them.
_____ 3. I can study better with music playing in the
background.
_____ 4. I do not start a task with a definite plan in
mind; I like to try different things until I hit on
something that works.
_____ 5. My space, room, desk, locker, etc. looks
disorganized, but I know where everything is.
_____ 6. I move my lips when reading and count with
my fingers.
_____ 7. I do not like to proofread my papers or look
over my tests before I turn them in.
_____ 8. I prefer to do projects or make displays and
presentations rather than write reports.
_____ 9. I think better when I have the freedom to move
around; I get fidgety, feel trapped, and
daydream when I have to sit still.
_____10. When I cannot think of a specific word, I will
use my hands a lot and call something a
“whatchamacallit” or a “thingamajig.”
_______ Total Tactile/kinesthetic

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 Learning Preferences
Visual Learners
Visual learners learn
through seeing. These learners
need to see the teacher's body
language and facial expression to
fully understand the content of a
lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at
the front of the classroom to avoid
visual obstructions (e.g., people's
heads). They may think in pictures
and learn best from visual displays
including: diagrams, illustrated
textbooks, overhead transparencies,
videos, flipcharts and handouts.
During a lecture or classroom
discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to
absorb the information.

Instructional recommendations include:

• viewing visuals such as bulletin boards, posters,

transparencies, slides, videos, flashcards, television,
pictures, graphs, etc;
• observing events such as dramatic presentations, role
plays, demonstrations, experiments, community
situations, animal behavior, etc.; and
• reading textbooks, comic books, pamphlets, posters,
newspapers, bulletin boards, flashcards, reports, letters,
maps, magazines, etc.

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 Auditory Learners
Auditory learners learn through
listening. They learn best through
verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what
others have to say. Auditory learners
interpret the underlying meanings of
speech through listening to tone of
voice, pitch, speed and other nuances.
Written information may have little
meaning until it is heard. These learners
often benefit from reading text aloud
and using a tape recorder.

Instructional recommendations include:

• listening to radio stations, television, speeches, lectures,

debates, discussions, concerts, interviews, audiotapes,
video tapes, etc. and
• interacting/verbalizing through panels, debates,
discussions, brainstorming, oral questions and answers,
round robins, oral reports, etc.

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 Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
Tactile/Kinesthetic learners
learn through moving, doing and
touching. They learn best through a
hands-on approach, actively
exploring the physical world
around them. They may find it hard
to sit still for long periods and may
become distracted by their need for
activity and exploration.

Instructional recommendations include:

• touching/feeling objects, textures, temperatures, weights,

lengths/distances, pressures, etc.;
• using/doing games, experiments, physical activity,
manipulatives, etc.;
• making or drawing diagrams, collages, mazes, scrolls,
diaries, pictographs, models, timelines, foods, clothing,
banners, graphs, etc.; and
• writing or copying problems, letters, shapes, words, etc.

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 Teaching Strategies for Math
Knowing the learning style preferences and strengths of
your students allows you to tailor instruction for maximum
effectiveness. However, there are several teaching strategies which
should almost always be observed in a math classroom, even when
instruction is tailored to particular student strengths. Those
strategies are listed below:

 Avoid memory overload by assigning manageable amounts of

practice work as skills are learned.
 Build retention by providing review within a day or two of the
initial learning of skills.
 Provide supervision to prevent students from practicing
misconceptions and “misrules.”
 Reduce interference between concepts or application of rules
and strategies by separating practice opportunities until the
discrimination between them is learned.
 Make new learning meaningful by relating practice of subskills
to the performance of the whole task and by relating what the
students have learned about mathematical relationships to what
the students will learn next.
 Reduce processing demands by preteaching component skills of
algorithms and strategies.
 Teach easier knowledge and skills before difficult ones.
 Ensure that skills to be practiced can be completed
independently with high levels of success.
 Help students to visualize math problems by drawing.
 Give extra time for students to process visual information in a
picture, chart, or graph.
 Use visual and auditory examples.
 Use authentic situations that make problems functional and
applicable to everyday life.

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 Do math problems on graph paper to keep the numbers in line.
 Use uncluttered worksheets to avoid too much visual
information.
 Use rhythm or music to help students memorize.
 Use distributive practice: plenty of practice in small doses.
 Use interactive and intensive practice with age-appropriate
games as motivational materials.
 Have students track their progress; which facts they have
mastered and which remain to be learned.
 Challenge critical thinking about real problems with problem-
solving.
 Use manipulatives and technology such as tape recorders or
calculators.

Note: While these strategies are designed with the learning-disabled math
student in mind, many of them are applicable to all learners.

Source: Kenyon, R. (2000). Accommodating math students with

learning disabilities. Focus on Basics, 4B. Cambridge, MA: National
Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Retrieved
November 12, 2004, from http://www.nscall.gse.harvard.edu
/fob/2000/kenyon. html

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 Chapter

11

Real Learning
with Realia

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

When students participate in real-life activities using

authentic materials, they feel more engaged, successful, and
comfortable expanding their skills outside the classroom.
Literacy Practices of Adult Learners

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- 224 -
 Overview
Realia is any authentic material or activity that relates to
students’ background, knowledge, and real life, i.e., materials that
naturally exist in their daily lives. Instructors often do not have
time to develop authentic materials and may have little experience
using realia. At the same time, students need practice in math,
communication, and critical thinking skills that will enable them to
become full participants in society.
This professional development plan provides opportunities
for participants to learn practical strategies for implementing
simulated real-world experiences in the classroom. It includes
activities instructors can adapt for varied levels of students’ needs
in one-on-one, small group, or classroom settings.

Goal
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods, strategies,
and techniques for using realia to enhance math
instruction, communication, and critical thinking skills.

Objectives
Participants will

• identify the benefits of using realia;

• demonstrate techniques for teaching
identification of money;
• identify basic banking terminology;
• demonstrate the correct use of a
checkbook; and
• use fractions, decimals, and percents in
a simulated real-world setting.

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 Summary of Activities

Activity Materials Time

Activity 11.1: Teaching Box of realia items, flip chart, and 60 – 90

with Realia markers. minutes

Activity 11.2: Know Play money and money symbols, see 30 – 45

Your Money preparation for how to make minutes

Activity 11.3: Checking “Math Spelling for Check Writing” and 30 – 45

Accounts “Banking” handouts; copies of checks, minutes
deposit slips, and transactions registers;
flip charts; and markers.

Activity 11.4: “Sale Advertisements” handout, flip 30 – 45

Comparison Shopping charts, and markers. minutes

Activity 11.5: Shop ‘Til “Shopping Spree” handout, variety of sale 60 – 90

You Drop papers and menus, and calculators minutes

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following
Institute 2004 participants.

Wanda Harding, Burnsville Elementary School

Janis Holden-Toruño, Fayetteville Technical Community College
Ron Liggins, Fayetteville Technical Community College
J. Robert Moore, Nash Community College
Pauline Morris, Forsyth Technical Community College
Teresa (Terry) Nolte, McDowell Technical Community College
Kelly Norton, Literacy Council of Union County
Beth Satterfield, Appalachian State University

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Donna V. Smith, Asheville-Buncombe Technical Community College
Frances Thomas, Robeson County Church and Community Center
Cynthia M. Worth, Piedmont Community College

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 Activity 11.1: Teaching with Realia
What is realia? Many Adult Basic Skills instructors are not
familiar with the term. This activity is designed to enhance
participants’ knowledge of realia and discuss some of the benefits
of using realia as a teaching tool.

Preparation
1. Make a “Realia Box.” Begin with some
type of container, i.e., cardboard box,
plastic crate, etc. Collect items to put
in the “Realia Box.” Put two of each REALIA
item in the box. You will need to have
enough items for each participant to choose one. Suggested
items include:
• rulers, • watches or clocks,
• tape measures, • credit card statements,
• measuring spoons and • charts,
cups, • graphs,
• cookbooks, • invoices,
• thermometers, • play money,
• protractors, • calendars
• maps, • forms where numbers are
• restaurant menus with used, or
prices, • any other items adults
• newspapers, may use in daily life.

Be creative. Be sure to remove names, account numbers, and

any other identifying information from documents.
2. At the beginning of the activity, display the items from the
“Realia Box” on a table. Place table so participants can easily
choose and pick-up an item.
3. Have flip charts and markers available.

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 Conducting the Activity
1. Begin by asking participants to explain what the term “Realia”
means. List comments on the flip chart and hang the paper on
the wall. Sum up comments with a statement such as, “Realia is
any authentic material or activity that relates to students’
background, knowledge, and real life, i.e., materials that
naturally exist in their daily lives.”
2. Participants choose an item from the display table.
3. Ask participants to find a person who has the same item.
Advise participants that they will be working as partners with
the person who has the same item.
4. Challenge participants to brainstorm and list the ways they
could use their items as a tool to teach math for multi-level
students, i.e., beginning level, compensatory education, higher-
level, ESL, etc. You may want to target levels based on those
taught by participants.
5. Ask each pair to choose one idea and write a mini-lesson plan.
6. Give participants flip charts and markers to use for outlining
their lesson plan.
7. Ask participants to briefly share their brainstorm list and
demonstrate the lesson plan(s) they wrote. Allow time for group
interaction, i.e., add other ideas about how to use the realia item
to teach additional math concepts. Note: You may want to have
a note taker to record ideas and supply participants with a
handout of the ideas generated.

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 Activity 11.2: Know Your Money
Beginning level Adult Basic
Skills students need basic arithmetic
skills, specifically as applied to
money. Adults deal with money on
a daily basis. Counting money is a
basic survival skill. Students must
know how much money they have,
how much items cost, and how
much change they should get back
from purchases. This activity is
designed to demonstrate techniques
that may be used to teach beginning
level students to identify money by
name and value, to identify the
symbols used in monetary notation,
and to count money.

Preparation
1. Get a supply of play money, both bills, and coins or use real
money.
2. Make operation symbols (+, –, and =). Cut small squares of card
stock. Use a marker to place one symbol on each square. Make
enough so that each participant can have two of each symbol or
plan for participants to make their own set.

Conducting the Activity

1. Demonstrate how to teach beginning level students about
money using participants as students.
2. Using coins and paper bills for illustration, demonstrate how to
teach money names and values (e.g., show that five pennies
equal one nickel, 10 pennies equal one dime, 100 pennies equal
one dollar, etc.

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3. Conduct a drill with participants asking questions such as
“What’s this?” (holding up a piece of money) and “What is it
worth?” Illustrate that there’s often more than one correct
answer.
4. Give each participant some money. Demonstrate how to quiz
students on simple mental addition by asking participants to,
“Show me 35 cents,” “Show me 50 cents,” etc. Ask participants
to show how many different ways they can make 25 cents, 35
cents, etc.
5. Using examples of written numbers ($1.36, $.21, etc.), explain
the dollar sign ($), the decimal (.), and the cent sign (¢). Explain
that there are two ways to write a monetary number 99 cents or
less, i.e., $.99 and 99¢. Also mention that the cent sign is no
longer on computer keyboards.
6. Use the operation symbol manipulatives, i.e., +, -, and =. Ask
participants to perform several addition and subtraction
problems using money, i.e., show one dime “+” one nickel “=”
one dime and one nickel. Progress into more difficult problems,
i.e., 3 quarters – 2 dimes = 2 quarters and one nickel. Use the
actual money pieces, not the numerals. As participants make
“money” equations ask them to write on paper the correct
symbolism for the equation using dollar signs, decimals, and
cent signs as appropriate.
7. Compare adding numbers to adding money. Advise
participants the importance of making this
connection with students. “As instructors we must
help students make the leap from adding numbers to
adding money. Start by showing students that the 5
becomes $5.00 by simply adding the .00 and $ to any
numbers. The number 25 becomes twenty-five cents by adding
25¢ or $.25.”
8. Inform participants that students must be taught that the dollar
signs, decimals, and cent signs must always line up. You may
draw lines between the rows to provide a visual. Allow
participants to practice turning some regular addition problems
into money addition problems, i.e., 3 + 5 = 8 into $3.00 + $5.00 =

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 $8.00. Next allow participants to add dollars and cents. All
problems should contain simple addition that does not contain
carrying and borrowing; these skills may not have been taught
to beginning level students.
9. Remind participants that subtraction is addition reversed. With
this in mind, provide participants with several simple
subtraction problems to convert to simple subtraction problems
using money.
10. Reflect on the activities completed. Allow participants to share
strategies they have used to teach beginning level students
about money.

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 Activity 11.3: Checking Accounts
Checking accounts are a way of
life for many, yet some Adult Basic
Skills students have had little or no
exposure to maintaining a checking
account. This activity is designed to
demonstrate instructional strategies that
may be used to teach beginning level
adult students to write checks, fill in
deposit tickets, and maintain a
transaction register.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Math Spelling for Check Writing” and
“Banking” handouts.
2. Make “checking account packets” for each participant. Each
packet should include
a. 9 checks,
b. 3 deposit slips and
c. 1 transaction register.
3. Have additional checks, deposit slips, and transaction registers
available.
4. Have flip chart and markers available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Brainstorm ways checks can be used. Discuss checks versus
cash. Why should or should not a person need/want a checking
account? List responses on board or flip chart.
2. Break into small groups. Participants discuss and list
experiences they have had with checking accounts; ask
participants to list fears they have (or have had) about them.

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3. Give participants a copy of the “Math Spelling for Check
Writing” handout. Advise participants that this handout is a
great tool when working with beginning level students. Discuss
how it may be used in the classroom.
4. Distribute “checking account packets.” Demonstrate how to
teach the different parts of a check, a deposit slip, and the
transaction register. For example: Let’s look more closely at a
check. A check has 6 important parts. How many can we
name?” (Write items on board.)
a. Date
b. Person or business you are paying (payee)
c. Amount in words—write the number of cents over 100 as
shown
d. Amount in numbers
e. Your signature
f. Reason for the check
5. Complete similar activity for the deposit slip and the transaction
register.
6. Demonstrate how to write a check, fill out a deposit slip and
record banking transactions in the register.
7. Distribute the “Banking” handout. Participants follow
instructions on the handout to complete simulated bank
transactions.

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 Math Spelling for Check Writing
0 zero 18 eighteen
1 one 19 nineteen
2 two 20 twenty
3 three 30 thirty
4 four 40 forty
5 five 50 fifty
6 six 60 sixty
7 seven 70 seventy
8 eight 80 eighty
9 nine 90 ninety
10 ten 100 one hundred
11 eleven 1,000 one thousand
12 twelve 10,000 ten thousand
13 thirteen 100,000 one hundred thousand
14 fourteen 1,000,000 one million
15 fifteen 10,000,000 ten million
16 sixteen 1,000,000,000 one billion
17 seventeen 1,000,000,000,000 one trillion

5, 8 6 7, 9 8 7, 6 5 4 . 3 2
B H T M H T T H T O A T H
I U E I U E H U E N N E U
L N N L N N O N N E D N N
L D L D U D S S T D
I R M I R T S R H R
O E I O E H A E S E
N D L N D O N D D
L U D T
M I T S H
I O H A S
L N O N
L U D
I S
O A
N N
D

- 235 -
 Checks

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker No: ___________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 DATE________________________

PAY TO THE
ORDER OF ____________________________________________________| $________________

_________________________________________________________________________DOLLARS
Hill City Bank
Hill City, NC 22222

FOR ______________________________________ ____________________________________

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker No: ___________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 DATE________________________

PAY TO THE
ORDER OF ____________________________________________________| $________________

_________________________________________________________________________DOLLARS
Hill City Bank
Hill City, NC 22222

FOR ______________________________________ ____________________________________

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker No: ___________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 DATE________________________

PAY TO THE
ORDER OF ____________________________________________________| $________________

_________________________________________________________________________DOLLARS
Hill City Bank
Hill City, NC 22222

FOR ______________________________________ ____________________________________

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 Deposit Slips

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker CASH ________________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 List _________________
Checks
Singly _________________
Date ____________________________________________
_________________
_________________________________________________
Signature only if cash received from deposit. SUBTOTAL _________________

Hill City Bank LESS Cash Received ________________

Hill City, NC 22222
$_______________

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker CASH ________________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 List _________________
Checks
Singly _________________
Date ____________________________________________
_________________
_________________________________________________
Signature only if cash received from deposit. SUBTOTAL _________________

Hill City Bank LESS Cash Received ________________

Hill City, NC 22222
$_______________

Willie Barker or Clara Sue Barker CASH ________________

Barker Street
Hill City, NC 22222 List _________________
Checks
Singly _________________
Date ____________________________________________
_________________
_________________________________________________
Signature only if cash received from deposit. SUBTOTAL _________________

Hill City Bank LESS Cash Received ________________

Hill City, NC 22222
$_______________

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 Transaction Register
CHECK DATE DESCRIPTION OF PAYMENT/ DEPOSIT/ $ BALANCE
NO. TRANSACTION DEBIT (-) CREDIT (+)

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 Banking
Below is a list of 10 bank transactions. Put entries for these transactions in
the correct places. Fill out deposit slips and write checks as needed. Remember to
record all deposits and checks in the Transaction Register.
1. Willie and Clara Sue Barker opened a new checking account at the Bank of
Hill City on November 14. They deposited Willie’s earnings from the Big Max
Trucking Co. Willie’s check was in the amount of $995.00. Clara Sue’s check
was from the Super K-Mart in the amount of $365.00.
2. On November 16, Willie sat down to pay bills. Willie wrote check number 0001
for rent in the amount of $425.00 to Hill City Apartments. Willie also wrote
check number 002 to Maximum Cable for cable TV in the amount of $49.88.
3. On November 17, Clara Sue bought groceries that cost $78.23 at the local
Smith Boys’ Grocery and paid with check number 003.
4. The electric bill came the next day and Clara Sue paid all $105.58 by writing a
check to Boss Power and Light with check number 004.
5. For the Bakers 10th wedding anniversary on November 20, Willie took Clara
Sue to Red Lobster for dinner and paid by check in the amount of $32.45. He
used check number 005.
6. Clara Sue makes beautiful quilts that she sells at a local craft store on
consignment. One of the quilts sold for $200, and the craft store sent her a
check. Clara Sue deposited this money on November 21.
7. Willie went to the Riverside Fish and Tackle Store and bought $350 worth of
fishing equipment for his upcoming fishing trip with the guys. He paid for it with
check number 006. It was the 22nd of November.
8. Willie then went to Big Hill Motorboats, Inc. and made a down payment of
$300 on a boat. He paid by check number 007 on November 22.
9. On November 28 the bank statement came. Clara Sue opened the statement.
The service charge was $4.00. Clara was upset, but it wasn’t because of that
charge. She looked at the balance and reviewed checks written. When Willie
got home, they had a big fight.
10. Check number 008 was written on November 29, to Thrifty Marriage
Counseling in the amount of $75.00.

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 Activity 11.4: Comparison Shopping
Sales provide unlimited opportunities to explore and
develop mathematical reasoning skills. Math lessons that involve
shopping usually generate interest and involvement, thus giving
life to mathematical skills and knowledge.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Sale Advertisements” handout for each
participant or use sale papers that advertise similar items.
2. Be sure to have access to a white board or flip chart paper and
markers.

Conducting the Activity

1. Ask participants if they have ever purchased something at “a
good price,” only to find out later that they could have bought it
for less elsewhere. Participants describe their experiences.
2. Distribute the “Sale Advertisements” handout or real
advertisements. Ask participants to analyze the two
advertisements for the same product and decide which store
offers the best buys.
3. Once participants have decided on the store offering the best
buy lead a discussion on why they chose one store over another.
Conclude that price, convenience, and personal preferences play
a role in smart shopping. You might point out that it often helps
to see, and, where possible, test a product before buying it.
Remind participants to think about hidden expenses, such as
the cost of traveling to stores in remote locations.

Adapted from NIE Curriculum Guide. (1994). Butte, Montana: The

Montana Standard.

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 Sale Advertisements

Danny’s Bicycle Shop

Best Bike Buys
Open 10-5 Monday – Saturday

MONGOOSE 24” Silver Dirt Bike $189

26” SCHWINN 10-speed Electric Blue $225
Helmets with Bike Purchase $30
Spare Tires for 10-speeds $25
Buy a MONGOOSE this month and get FREE reflectors.
FREE horns for children with all A’s on report cards.
LOW PRICES on Big Wheels, Trikes, and Wagons.

Directions: Take Highway 66N 10 miles, turn East on RT 128 for 15 miles, take the
right fork, go eight miles, Danny’s is on the right.

DOWNTOWN BIKES
EVERY DAY IS SALE DAY!

SCHWINN 10-SPEEDS MONGOOSE DIRT BIKES

with helmet with helmet & reflectors
$265 $220

ONE-YEAR WARRANTY ON PARTS, LABOR, AND SERVICE.

FREE Bike Safety Book OPEN DAILY

with Bicycle Purchase 10 AM TO 9 PM

LOCATED IN THE HEART OF DOWNTOWN

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 Activity 11.5: Shop ‘Til You Drop
Math activities can and should
be fun. The idea of winning a
shopping spree appeals to almost
everyone. Many types of math
calculations are required when
shopping sales.
This activity allows
participants to go on a pretend
shopping spree and then to develop a
shopping spree lesson plan.
Participants will encounter sale items,
sales tax, and restaurant tipping. Participants will use fractions,
decimals, percents, and proportions to total a final amount spent at
the end of the shopping spree.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Shopping Spree” handout, one for each
participant.
2. Collect a variety of sale papers and menus. Make team packets
that include one of each sale paper and one of each menu. Plan
for participants to work in teams of 3 or 4.
3. Have calculators available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Review fractions, decimals, percents, and proportions. Then ask
participants to work with you to complete the following
problem. You may need to demonstrate how to use the required
functions on the calculator.
A bicycle cost $125. It has been marked down 30%. How much
was it marked down? What is the new price? If there is a 7%
sales tax, what is the total cost? You only have enough money to

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 pay 80% of the total cost (tax included) on the bicycle. How
much money do you have today and how much money do you
still owe?
2. Give each participant a copy of the “Shopping Spree” handout.
Briefly explain the activity. Let participants know they may
work with a partner to complete the activity.
3. Divide participants into small groups.
4. Each group develops a lesson plan for a simulated shopping
spree. You may want different groups to plan shopping sprees
for different level learners, i.e. beginning level, intermediate
level, etc.
5. Hand out newspaper flyers and restaurant menu packets.
6. Explain the items you want participants to consider in their
lesson planning, such as:
a. total amount they have to spend;
b. may purchase only sale items;
c. sales tax must be included on all purchases,
d. must have lunch;
e. restaurant experience should include food, tax, and tip;
f. must remain within specified budget; and
g. how payment will be made, i.e. checks, cash, credit card or a
combination.
7. Participants share their lesson plan with the large group.
8. Optional Activity: Give participants a budget amount for
buying a used car. Using newspaper classifieds challenge
participants (individually or in small groups) to find the best
used car for the money. Afterwards, participants compare
choices and present arguments as to why the car they chose was
the best.

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 Shopping Spree
Directions: Your best friend entered your name in a drawing for a
$2,000 shopping spree at the Mall. After winning the drawing you
went to Belk, Radio Shack, and Sagesport and purchased the items
listed below. Afterwards, you ate at Tucker’s Restaurant. Calculate
the amount of money you spent for the entire day. (Remember to
include 7% sales tax on all purchases.) Show how you arrived at the
total amount spent.

Belk
q $55 pair of jeans at 30% off.
q $42 pair of shoes at half off.
q $25 bottle of perfume/cologne at 15% off.
q $300 down comforter at 30% off with an additional 50%
taken off at the register.

Radio Shack
q $99 cell phone at 25% off.
q $1,695 laptop at 20% off.
q $300 printer at 50% off with the purchase of any laptop.

Sagesport
q $95 hiking boots for only 1/4 the original price.
q Two basketballs at $14 each or buy one basketball and get a
second at 1/2 price.

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 Tucker’s Restaurant
q Chili Cheeseburger $3.50
q Cheese Fries $2.50
q Coke $1.50
q Chocolate Cake $2.50
q 18% tip

Points to Ponder
• How much did you spend at Belk?

• How much did you spend at Radio Shack?

• How much did you spend at Sagesport?

• How much did you spend at Tucker’s?

• What was your total amount spent?

• Did you stay within the given budget? By how much were
you over/under?

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- 246 -
 Chapter

12

Projects to
Enhance Learning

Dianne B. Barber
Janis M. Holden-Toruño

In its simplest form, project-based learning involves a group of

learners taking on an issue close to their hearts, developing a
response, and presenting the results to a wider audience.
Wrigley

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- 248 -
 Overview
Using project-based learning can create a classroom
environment where students form powerful learning communities
focused on contribution, achievement, and self-mastery.
Additionally, project-based learning integrates skills across the
curriculum, i.e., students read, write, research, communicate,
calculate, etc. The focus of this professional development plan is to
provide exposure to project-based learning and ideas for class
projects.

Goals
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods,
strategies, and techniques for using project-based
instruction to enhance learning.

Objectives
Participants will
• define project-based learning;
• identify the benefits of project-based
learning;
• participate in a learning project; and
• identify project for use with students.

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 Summary of Activities

Activity Materials Time

Activity 12.1:What is Chapter 7: Project-based Teaching and 45 - 60

Project-based Learning, flip charts, and markers minutes
Learning?
Activity 12.2: The “Developing Country Budget” and 60 - 90
Developing Country “Programs” handouts, flip charts or poster minutes
board, paper, markers, and glue sticks

Activity 12.3: flip charts, markers, calculators, 60 - 90

Classroom Makeover measuring tapes, advertisements for minutes
carpet, padding, tile, paint, wallpaper,
ceiling tiles, etc., and labels or sample
paint cans, wall paper, etc.

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 Activity 12.1: What is Project-based
Learning?
Through project-based learning, students are encouraged to
become collaborative and independent workers, critical thinkers,
and lifelong learners. Project-based learning is a way of working
together. The focus of this activity is to enhance participant
knowledge about project-based teaching and learning.

Preparation
1. Divide Chapter 7: Project-based Teaching and Learning into 4-6
small sections. Make copies so that each participant will have a
copy of a section.
2. Have flip charts and markers available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Divide participants into groups.
2. Assign a section of the chapter to each group. Give each group
member a copy of the assigned section.
3. Each group reads and discusses its assigned section.
4. Participants jigsaw into new groups, i.e., one member of each
group forms a new group.
5. Participants share the information from the first group.
6. Discuss. What are the benefits of project-based learning in the
Adult Basic Skills classroom? Brainstorm possible projects; list
on flip chart paper.
7. Allow participants to experience project-based learning by
completing another activity from this chapter.

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 Activity 12.2: The Developing Country
Nations are faced with numerous options when it comes to
the distribution of the limited resources and events that could lead
to their successful development or ruin. In this simulation,
participants make decisions, allocate resources and consider how
those decisions might impact the country’s development.

Preparation
1. Make copies of “Developing Country Budget” and “Programs”
handouts for each participant.
2. Have flip charts or poster paper, paper, markers, and glue sticks
available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Divide participants into teams (3-5 people).
2. Have teams develop an imaginary country. They need to select
a name, make a flag, and choose a form of government. Do not
tell the students anything further at this point.
3. Distribute and briefly explain the “Developing Country
Budget” and “Programs” handouts.
4. Participants create a budget for their country based on the
handout information.
5. Participants prepare a chart, graph, table, and/or diagram
showing their budget allocations for their imaginary country.
6. Each team explains their budget and reasons for allocating
money to the various areas.
7. Discuss and debrief. Did any teams add new programs? Do the
amounts allocated make sense according to the country’s
characteristics? What was learned? Did the activity relate to the
real world? Can the situations be applied to your own life?
What was the learning process? the math skills involved?, etc.

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 Developing Country Budget
Your situation.
Your group is composed of people with degrees in
economics and finance. You have formed a consulting firm and
your first client has approached you for advice. Your firm will
receive a large fee and a great deal of prestige if you are able to
assist your new client.

Who is your new client?

Your client is the government of the country whose flag and
name you have just developed. It is an underdeveloped country in
Asia. It has a population of 2,500,000 people and an area of 25,000
square miles.
For many years, the world has ignored this poor, illiterate
country. The situation has recently changed because oil was
discovered and oil revenues are projected to be 50 billion dollars
for the next year and for each year after that for the next ten years.
The government has asked your firm to decide how much
money should be budgeted for each of the programs it wants to
undertake. There is a list of proposed programs, but your firm may
add additional programs as the budget allows.

Your Mission
Decide what percentage of the budget should be given to
each of these programs. How much is each percentage in actual
dollars? Make a poster, chart, diagram, and/or table to present
your new budget.

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 Programs
Program 1: Military Defense
Your country has an army of 5,000 men. There
are no modern weapons to defend your country from
neighbors who might want to take over your oil
fields.

Program 2: Communications
Only the capital city has telephone service.
Fewer than 50,000 homes have telephones. There is no
cellular service and getting on the Internet is virtually
impossible. There are no television stations in your
country. A few wealthy people who have traveled out of the
country have satellite dishes and can pick up programs, but over
98% of the public has never seen television.

Program 3: Education
Your country has a literacy rate of only 11%. Of
the 11% who can read, more than half have only
finished the equivalent of sixth grade. Less than 1%
of the population has a college degree. There are no
universities in your country and the only high schools are in the
capital.

Program 4: Transportation
Your country has one major airport and
two smaller airports. There is one railroad that
links both sides of the country, but the tracks are
a different gauge from the neighboring countries. If you want to
travel out of the country by rail, you have to get off the train near
the border and walk about one mile before you get to the train
station at the neighboring country. Most roads are unpaved.

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Program 5: Utilities
Electricity is virtually non-existent in the smaller
cities and in the rural areas. The only places with electricity
in these areas are those that have portable generators.
Outside of the capital, only the wealthy people and some
hospitals have refrigerators, stoves, or electric lights. Even in the
capital, electricity is not always available.

Program 6: Agriculture
Your country’s people suffer from malnutrition.
Rice is the main food eaten, but due to a drought, the
production of rice is very low this year. (Rice needs a
great deal of water to grow). Additionally, chickens and other farm
animals have died from the lack of water. Your people don’t
understand the basics of a balanced diet. Because of the drought,
they are no longer self-sufficient. They need food from other
countries. The country can afford to pay for the food, but getting it
to the people and helping them understand their nutritional needs
are problems.

Program 7: Tourism
Your country is in a beautiful area of Asia. Despite the
drought, there are still many interesting things to attract tourists.
Foreign investment could come to your country if enough tourists
are attracted. However, there is only one hotel in the capital, and it
is not very attractive. There are few restaurants. There is no tourist
industry now, so tourism would have to be developed.

Program 8: Medical Services

There is only one doctor for every 50,000
people, and the hospital in the capital city is not very
modern. At least the hospital in the capital is better
than the so-called hospitals in the rest of the country.

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Program 9: Recreation and Arts
Your country’s citizens have little opportunity to escape the
dreariness of their everyday lives. There are no theaters or sports
arenas. There are only three movie theaters in the capital, and they
never show modern releases. Children do not learn about the arts
in school because most children do not attend school. The country
lacks stimulating activities for its citizens.

Program 10: Industry

Your country’s oil will not last forever. Experts
believe that the oil supply will dry up within 35 years.
Currently there is no industry on which to base its future
economy. If industry were attracted to your country, the
citizens could learn new skills and gain employment.
They would have a future for their country once the oil runs out.

Program 11: Administration

With only 18,000 people having college degrees, your
country needs to hire outsiders to administer its affairs. The current
leader does not understand economics very well, although he is
interested in protecting his people and seeing them prosper.

Program 12: Technology

The only computers in your country are those
brought in by visitors or owned by the wealthy. Only
the president and a few chosen people have email
since Internet access is only possible through an
expensive satellite link system. All record keeping, tax
collecting, budgeting, and other activities that the
United States government does by computer is done manually in
your country. This takes time and is not always accurate.

Source: Holden-Toruño, Janis M. (2003). “The Developing

Country.” The ESL Civcs Grant Manual. Fayetteville, NC:
Fayetteville Technical Community College.

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 Activity 12.3: Classroom Makeover
This activity allows participants to experience the math
involved in a simulated classroom makeover.

Preparation
1. Have available flip charts, markers, calculators, and measuring
tapes.
2. Collect advertisements for carpet, padding, tile, paint,
wallpaper, ceiling tiles, etc., and labels or sample paint cans,
wall paper, etc.

Conducting the Activity

1. Ask participants what home or yard improvement project they
have done. List on flip chart. Discuss the math involved in each
project, i.e., measurement, area, perimeter, volume, cost, etc.
2. Explain that as teams they are to write a proposal for a
classroom makeover.
3. Divide the participants into 8 groups, 2 groups work
independently on the same assignment. Groups will take
measurements, determine how much product is needed, the
cost of the product, the best product to use, and justify their
decision. Assignments are as follows:
a. Floor—carpet or tile
b. Walls—paint or wallpaper
c. Ceiling—paint or ceiling tiles
d. Windows—drapes or blinds
4. Participants outline their proposal on a flip chart.
5. Participants share and compare their proposals.
6. Reflect on the activity. Is it appropriate for basic skills students?

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- 258 -
 Chapter

13

Teaching
Multi-level
Learners

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

Learners should be able to develop the skills common

to them all, using the interests, the materials, and the
activities that most closely match their needs.
A Fresh Start

- 259 -
- 260 -
 Overview
Most instructors work with a diverse group of students
ranging in age from teenagers to senior citizens. These students
bring with them a variety of emotional, economic, and social needs,
as well as varying learning styles and academic levels. Teaching
these students on a one to one basis is an overwhelming experience.
Having an open enrollment policy adds another layer of
complication for planning.
For instructors to meet the math needs of all students, it is
necessary to develop learning experiences and activities that
include large group, small group, paired and individual
instruction. This professional development plan focuses on
enhancing the knowledge of instructors who teach in multi-level
classrooms.

Goals
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods, strategies,
and techniques to equip instructors with a working
knowledge of various strategies, methods, and
resources for teaching multi-level learners.

Objectives
Participants will
 develop a working definition of multi-level learning;
 identify and understand at least three strategies that
are useful in multi-level learning;
 list advantages and disadvantages of multi-level
teaching strategies; and
 develop a lesson plan using a new strategy.

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 Summary of Activities

Activity Materials Time

Activity 13.1: Multi- A mini classroom set up at the front of the 30 - 45

level Class Role Play training room. minutes

Activity 13.2: What is “Accommodate the Multi-level Classroom” 30 - 45

Multi-level Learning? handout, flip chart paper, and markers minutes

Activity 13.3: Multi- “Demonstration,” “Small Group,” “Project- 60 - 90

level Teaching based,” and “Educational Games” minutes
Strategies handouts; flip chart paper; and markers.

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following
2004 ABSPD Institute participants.

Paula Battle, Lenoir Community College

Bill Edwards, Central Carolina Community College
Madalene Hardison, Wayne Community College
Curtis Hildt, Coastal Carolina Community College
Katrina Hinson, Lenoir Community College
Joyce Jarrard, Appalachian State University
Maggie Johnson, Fayetteville Technical Community College
Fabrienne Kittrell, Lenoir Community College
Stephanie Light, Craven Community College
Howard Lovingood, Tri-County Community College
Karen McAlister, Stanly Community College
Ed Mercer, Central Carolina Community College
Beth Throneburg, Stanly Community College
Lynne Toepke, Coastal Carolina Community College
Brian Wagoner, Fayetteville Technical Community College

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 Activity 13.1: Multi-level Class Role Play
Facing the demands of teaching in a multi-level classroom
requires the instructor to multi-task from the time they enter the
classroom. Not only must the instructor work with differing
academic levels and learning styles,
they must also be ready to admit new
students, give practice tests as needed,
and give individual attention to
students.
Opening the training session
with a short role-play that depicts a
multi-level classroom allows
participants to observe and identify
some of the common problems that
instructors face on a daily basis.

Preparation
1. Review and/or become familiar with the diversity that may
occur in a multi-level class.
2. Decide how many people will have active parts in the play; i.e.,
instructor and several students with varying academic
backgrounds such as beginning level, pre-GED, GED, adult
high school, and compensatory education.
3. Prepare a description of the personality for each person
represented in the play.
4. Ask participants to play the different parts the day of training or
prior to the training. The activity may run smoother if you select
participants and practice prior to the actual training.
5. Set-up a mini classroom at the front of the training room, i.e., a
table with chairs for the “students” or desks for each.

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 Conducting the Activity
1. Ask several volunteers to act as students in a role-play. You will
need students in each of the following categories: beginning
level, pre-GED, GED, adult high school, and compensatory
education.
2. Explain to participants their roles, i.e., their assigned personality
and level. Have them model what they have seen in class. Be
creative.
3. Role-play a typical multi-level classroom by teaching a 15-
minute segment to the “students” as they play their assigned
roles.
4. After the play, facilitate a discussion about what participants
observed.

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 Activity 13.2: What is Multi-level Learning?
Instructors need a clear understanding of the definition and
parameters of multi-level teaching and learning. Sharing ideas with
others develops and refines those understandings.

Preparation
1. Put each of the following questions on flip-chart paper,
transparencies, or PowerPoint slides. Put one question per page
or slide.
a. What is your definition of “multi-level learning?”
b. What are some characteristics of multi-level learning?
c. What do you see as advantages and/or disadvantages of
multi-level classrooms?
2. Make copies for each participant of the “Accommodate the
Multi-level Classroom” handout.
3. Have flip charts and markers available.

Conducting the Activity

1. Ask participants to write answers to each of the following
questions. Display the first question, read it aloud and allow
about 1 minute for the participants to write their response.
Repeat for each question. Questions:
a. What is your definition of “multi-level learning?”
b. What are some characteristics of multi-level learning?
c. What do you see as advantages and/or disadvantages of
multi-level classrooms?
2. Participants choose partners and compare and contrast their
ideas. Allow approximately five minutes for pair sharing.

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3. Pairs merge into small groups (4-8 per group), share responses,
and as a group decide on the best answer for each question.
4. Groups list their answers on the flip chart.
5. Groups share their responses. Put the flip chart papers on the
wall.
6. The larger group compares and contrasts answers and generates
questions and discussion.
7. Give each participant a copy of the “Accommodate the Multi-
level Classroom” handout. Within their small groups ask
participants to discuss each item on the handout and brainstorm
other items they feel should be added to the handout.
8. A member of each small group presents a summary. Allow
participants to generate discussion.

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 Accommodate the Multi-level Classroom
 Flexible format of teaching—incorporating new, out-of-the-box
ideas

 Topic driven teaching versus ‘skill’ repetition

 Non-text dependent

 Allow a range of learning

 Accept silence

 Solidify the learning community by learning the

differences/similarities of students

 Clarify realistic goals

 Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning

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Activity 13.3: Multi-level Teaching Strategies
There are several approaches to teaching in a multi-level
classroom, and each has possible application in certain situations.
By sharing rationales for choosing or not choosing a given strategy
for multi-level classroom teaching, participants become more astute
at choosing from available strategies.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “Demonstration,” “Small Group,” “Project-
based,” and “Educational Games” handouts.
2. Identify several topics that may be taught in a typical Adult
Basic Skills multi-level classroom, i.e., telling time, reducing
fractions, shopping, money, etc. You will need one topic for
every 4 to 6 participants expected.
3. Have flip charts and markers available for each group.

Conducting the Activity

1. Randomly divide participants into groups of 4 to 6. Participants
might count off; all the one’s in a group, two’s in a group,
three’s in a group, four’s in a group, etc.
2. Assign a strategy (Demonstration, Small Group, Project-based,
and Educational Games) to each group. Give each participant
within the group a copy of the handout for the groups’ assigned
strategy.
3. Assign a topic for each group.
4. Ask each group to review the advantages and disadvantages of
their assigned strategy and to develop a lesson plan for a multi-
level classroom using their assigned strategy and topic.
5. Ask each group to present a brief summary of their strategy and
their lesson plan to the larger group. Allow time for discussion
and questions.

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 Demonstration
Advantages
 Allows observation of the task
being performed
 Gives students a step-by-step
approach
 May be live or videotaped
 Provides visual instruction as well
as auditory and possibly tactile
 No background information
needed
 May involve participants
 May provide hands-on experience

Disadvantages
 Instructor may be poor “model”
 Difficult for large groups
 Must be a simple process
 Takes a lot of time
 Pre-existing knowledge can spoil demonstration
 Practice may be limited

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 Small Group
Advantages
 Allows integration of critical thinking and other language
processes, i.e., talking, listening, writing, and reading
 Permits expansion of repertoire of learning strategies by
creating opportunities for learners to experience and observe
the learning of others,
 Breaks down isolation and stigma experienced by adults with
insufficient literacy skills and provides peer support for their
learning
 Enhances learners’ self-esteem by helping them understand that
they have much to offer as a result of their experiences
 Makes available a wide range of resources, including the
thinking skills, experience, help, and encouragement through
the collective expertise of the group members
 Eases the distinction between teachers/tutors and learners by
creating a cooperative, participative environment that is less
hierarchical than those produced by traditional approaches

Disadvantages
 Accommodating a wide range of needs (conflicting goals,
different learning rates, etc.) and abilities is difficult
 Needs of individuals in a group have to be reconciled with the
needs of the group thus tension may arise between learner-
centeredness and group-centered
 Negotiating a learner-centered curriculum can be hard work
 Requires more preparation time than one-on-one tutoring
 Some learners are simply not comfortable with the idea of
group participation
 Facilitator needs group leadership skills in addition to teaching
skills

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 Project-based
Advantages
 Engaged in a real world project
 Identify what they need to learn to complete the project
 Inspired to cooperate and help each other learn
 Enjoy learning

Disadvantages
 Requires a large time investment
 Difficult to adapt for group members who enter class after
project begins or who do not continue until the end
 Some important learning needs may not be addressed by
selected topics
 May divide learning requirements and fail to share
procedures they learned

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 Educational Games
Advantages
 Increases the understanding of principles
 High student involvement
 Fun, interesting way to teach
 Interactive
 Ability to use with a large group
 Games often involve problem solving strategies
 Improves retention

Disadvantages
 May have “lazy” participants
 May be viewed as “childish” by
participants
 Possibility for too much competitiveness
 Requires significant time investment to make/find games

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 14

Fun with
Beginning Math

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

Do math and you can do anything.

N.C.T.M. slogan

- 273 -
- 274 -
 Overview
Many students come into our Basic Skills classroom
believing math is hard and impossible to learn. This belief stifles
students in their quest to acquire basic math skills. This
professional development plan offers games and creative activities
that can be used to promote confidence while enhancing students’
math and thinking skills. These games also allow students to
develop team building and communication skills. Participants will
gain concepts moving instructors from the traditional textbook
approach to hands-on learning.

Goal
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods, strategies,
and techniques to give instructors new ways to
demonstrate and review mathematical concepts using
games and manipulatives.

Objectives
Participants will

• learn methods and strategies for teaching

beginning level math students in math, and
• engage in hands-on math games and
activities that enrich math and thinking
skills.

Summary of Activities
Many games and activities are included in this plan. Unless
a series of professional development workshops are planned,
trainers need to choose from among the activities listed. As well as

- 275 -
being the main focus of a workshop, these activities are good for
opening, closing, or after-break activities for any math workshop.
Activities 2-8 are written for the classroom thus providing
detailed instructions for conducting them with students. As the
trainer, adjust as necessary for your participants’ backgrounds and
knowledge of the mathematical concepts.

Activity Materials Time

Activity 14.1: Trainer made “Scavenger Hunt” handout 10 - 20

Scavenger Hunt minutes

Activity 14.2: Three- “Three-in-a-Row Game Board” handout, 15 - 30

in-a-Row dice, and game markers minutes

Activity 14.3: “Rounding in a Row-Addition” and 15 - 30

Rounding in a Row “Rounding in a Row-Multiplication” minutes
handouts, game markers, and calculators

Activity 14.4: Beach Prepared beach ball, see activity for 5 - 10

Ball Math directions minutes

Activity 14.5: Magic none 5 - 10

Fingers minutes

Activity 14.6: I have, Prepared decks of cards, see activity for 10 - 20

Who has… directions minutes

Activity 14.7: Playing Deck(s) of playing cards 10 - 20

Cards to Learn Math minutes

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Activity 14.8: Fraction Prepared Fraction Circle Kits, see activity 45 - 60
Circles for directions minutes

Activity 14.9: Fraction “Fraction Ring” handout, and prepared 30 - 60

Ring Fraction Circle Kits, see activity 14.8 for minutes
directions

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following 2004
ABSPD Institute participants.

Charles “Perry” Brigham, Sampson Community College

Kizzy Crawford, Nash Community College
Dorneeta F. Davis, Nash Community College
James Ezzell, III, Sampson Community College
LaVoice Faison-Stevens, Sampson Community College
Jeri Griffin, Martin Community College
Madalene Hardison, Wayne Community College
Mildred B. Hussey, James Sprunt Community College
Dale Johnson, Sampson Community College
Cynthia Krider, Davidson Community College
Howard Lovingood, Tri-County Community College
Stephanie Light, Craven Community College
Florence Patterson, Central Piedmont Community College
Judy Smith, Martin Community College

- 277 -
 Activity 14.1: Scavenger Hunt
This activity is designed as an opening activity to create a
non-threatening learning environment as well as encourage group
interaction.

Preparation
Make a handout for the “Scavenger Hunt.” Suggestions for
items to include are given below. Make adjustments to better “fit”
your participants. Make copies of the handout for each participant.

• Has been in current position • Loves to work with adults.

more than 2 years. • Uses manipulatives to teach
• Has the same number of students.
siblings as you. • Favorite subject in school
• Belongs to a professional was math.
organization. • Has to deal with students
• Lives more than one hour’s with math anxiety.
drive from work. • Teaches in a classroom with
• Has to deal with problem multi-level students.
students in class. • Lives 5 minutes or less from
• Has previously taught in work.
public schools. • Has the same hobby as you
• Has more than two pets.
• Has been to Las Vegas.

Conducting the Activity

Distribute copies of the “Scavenger Hunt” handout. Tell
participants they are to mingle with other participants to find
people who have the identified characteristics. Once they find a
person with that characteristic, ask them to sign their handout
beside the characteristic. Ask participants to share interesting
information they learned during the activity.

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 Activity 14.2: Three-In-A-Row
This game allows participants to practice reducing and
identifying equivalent fractions while having fun. Two players or
two teams work well.

Preparation
1. Copy the game board for each team.
2. Each player needs about 10 markers of the same color, with
each player on a team having a different color. Make markers by
cutting small squares of different colored card stock or use
different color buttons, beans, etc.
3. Each team needs one pair of dice.

Conducting the Activity

1. Discuss reducing fractions or finding equivalent fractions.
Demonstrate and practice reducing fractions before playing the
game.
2. Distribute the “Game Board” handouts, dice, and markers. Each
player will need ten markers of one color.
3. Players take turns rolling 2 dice and making a
fraction. The player covers an equivalent
fraction on the game board. If a player rolls
doubles, he or she has another turn.
4. The first player to get three in a row in any
direction (vertical, horizontal, or diagonal)
wins.

- 279 -
 Three-In-A-Row Game Board

4 12 6 12 6
20 16 9 20 12

20 12 8 20 10
† †30 15
† †20 †24 12

3 3 4 5 4
† †12 18
† 24
† †15 12

7 4 9 5 3
† †14 †8 †12 †10 9

10 8 15 12 9
† †25 †12 †25 18
† 15

† † † † †

- 280 -
 Activity 14.3: Rounding in a Row
This activity offers participants an opportunity to practice
calculator, estimating, and rounding skills. It works well for two
player teams or for two teams. Two game boards are provided, one
for addition and one for multiplication. Additional game boards
can be created to cover more basic addition and multiplication or
advanced topics such as order of operations, square roots, etc.

Preparation
1. Decide how the game will be played, i.e.,
individual players or teams. Make copies of the
“Rounding in a Row—Addition” and/or
“Rounding in a Row—Multiplication” game
boards. You will need one game board for each
pair of players or teams.
2. Each participant will need a calculator.

Conducting the Activity

1. Give each team a “Rounding in a Row” game board and each
participant a calculator.
2. Explain the rules of the game. Rules:
a. This game is played the same way as the classic
game, Tic Tac Toe. Marker placement is
determined by adding (or multiplying)
numbers together, and finding the number
closest to that answer on the game board.
b. Remind participants that the exact answers are
not on the game board (answers are rounded to the nearest
ten), since one of the skills they are practicing is rounding.
c. Players take turns.

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 d. On each turn, the player chooses two numbers from the
addend (factor) pool and finds the sum (product) of the two
numbers.
e. A calculator may be used.
f. The player finds the number on the board that is closest to
the sum (or product) and puts a marker on that number.
g. The first player to have four in a row, horizontally,
vertically, or diagonally, wins the game.
3. Prior to beginning the game review the rules for rounding to the
nearest ten. Rounding to the nearest ten is as follows:
a. If the number in the ones’ place is four or less, the rounded
number is the nearest multiple of ten that is less than the
original number. For example: 573 is rounded to 570.
b. If the number in the ones’ place is five or more, the rounded
number is the nearest multiple of ten that is more than the
original number. For example: 576 is rounded to 580.

Adapted from Stenmark, J., Thompson, V., & Cossey, R. (1986).

Family Math. Berkley, CA: University of California, Lawrence Hall
of Science.

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 Rounding in a Row - Addition

Addend Pool
4 7 11 23 31
42 49 62 70

30 70 40 80 70 20

80 60 50 70 50 100

50 110 10 90 40 50

90 70 130 60 110 70

50 20 100 30 120 50

70 90 40 100 80 30

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 Rounding in a Row - Multiplication

Factor Pool
3 23 31 47 16
18 17 59 13

140 1460 180 940 390 1830

370 850 1080 210 50 1060

750 70 270 410 530 220

710 300 500 90 310 40

290 560 50 800 1360 770

50 610 1000 2770 230 400

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 Activity 14.4: Beach Ball Math
This activity allows participants to practice basic operation
and mental math skills. It alleviates the boredom of doing
worksheets by playing with a beach ball. This game is especially
useful for skills practice with Compensatory Education students.
The problems written on the beach ball can be varied to meet the
students’ skill levels from counting and number recognition to
square roots and exponents.

Preparation
1. Prepare beach ball. Cover a large,
inflated beach ball with circles by tracing
circles using a 3-4 inch diameter pattern
(a paper cup works well as a pattern)
and a permanent marker. 2x3
4x5
2. Inside each circle write math problems
that focus on the skills you want to
reinforce.
3. Prepare a beach ball for each group of 6-8 participants.

Conducting the Activity

1. Have participants form a circle. If you have a large group you
can form several circles of 6 to 8 participants.
2. Explain the rules of the game:
a. Toss the ball to a player.
b. The player who catches the ball must read aloud and answer
the problem that is covered by the right thumb.
c. That player then tosses the ball to another player.
3. Continue to play ball as time allows.

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 Activity 14.5: Magic Fingers
This is a competency-based basic multiplication hands-on
activity and is adaptable for individualized or group instruction.
This activity makes the nine table through 10 easier to remember. It
is designed for beginning learners.

Preparation
1. Practice doing the nine table using the “Magic Fingers”
technique.
2. If presenting to a large group, consider the use of an overhead
projector to demonstrate using your hands as an opaque.

Conducting the Activity

1. First, place your hands in front of you, palms down. Number
your fingers (in your mind) from 1 through 10, left to right.

2. Now, nine times any number from 1 through 10 means the

finger with that number must be tucked under. For example:

9 x 3,
tuck under
the 3rd finger;

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 9 x 5,
tuck under
the 5th finger;

3. Counting the fingers on the left of the tucked fingers gives the
first digit of the answer. Counting the fingers on the right of the
tucked finger gives the last digit of the answer.
4. For example: Refer to the picture above. 9 x 5 has four fingers on
the left of the tucked finger, this number goes in the tens place
of the answer. There are 5 fingers to the left of the tucked finger,
the number goes in the ones place of the answer.

9 x 5 = 4 in the tens place and 5 in the ones place = 45

5. Look at the picture on the previous page. What is the answer to

9 x 3?
6. Practice other “9 times” examples with participants.

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 Activity 14.6: I have, Who has…
This activity allows
participants to practice basic
operation skills and mental math
skills. Addition and multiplication
games are included. However, the
game levels can be varied to meet the
students’ skill levels from counting
and number recognition to basic
algebra and geometry skills.

Preparation
1. Decide which game to use, i.e. addition or multiplication.
2. Copy the pages of cards for the corresponding game onto card
stock.
3. You may want to laminate the copies to make the cards last
longer.
4. Cut the cards apart.
5. This gives you one deck of cards. If you need multiple decks
make additional copies.

Conducting the Activity

1. Divide the participants into groups of 6 to 8.
2. One person in each group deals all
the cards.
3. Each person spreads the cards, face
up, so they can easily see all of their
cards.

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4. The person who starts the game ends the game. A participant
begins the game by reading one card, skipping the first part (I
have …), and beginning with “Who has …? The same person
will end the game with the first part (I have …) of the card.
5. The person with the answer then reads a card and the game
continues until all cards have been read.
6. After a card is read it is turned over. The only card used more
than once is the card used to begin the game.
7. Players continue the game until all cards are used.

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I have, Who has …ADDITION

I have 11, who I have 9, who

has 4 + 5? has 6 + 4?

I have 10, who I have 7, who

has 4 + 3? has 6 + 7?

I have 13, who I have 18, who

has 9 + 9? has 9 + 6?

I have 15, who I have 8, who

has 4 + 4? has 7 + 12?

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I have, Who has …ADDITION

I have 19, who I have 14, who

has 6 + 8? has 0 + 5?

I have 5, who I have 6, who

has 2 + 4? has 8 + 9?

I have 17, who I have 16, who

has 8 + 8? has 7 + 5?

I have 12, who I have 20, who

has 9 + 11? has 15 + 13?

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I have, Who has …ADDITION

I have 28, who I have 4, who

has 3 +1? has 18 + 5?

I have 23, who I have 21, who

has 13 + 8? has 0 + 0?

I have 0, who I have 3, who

has 1 + 2? has 20 + 9?

I have 29, who I have 2, who

has 1 + 1? has 6 + 5?

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I have, Who has …MULTIPLICATION

I have 30, who I have 16, who

has 3 x 3? has 6 x 4?

I have 9, who I have 24, who

has 4 x 3? has 7 x 3?

I have 12, who I have 21, who

has 9 x 9? has 9 x 6?

I have 81, who I have 54, who

has 4 x 4? has 7 x 2?

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I have, Who has …MULTIPLICATION

I have 14, who I have 48, who

has 6 x 8? has 5 x 5?

I have 25, who I have 10, who

has 2 x 5? has 5 x 9?

I have 45, who I have 64, who

has 8 x 8? has 7 x 6?

I have 42, who I have 99, who

has 9 x 11? has 5 x 3?

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I have, Who has …MULTIPLICATION

I have 15, who I have 49, who

has 7 x 7? has 8 x 5?

I have 40, who I have 72, who

has 9 x 8? has 4 x 9?

I have 36, who I have 18, who

has 9 x 2? has 7 x 4?

I have 28, who I have 6, who

has 3 x 2? has 7 x 12?

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I have, Who has …MULTIPLICATION

I have 84, who I have 32, who

has 4 x 8? has 10 x 5?

I have 50, who I have 96, who

has 8 x 12? has 3 x 9?

I have 27, who I have 8, who

has 4 x 2? has 8 x 7?

I have 56, who I have 35, who

has 7 x 5? has 6 x 5?

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 Activity 14.7: Playing Cards to Learn Math
Most everyone likes
playing cards. The games
included here allow participants
to have fun while sharpening
their math skills. These games
create learning or reinforcement
of number sense, problem
solving, and thinking skills.
Through working together as a team students practice
communication skills as well as mental math, pencil and paper
and/or calculator skills. Additionally, students have to follow
directions and rules. These games are especially helpful for
students who have math anxiety, learning difficulties, or
disabilities. All games can easily be adjusted for difficulty level.
After students learn the rules, card games let students “take
a break” from long classes. Choose a game that reinforces the math
skills currently being learned or use the game as a review.

Preparation
1. You will need decks of cards (one for
every 3 to 5 participants) with the face
cards (kings, queens, and jacks)
removed.
2. Calculators are optional, but card games
are a good way to practice calculator
skills and in some cases the use of a
calculator may make the game move faster.
3. Choose the card game you want to play.
Make adjustments to the rules as necessary. For
all games aces count as one.

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 Conducting the Activity
1. When participants enter class have decks of cards on some of
the desks. Ask participants, “Have you considered playing
cards to learn and reinforce math skills?” Advise the
participants that today they will play cards. This will get the
participants’ attention. Then tell them, “There is one catch – you
must play by the game rules I give you.”
2. Have participants form small groups. No more than five
participants should play with a single deck.
3. Explain and demonstrate how the game will be played. It will
be helpful to list the rules on the board. Remember, for all
games let the aces count as ones. Give participants a chance to
ask questions to clarify the rules of the game. Then – Let the
games begin.
4. After the game reflect on what happened while playing –
worked together as a team, had fun, learned or reinforced math
skills, practiced communication skills, had to think, practiced
mental math, pencil and paper and/or calculator skills, had to
follow directions and rules, etc.
5. Ask participants to share what math skills they learned,
practiced, and/or reinforced. List on the board.
6. Optional: As a class or in small groups let participants make up
and write rules for a different card game that could be used to
teach or reinforce math skills.

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 Game #1: What Difference Does it Make?
Remove the face cards from the deck and deal the cards face
down, one to each player, and one in the middle of the playing
table until all the cards are dealt.
Each player turns up their top card. The top card is turned
up from the deck. Players then state and record on paper what they
need to add or subtract from their cards to make it equal to the
deck's card.

For example, suppose the cards show the following:

DECK CARD‡

Score
Player 1
-7
Score
This player has a 10, Player 2
therefore the player +1
states, "subtract 7"
and records a "-7" on
the score paper. This player has a 2,
therefore the player
states, "add 1" and
records a +1 on the
score paper.

Keep playing rounds until the players have used up all their
cards. Each player adds the differences. The player with the score
closest to zero wins. Or you can announce at the beginning of the
game that the player with the highest (or lowest) score wins.

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 Alternate Ways to Play
1. Let players record the sum of two cards and let the winner be
the one with the highest or lowest total.

DECK CARD‡

Score
Player 1
13
Score
This player has a 10, Player 2
therefore the player 5
states 10 + 3 = 13
and records 13 on This player has a 2,
the score paper. therefore the player
states 2 + 3 = 5 and
records a 5 on the
score paper.

2. Let players record the product of two cards and let the winner
be the one with the highest total product. In this case player 1
would record 30 (10 x 3) and player 2 would record 6 (2 x 3).

3. Let players make a fraction out of the two cards, with the
player’s card always being the numerator. In this case player 1
records 10/3 or 3 1/3 and player 2 records 2/3. Add strategy to
the game by letting the players decide which card to use as the
numerator and denominator. Each player records the fraction
they made as their score and totals the fractions to see who has
the largest or smallest total. Before the game begins decide if the
winner will be the player with the largest (or smallest) total.

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 Game #2: Mark Off!
Remove the face cards from the deck. Each player writes the
numbers 1 through 20 on a piece of paper. The object of the game is
to be the first player to "Mark Off" all of the numbers on the list.
For each round, two cards are dealt to each
player. Players find the total value of the two cards. 1 11
The player can choose to mark off the sum of the two 2 12
cards or to mark off two or three numbers that
3 13
would give them the same total value. For example,
4 14
suppose a player has the cards below:
5 15
6 16
7 17
8 18
9 19
10 20

These two cards gives the player a sum of 16. The player can
choose to mark off any one of the following combinations:

16 6 and 10
9 and 7 2, 4, and 10
2, 6, and 8 15 and 1
or any other combination that gives the total value of 16.
As the rounds progress, it becomes harder to mark off the
exact total, which is what the rules specify. When a player cannot
mark off a combination of numbers that equals the exact total, the
player does not get to mark off anything and must wait until they
receive another two cards. In this game, strategy counts. For a
shorter game, set a time limit and let the player who has marked off
the most numbers win.

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 Game #3: Blackjack Times Ten
The object of this game is to get as close as
possible to 210 (Blackjack times 10), without going
over. After removing the face cards, each player
draws (or is dealt) six cards. The player decides
whether to use the cards in the ones place or tens
place so the sum is as close to 210 without going
over. Each player must use all six of the cards. Give
the players a set amount of time to arrange their
cards. The player who gets closest to 210 without
going over is the winner.
For example, if a player draws (or is dealt) the following:

They may choose to split the cards as follows:

Tens Place Ones Place

Nine of spades = 90 Ace of diamonds = 1
Two of diamonds = 20 Ten of clubs = 10
Eight of spades = 80 Three of clubs = 3
Total score ‡ 90 + 20 + 80 + 1 + 10 + 3 = 204

Alternate Ways to Play

Instead of trying to reach 210 without going
over, try to reach 100 or 500 without going over. A
hundreds place could be added, then the players can
try to reach 1000 without going over. The number of
cards dealt can be increased or decreased to make the
game harder or easier.

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 Game #4: Equations, Equations, Equations…
After removing the face cards, deal each player four cards.
Using the four cards and any combination of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and grouping symbols, make as many
equations as possible that have integer answers. You get 1 point for
each equation with a different answer. Set a time limit; 3 to 5
minutes works well, but participants can easily spend longer if time
permits.
For example, suppose a player draws the following cards:

The player could start with the following equations:

3 + 1 + 10 + 5 = 19 3 – 1 + 10 + 5 = 17
3 – 1 – 10 + 5 = - 3 3 – 1 – 10 – 5 = -13
3 x 1 + 10 + 5 = 18 3 + 1 + 10 x 5 = 54
3 + 1 x 10 + 5 = 18 – same answer doesn't count
3 x (1 + 10 + 5) = 48 (10+5) / 3 + 1 = 6
and so on. There are many other equations that could be
made with these four cards.

Alternate Ways to Play

The game can be played where every different
equation counts, even if it has the same answer.
Decimal and fractions can be allowed as answers;
thus making it easier to make more equations. Have
participants think of other ways to vary this game.

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 Game #5: Make it a Million or More!
Each player marks on a piece of paper the place values to a
million. Space the place values so that a card can fit under each
place.
Remove the face cards from the deck. Each player alternates
drawing one card at a time and puts it in a place, trying to make the
largest 7-digit number possible. Once placed, the card cannot be
moved. One round goes until each player has 8 cards. At that point,
each player gets to choose one card to replace with the eighth card
to make the largest 7-digit number possible, or they may choose to
"throw out" the eighth card.
Here is how a hand might look.

100 10
Millions Thousands Thousands Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones

The above hand would result in the number‡ 10,983,621.

Try your luck. Can you make a larger number by moving around
the cards? Be careful about reading the number, especially if a ten-
card is placed other than in the millions.

Alternate ways to play

This game can be played with fewer or more
place values to vary difficulty. Consider adding a
decimal and tenths, hundredths, etc. The number of
cards dealt can be varied based on the number of
place values. Ask participants to think of other
ways to vary this game.

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 Game #6: Making the Largest Fraction
Remove the face cards from the deck. Deal the remaining
cards face down to the players. Players turn over the top two cards
of their hand and make the largest fraction possible using one of
the cards as the numerator and the other as the denominator. The
players compare fractions to see who has the largest. The player
with the largest fraction gets all the cards to add to the bottom of
his/her hand. When a player has less than two cards, he/she is out
of the game. The winner is the player who gets all the cards.
Below are three fractions that can be made.

= 9/2 = 8/1 = 10/3

The largest fraction above is the one in the middle, so the

person having this fraction adds all six of the above cards to the
bottom of his/her hand.

Alternate Ways to Play

Players turn over three cards and make a mixed
number. Can you think of other variations?

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 Activity 14.8: Fraction Circles
Students need to understand the meaning of
fractions and have a clear concept of what a fraction
of an object looks like. The focus of this activity is
dealing with fractions as part of a whole. Students
learn that each fraction has many alternate names,
i.e., 1/4 = 2/8 = 3/12 etc., and learn how to change
between improper fractions and mixed numbers. Fraction circles
are used to ensure that students have a thorough, concrete
understanding of the processes. Students respond to this activity
with statements such as, “I see!” or “Now it makes sense.” The
effort of making the “Fraction Circle Kits” is definitely worthwhile.

Preparation
1. Copy the fraction circles at the end of the activity onto colored
card stock. Use a different color for each fraction. One copy of
each page yields 3 sets of fraction circles.
2. Cut out the fraction circles or let participants
cut them out. This will make enough fraction
circles for one small class (up to 8 participants).
Make additional sets as needed.

Conducting the Activity

1. Mix up the fraction pieces.
2. Allow participants time to examine the kit. Ask participants to
make as many “single colored circles” as they can.
3. Ask participants to “name the pieces.” Hold up pieces of each
color and ask, “What is this called?” and “How is this written?”
4. Record answers on the board. For example, for the one-fourth
piece (if it is blue), record
blue piece a fourth 1/4
5. Ask participants why the piece is called a fourth and why it is
written as one over four. Stress the meaning, i.e, one of four

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 parts make up a whole circle or it is one piece of the whole circle
which has been divided into four equal pieces.
6. Repeat the procedure until all pieces have been named.
7. Numerators other than one. Place two pieces of the same
fractional part together and ask, “What is this called?” and
“How is it written?” Record answers.
8. Repeat the procedure with other colors until everyone can name
the fractions and tell why the name is appropriate.
2 blue pieces 2/4
3 blue pieces 3/4
4 blue pieces 4/4 one whole
9. Relative size of fractions. Hold up two pieces of different
colors. Ask, “Which piece is larger?”, “How do we represent
greater than and less than?” “How can we represent such
statements as ‘the yellow piece is larger than the brown piece’ in
symbols?” For example, 1/2 > 1/6.
10. The relative size of the piece can be determined by placing one
piece on top of another piece.
11. Encourage participants to generalize a rule such as, “The larger
the number on the bottom the smaller the actual size of the
piece.” The term denominator could be introduced this way.
12. Equivalent fractions. Hold up the 1/2 piece. Ask, “How many
other ways could we make a piece this size using other colors?”
Record answers on the board. Hold up other pieces and ask the
same question.
13. Improper fractions and mixed numbers. These concepts can be
introduced using the fraction circles. Use examples such as, “I’m
having people to lunch and serving small cakes for desert. I
know from experience that people will only eat a half. If I am
having 6 people how many cakes would I need? 7 people? 9
people?” Try other examples such as serving pie that would
serve six people or serving pizza that would serve four. Be sure
to record answers on the board so participants can see the
difference between improper fractions and mixed numbers.

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 1/1

- 308 -
 1/2

- 309 -
 1/3

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 1/4

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 1/5

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 1/6

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 1/8

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 1/10

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 1/12

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 Activity 14.9: Fraction Ring
Students need to understand
the relationship between fractions,
decimals, and percents. The focus of
this activity is to help students see
the relationship between common
fractions, decimals, and percents.
Students will also learn that each
fraction has a decimal and percent
equivalent. The fraction ring and
fraction circles (from previous
activity) are used to ensure that
students have a thorough, concrete
understanding of the processes.

Preparation
1. Copy the fraction circles at the end of the previous activity onto
colored card stock. Use a different color for each fraction. One
copy of each page yields 3 sets of fraction circles.
2. Cut out the fraction circles and sort to make three sets.
3. Make additional copies of the “whole” fraction, so that each
participant can have a whole circle, for Part II of the activity.
4. Make copies of the “Fraction Ring” handout.

Conducting the Activity, Part I

1. Give each participant a copy of the “Fraction Ring” handout.
2. Explain the “fraction ring.” It represents one whole, the scale
around the edge divides it into 100 equal parts so we have 100%
of a circle. Review how to change decimals to percents.
3. Allow participants to choose a partner.
4. Give each pair of participants several fraction circles.

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5. Ask participants to put together the fraction circles to make a
whole of the same color. Ask participants to label, in fraction
form (1/4, 1/5, 1/6, etc.) one piece from each of the circles.
6. Explain that if one of the fractions pieces is placed on the
fraction ring beginning at zero, one can easily determine the
decimal equivalent and find the percent equivalent by changing
the decimal to a percent.
7. Demonstrate by placing one fraction piece (1/4) on the circle.
Ask, “What decimal part of the circle is this piece?” (.25) Ask,
“What would equal that percent?” (25%)
8. Ask participants to repeat this procedure (step 7) with each of
the different fraction pieces and to make a chart by tracing the
fraction piece and labeling the fraction, decimal, and percent.

Conducting the Activity, Part II

9. Give each participant a whole circle.
10. Demonstrate how to make a pie chart using the fraction ring.
11. Discuss budgets. What items need to be included in a budget? Is
everyone going to have the same items in a budget? A budget
cannot exceed what part of a person’s income?
12. Demonstrate how to make a pie chart for a budget by deciding
on a random income. List the budget items and what percent a
person might spend in that area. On the whole circle pencil in
that percentage. Is the person going to have enough income to
cover all the expenses? Convert the percentages to actual dollar
amounts. Are there budget items that can be changed? Which
budget items are fixed and which are
flexible?
13. Participants make a pie chart for their
budget.
14. Discussion categories participants
chose to include in their budgets.

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Fraction Ring

- 319 -
- 320 -
 Chapter

15

Fun with Algebra,

Geometry, and
Graphing

Dianne B. Barber
2004 ABSPD Institute Participants

Americans need to think for a living, more

than ever they need to think mathematically.
Everybody Counts

- 321 -
- 322 -
 Overview
Many students come into our Adult Basic Skills programs
fearing math, especially algebra and geometry. Students believe
algebra is impossible to learn and that geometry is almost as bad.
Many students think graphs are intimidating. These beliefs stifle
students in their quest to acquire skills needed to open doors in the
workplace and to higher education. This professional development
plan offers instructional games and activities that can be used to
promote mathematical confidence while introducing students to
basic algebra, geometry, and graphing concepts.

Goal
The goal of this plan is to provide professional
development using research-based methods, strategies,
and techniques to give instructors new ways to
demonstrate and review basic algebra, geometry and
graphing concepts in a fun, non-threatening way.

Objectives
Participants will

• learn methods and strategies for

teaching basic algebra and geometry
skills;
• engage in hands-on activities that
enrich algebra, geometry, graphing,
and thinking skills;
• identify elements of graphs and
create graphs; and
• evaluate math activities found on the Internet.

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 Summary of Activities
Many games and activities are included in this plan. Unless
a series of professional development workshops are planned,
trainers need to choose from among the activities listed. As well as
being the main focus of a workshop, these activities are good for
opening, closing, or after-break activities for math workshops.
Activities 2-7 are written for the classroom thus providing
detailed instructions for conducting them with students. As the
trainer, adjust as necessary for your participants’ backgrounds and
knowledge of the mathematical concepts.

Activity Materials Time

Activity 15.1: Ticket “A Ticket to Algebra, Please” handout and 30 - 45

to Algebra prepared tickets as described in the activity minutes

Activity 15.2: I have, Prepared deck(s) of cards as described in 10 - 20

Who has … the activity minutes
Exponents and
Square Roots

Activity 15.3: Prepared deck(s) of cards as described in 15 - 30

Concentrate on the activity minutes
Algebra

Activity 15.4: Digital camera, printer to print pictures, 60 - 90

Geometric Art poster board, glue minutes

Activity 15.5: Prepared deck(s) of cards as described in 15 - 30

Concentrating on the activity minutes
Formulas

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Activity 15.6: Toy Collection of toys 60 - 90
Design minutes

Activity 15.7: Graphed Sample graphs (good and bad) from 60 - 90

Comparisons newspapers and magazines, access to the minutes
Internet or prepared data handouts, graph
paper and markers or colored pencils

Activity 15.8: Techin’ Access to the Internet and “Math Websites” 60 - 90

Up Your Teaching and “Math Web Quests” handouts minutes

Authors
This topic includes excerpts of professional
development plans submitted by the following
2004 ABSPD Institute participants.

Ruth Duncan, Vance-Granville Community College

Lynn LeFever, Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute
Elizabeth Hembree, Haywood Community College
Kim Hinton, Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute
Mason McDaniel, Appalachian State University
Shelba Murray, McDowell Technical Community College
Billie Rich, Haywood Community College
Anne Seitz, Appalachian State University
Karen Towery, Appalachian State University

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 Activity 15.1: Ticket to Algebra
This activity may be used to introduce
participants to variables and basic algebraic
equations. Using tickets to sporting events,
concerts, and movies grabs the participants’
interest.

Preparation
1. Make copies of the “A Ticket to Algebra, Please” handout for
each participant.
2. Make copies of the page of tickets included or you may create
your own tickets. You will need several of each ticket. Be sure to
make enough copies so that each participant has a ticket. You
also want to be sure that at least three participants have the
same ticket.
3. Cut apart the tickets so that you have individual tickets to
distribute to participants.

Conducting the Activity

1. Give each participant a ticket. Participants may trade if they
wish to attend a different event. When each person has the
ticket they desire, have them group according to the destination.
2. Distribute the “A Ticket to Algebra, Please” handout.
3. Go through the mini-lesson using a similar presentation to this:
a. Using these tickets, we are going to introduce the concept of
unknowns.
b. Explain that to represent the ticket in math today, we are
going to use the letter T. This will save time as opposed
writing out the word each time.
c. Count the number of tickets you have for your event. If you
have 5 tickets, on your handout write 5T on the line beside
your event. If you have 2 tickets, write 2T, etc.

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 d. Now look at the cost of one of your tickets. If one of your
tickets costs $2.00, then 5T is worth $10.00. Add the cost of
your tickets together to see what they are worth. Your tickets
are different prices according to your event. Since the value
of the T varies, we can call it a variable. The value of 5T
varies according to the ticket you have.
e. Write out the equation: 5T= $10
f. If one ticket is worth $2, then T= $2
4. As a group, using the overhead or board, complete the handout
with “ticket equations” for the other events.
5. Discuss how the unknown could change based on the
information known, i.e. if 5 people bought tickets at $12 each,
what was the total cost of the tickets. In this case, if we use “C”
for cost, then C = 5 x 12.
6. Ask participants to think about other ways they use variables
(unknowns) in their daily life.
7. Explain that this is only one way to introduce students to
variables. Ask participants to share how they introduce the use
of variables to their students.

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 $20.00
UNC
Admit
One
BASKETBALL
$20.00
$40.00
NASCAR
Admit
One

RACE
$40.00
$3.00
HIGH SCHOOL
Admit
One

FOOTBALL
$3.00
$28.00 COUNTRY
Admit

MUSIC
One

CONCERT $28.00
$64.00
NEW YORK
Admit
One

BALLET
$64.00
$8.00
NC MUSEUM OF
Admit
One

ART
$8.00
$12.00
Admit
One

NC ZOO
$12.00
$6.00
NC HOME &
Admit
One

GARDEN SHOW
$6.00

- 328 -
 A Ticket to Algebra, Please

UNC BASKETBALL _____________________

NASCAR RACE ______________________

HIGH SCHOOL
FOOTBALL ______________________

COUNTRY MUSIC
CONCERT
_____________________

NEW YORK BALLET _____________________

NC MUSEUM OF ART _____________________

NC ZOO _____________________

NC HOME & GARDEN

SHOW _____________________

- 329 -
 Activity 15.2: I have, Who has…
Exponents and Square Roots
This activity allows students to
practice exponential and square root skills
while playing with cards. It is especially
good to give students a “break” during long
classes.

Preparation
1. Copy the pages of cards onto card stock.
2. You may want to laminate the copies to make the cards sturdier.
3. Cut the cards apart.
4. This gives you one deck of cards. If you need multiple decks
make additional copies.

Conducting the Activity

1. Divide the participants into groups of 6 to 8.
2. One person in each group deals all the cards.
3. Each person spreads the cards face up, so
they can easily see them.
4. The person who starts the game ends the
game. Participant begins the game by
reading one, skipping the first part (I have
…), and beginning with “Who has …? The same person will end
the game with the first part (I have …) of the card.
5. The person with the answer then reads a card and the game
continues until all cards have been read.
6. After a card is read it is turned over. The only card used more
than once is the card used to begin the game.
7. Players continue the game until all cards are used.

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I have, Who has …ROOTS & EXPONENTS Cards-Copy and cut apart.

I have 30, who I have 8, who

has 32? has 36 ?

I have 7, who I have 9, who

has 33? has 144 ?

I have 16, who I have 64, who

has 121 ? has 72?

I have 125, I have 20, who

who has 4 ? has 25?

- 331 -
I have, Who has …ROOTS & EXPONENTS Cards-Copy and cut apart.

I have 2, who I have 121,

has 400 ? who has 53?

I have 6, who I have 12, who

has 16 ? has 92?

I have 27, who I have 36, who

has 64 ? has 13?

I have 5, who I have 1, who

has 52? has 04?

- 332 -
I have, Who has …ROOTS & EXPONENTS Cards-Copy and cut apart.

I have 32, who I have 4, who

has 900 ? has 112?

I have 11, who I have 81, who

has 25 ? has 42?

I have 25, who I have 49, who

has 100 ? has 62?

I have 0, who I have 10, who

has 49 ? has 82?

- 333 -
 Activity 15.3: Concentrate on Algebra
This game is designed to help students
learn, recognize, and review basic algebra terms.
Similar card games for all levels of math (basic
math, geometry, statistics, etc.) can be made
using the terms and definitions found in the
Mathematical Terms chapter or additional
vocabulary words students need to know.

Preparation
1. Copy the pages of cards onto card stock.
2. You may want to laminate the copies to make the cards sturdier.
3. Cut the cards apart.
4. This gives you one deck of cards. Make additional copies so that
each group of 3-4 players will have a deck.

Conducting the Activity, Part I

1. Players form groups of 4.
2. Give each group a set of cards.
3. Explain that the cards contain words and definitions that have
been used in their study of algebra. (You may choose to add or
remove terms and definitions from the deck of cards).
4. Allow time for all players to review the cards. Players match
terms and definitions with the cards face up. Be sure players can
match the cards face up before proceeding.

Conducting the Activity, Part 2

5. A player shuffles the cards and then places the cards face down
in rows on the table.

- 334 -
6. Each player takes a turn trying to match two cards, i.e., a term
with the correct definition. When a match occurs the player
keeps the two cards.
7. The game continues until all the cards have been matched.
8. A player may challenge another player if he/she thinks the
match is not correct and request the facilitator check the match.
9. The winner is the one who has the most matches.

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Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

absolute the distance a number

is from 0 on the number
value line

a mathematical
algebraic statement involving
variables and/or
expression numbers written in
words or symbols
grouping does not
matter in addition or
associative multiplication

property

an algebraic expression
binominal containing two terms,
e.g., 2a + 3b

- 336 -
 Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

the number in front of a

variable, e.g., in the
coefficient term “4a” the coefficient
is 4

order does not matter

commutative in addition or
multiplication,
property e.g., 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 and
2 x 3 = 3 x 2.
the bottom number of a
fraction; tells the
denominator number of parts in a
whole

distributive
property
- 337 -
Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

two (or more) things

equation that are equal

to work out the value of

an expression when
evaluate numbers have been
substituted for variables

the number of times a

number is multiplied by
exponent itself

a mathematical
statement involving
expression variables and/or
numbers written in
words or symbols

- 338 -
Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

a number that divides

evenly into another
factor number, e.g., 24 = 3 x
8, so 3 and 8 are
factors
any positive or negative
whole numbers
integer including zero

operations that, when

combined, leave the
inverse entity on which they
operate unchanged,
operations e.g., (3 + 4 – 4 = 3) and
(3 x 4 ÷ 4 = 3).

terms that have the

exact same variable(s)
like terms raised to the exact
same power(s)

- 339 -
Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

an expression with one

monomial term

a number less than 0.

negative
number
the top number of a
fraction; it tells how
numerator many parts of the
whole were
used

order of rules for finding the

value of mathematical
operations expressions

- 340 -
Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

prime a prime number has

exactly two factors,
number itself and 1.

an equation made up of
two equal ratios
proportion

the reversal of a
fraction, to turn upside
reciprocal down, e.g., the
reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2

work out to give the

simplify shortest possible
answer

- 341 -
Algebra Cards-Copy and cut apart.

to assign a value to a
substitute variable

one of the parts of an

expression,
term e.g., 3a – 2 has two
terms: 3a and -2

an algebraic expression
trinomial containing three terms

a letter or symbol used

variable to represent an
unknown number

- 342 -
 Activity 15.4: Geometric Art
This activity focuses on
looking at the world around us
and recognizing how geometry is
used. This activity can be used
with any level Adult Basic Skills
student. Since this activity
requires taking and printing
pictures, it may be best to plan for
participants to take pictures early
and finish the activity later that
day or even another day.

Preparation
1. Each group of participants (4-5 per group) will need use of a
digital camera.
2. Have technical support available to download and print the
pictures or access to computers and printers so that participants
can print their own.
3. Poster board and glue for each group.

Conducting the Activity

1. Participants divide into groups of 4-5. At least one person in
each group should know how to operate a digital camera.
2. Instruct each group to spend 10-15 minutes taking pictures of a
variety of items outside or inside that relate to geometry.
3. Advise groups that they may take as many pictures as time
allows, however they will only be allowed to print up to ten.
4. Explain that they will be using their pictures to create a
“Geometric Art Collage.” Encourage the groups to be as
creative as possible.
5. As participants return with their pictures, participants print
their own pictures.

- 343 -
6. After printing their pictures, participants arrange the photos in
a collage on poster board. Give each group poster board and
glue.
7. Groups present their collage to the class, explaining why they
chose the pictures used in their “Geometric Art Collage” to
represent geometry.
8. Call attention to the variety of pictures. Discuss why things are
made in a particular shape. Discuss other ways geometry is
used around us on a daily basis.

- 344 -
 Activity 15.6: Concentrating on Formulas
Formulas are extremely useful tools for many areas of
problem solving. Often students have difficulty recognizing which
formula is needed to solve a particular problem. This activity is
designed to help students practice identifying the formula needed
to complete a certain task.

Preparation
1. Copy the pages of cards onto card stock.
2. You may want to laminate the copies to make the cards sturdier.
3. Cut the cards apart.
4. This gives you one deck of cards. Make additional copies so that
each group of 3-4 players will have a deck.

Conducting the Activity

1. Players form groups of 3-4.
2. Give each group a set of cards.
3. Explain that the cards contain a formula or the description of a
task that would require the use of the formula. (You may choose
to add or remove formulas and tasks from the deck of cards).
4. Let participants practice with matching the pairs of cards with
the cards face up. Once participants have mastered matching
the cards face up, let them play the game outlined in steps 5-9.
5. One player from each group shuffles the cards and then places
the cards face down in rows on the table.
6. Each player takes a turn trying to match two cards correctly.
When a match occurs that player keeps the two cards.
7. The game continues until all the cards have been matched.
8. A player may challenge another player if he/she thinks the
match is not correct and request the facilitator check the match.
9. The winner is the one who has the most matches.

- 345 -
 Formula Cards–Copy and cut apart.

to find how much

2 carpet is needed for
A=s
a room that has the
where A = area and
s = side
same length and
width

† to find the amount of

A = lw carpet needed to
carpet a room that is
where A = area, l = length,
and w = width twice as long as it is
wide

†
A = bh to find the area of a
where A = area, b = base, parallelogram
and h = height

† 1 to find how much

A = bh paint it would take to
2 paint the floor of a
where A = area, b = base, triangular patio
and h = height

- 346 -

†
 Formula Cards–Copy and cut apart.

2 to find how much

A = pr paint to buy to paint
where A = area and a big circle on the
r = radius wall

to find how much

† P = 4s ribbon to buy to go
where P = perimeter around the edge of a
and s = side square box

to find how much

† P = 2l + 2w baseboard to buy to
go around a room
where P = perimeter,
l = length, and w = width
that is twice as long
as it is wide

to find how much

P = s1 + s2 + s3 fencing it would take
to go around a
where P = perimeter, triangular flower
and s = side
garden

- 347 -

†
 Formula Cards–Copy and cut apart.

C = pd to find how far it

would be to walk
where C = circumference
and d = diameter around a round lake

†
V = e3 to find how much soil
it would take to fill a
where V = volume
and e = edge
square flower pot

†
V = lwh to find how much
water it would take to
where V = volume,
l = length, w = width,
fill a rectangular
and h = height swimming pool

†
1 2 to find the amount a
V = b h container shaped like
3
a square pyramid
where V = volume, b = base, would hold
and h = height

† - 348 -
 Formula Cards–Copy and cut apart.

2 to find the amount a

V = pr h
cylinder shaped
where V = volume,
r = radius, and h = height
container would hold

† 1
V = pr 2 h to find the amount a
3 cone shaped
where V = volume, r = container would hold
radius, and h = height

†
d = (x 2 - x1)2 + (y 2 - y1)2 to find the distance
where d = distance and
between two points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are two on a line
points in a plane

†
y 2 - y1
m=
x 2 - x1 to find the steepness
of a line
where m = slope and
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are two
points on a line

† - 349 -
 Formula Cards–Copy and cut apart.

2 2 2 to find the length of a

a +b =c beam across the
front of a garage if
where a and b are legs and c
the hypotenuse of a right the angle at the roof
triangle is 90 degrees

I = prt to find the interest

where I = interest,
from a savings
p = principal, r = rate, account
and t = time

d = rt to find the distance

for a trip
where d = distance, r = rate,
and t = time

c = nr to find the cost of

vegetables sold by
where c = total cost,
n = number of units, and the pound
r = cost per unit

- 350 -
 Activity 15.6: Toy Design
Geometric shapes are used in the design and manufacture of
many products. This activity allows participants to study the
different shapes used in designing toys. It is great for a multi-level
classroom as even beginning students can participate.

Preparation
1. Have toys available so that each pair of
participants has a different toy. If you
have a class where most participants have
children you might ask if they would be
willing to bring a toy to share for this
activity. You may also be able to purchase
inexpensive toys at yard sales and thrift
stores. If you cannot locate real toys then
allow participants to cut out pictures of
toys from a catalog or sale paper.
2. Have markers and flip chart paper or
poster board available for each pair of
participants.

Conducting the Activity

1. Brainstorm geometric shapes. Draw and label shapes on the
board or flip chart. Review properties of the shapes.
2. Allow participants to choose a partner.
3. Give each pair of participants a sheet of flip chart paper and
several markers. Explain that they are going make a chart of the
different shapes used in the design and manufacture of a toy.
4. Explain that the chart should contain a picture of each
geometric shape used, the name of the shape, and how the
shape was used. Advise participants that shapes may be used
more than once.

- 351 -
5. Give each pair of participants a toy or let participants choose a
toy.
6. Ask participants to look carefully at their toy to identify the
different geometric shapes used in making the toy. As they
identify the different shapes they should draw it on their chart
paper and identify how the shape was used in the manufacture
of the toy. You may need to demonstrate what you expect
participants to do.
7. Allow participants to share their charts with the class.
8. Discuss which shapes tend to be used the most/least.

- 352 -
 Activity 15.7: Graphed Comparisons
Knowing how to read and
interpret data is an important life
skill. We are bombarded daily with
all kinds of graphed comparisons,
including statistics that jump out at
us from the pages of daily
newspapers and from TV screens.
In this activity participants sharpen
their understanding of graphs and
improve their graph reading skills.

Preparation
1. Have graph paper and markers or colored pencils available.
2. Collect several sample line graphs from newspapers or
magazines. Choose samples that are considered to have all the
elements of a “great” line graph and several samples of line
graphs that are missing an important component of a good
graph.
3. Have available computers with Internet access or prepared
handouts for data collection. You may want to identify several
sites prior to the activity in case participants have problems
finding appropriate data.

Conducting the Activity

1. Review the elements of a line graph. Draw a large, blank graph
on the board. Participants point out the x- and y-axes.
Participants brainstorm possible data that could be displayed in
a line graph and a title for each set of data. For example: the
number of people visiting Grandfather Mountain each year for
10 years with possible title, “Tourism Declines at Popular
Attraction.”
2. Review the importance of choosing a scale for the x- and y-axes
that will clearly show the data. Participants discuss possible

- 353 -
 scales for their brainstorming topics. For example: Suppose an
average of 10,000 people visit Grandfather Mountain each year.
What would be a good scale? Would you change the scale if
only an average of 200 people visit each year?
3. Discuss what makes a graph good or bad? Discuss the sample
graphs, both the good and bad graphs. Be sure all the elements
of the graphs are discussed, i.e., title, scale, labels, visual appeal,
readability, etc.
4. Ask participants to search the Internet for a Web page that
shows the performance history of their favorite sports team.
Participants look for the number of team wins over a period of
years.
5. Allow time for participants to search and collect data from the
Internet and design a line graph depicting the data collected.
6. Invite participants to create another graph using performance
from another team. Explain that the second graph may be a
colorful bar graph, picture graph, or pie chart.
7. Let participants assess their own graphs. Have they used
appropriate scales? Does each graph show all the data the
participant wanted to show?
8. Have participants choose a partner,
exchange graphs, and explain what is
shown on the partner’s graph.
9. Review and discuss. What are the
elements of line graphs? Do the axes
have to be labeled? Why? Compare
and contrast elements of different
graphs (line, bar, picture, pie). When is
one type of graph better than another?
Do graphs help people understand
information better?

- 354 -
 Activity 15.8: Techin’ Up Your Teaching
Technology is a viable,
necessary tool that can enrich and
enhance the student’s learning
experience. When applications of
technology are used in concert with
the curriculum and instructor skills
are appropriately developed, the
instructional experience is improved
and higher achievement the result.
The focus of this activity is to provide
experiences that allow instructors to
apply technology in the teaching of
mathematics.

Preparation
1. Review and update the Internet cites listed on the “Math
Websites” and “Math Web Quests” handouts. Note: all listed
sites were functional as of December, 2004. You may want to
add additional sites in chapter 16.
2. Make copies of the updated handouts for each participant.
3. Arrange access to a computer lab with Internet access.
Participants can work in pairs if individual computers are not
feasible.

Conducting the Activity

1. Distribute the “Math Websites” handout.
2. Allow participants time to explore websites from the handout.
3. Participants select 1 or 2 activities from their website “journey”
applicable to their particular classroom.
4. Instructors discuss their website “journey” and share a math
activity or idea with the group.

- 355 -
5. Discuss Web Quests and how they can be used as a teaching
tool.
6. Distribute the “Math Web Quests” handout.
7. Participants select a Web Quest to explore and evaluate.
8. Participants evaluate the Web Quest and share their findings.
9. Debrief and discuss how Websites and Web Quest could be
used with Adult Basic Skills students.
10. Plan follow-up sessions to share experiences about integrating
technology into their teaching.

We are living in a new economy—powered

by technology, fueled by information, and
driven by knowledge.

- 356 -
 Math Websites
www.funbrain.com
This site contains interactive games for basic skills.

www.Japanese-online.com
This site contains math problems translated from Japan’s
Junior High School Admissions test. These problems could
be used as weekly challenge problems.

www.moneyopolis.com
This site is designed to teach financial terms and concepts in
a game format. Learners receive money for correct answers
and strive to make as much money as possible.

http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/drmath.middle.html
Mathforum is a site that allows participants to post questions
about any math topic and receive answers from math
experts. Learners can also review previously asked
questions and responses.

http://www.neirtec.org
This site offers games for the following topics: integers,
fractions, decimals, percents, GCF, LCM, prime
factorization, ratios, rates, proportions, geometric figures,
perimeter, area, volume, Pythagorean Theorem, patterns,
and much more.

http://illuminations.nctm.org
This site is supported by the National Council for Teachers
of Mathematics. The factor game can easily be modified for
use in the classroom.

- 357 -
 Math Web Quests
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/index.html#num
Multiple interactive websites with links form activities ranging
from probability to order of operations.
www.42explore.com
Contains many topics for educators—not just math.
http://www.meridian.wednet.edu/~dshick/webquest.html
Web Quests with interactive links that allow different and
varied projects. Highly recommended.
http://www.edina.k12.mn.us/creekvalley
This web site has compiled exceptional links with interactive
Web Quests.
http://www.Madison.k12.ky.us/district/projects/WebQuest/Marc
hMadness/mmwebquest.html
March Madness WebQuest
http://www.sbzinak.com/webquest
Budget Web Quest that learners use to establish and
maintain a budget. Learners research the kind of job they
want and base a budget on that income.

- 358 -
Part 3
Resources

- 359 -
- 360 -
 Chapter

16

Internet Resources

Dianne B. Barber
Elizabeth A. Johnston

There are many little ways to enlarge your world.

Love of reading is the best of all.
Jacqueline Kennedy

- 361 -
- 362 -
 This chapter is an annotated list of useful Internet resources
related to teaching and learning in Adult Basic Skills. These
resources were selected to complement the other chapters of this
manual for those professionals who want additional research-based
information and materials to enhance their teaching, learning, and
training endeavors.
The list is organized alphabetically by heading. Some items
pertain to learning activities while others refer to articles or
publications of interest; website address included. It is not meant to
be exhaustive but rather a concise presentation of the many
potentially helpful and interesting resources available. All listed
websites were functional as of December, 2004.

Adult Education Resource and Information Service (ARIS)

http://www.aris.com.au/
Australia is an international voice in adult numeracy
education. This site gives an overview of recent developments in
numeracy and literacy education in Australia. It is a “one-stop”
information service for materials, resources, articles, and related
links in numeracy and literacy.

Adults Learning Math Newsletter

http://www.alm-online.org/Newsletters/ALM-Newsletter.htm
This electronic newsletter, published three times per year,
contains a variety of items related to mathematics for Adult Basic
Skills. It includes papers, articles, announcements, book reviews,
and other entries relevant to adults learning mathematics. The
editorial staff consists of representatives from Australia, the
Netherlands, and Denmark.

Adult Numeracy Core Curriculum

http://www.basic-skills.co.uk
In the late winter of 2001, the United Kingdom published its
new curriculum documents for adult numeracy. The entire
document is available at this site. The site links to features of the
new standards and guidelines for Adult Basic Education in the
United Kingdom.

- 363 -
Adult Numeracy Instruction: A New Approach
http://www.literacyonline.org/products/ncal/pdf/PR9404.pdf
This is the participant packet from the videoconference Adult
Numeracy Instruction: A New Approach authored by Gal Iddo (1994)
and published by The National Center on Adult Literacy. It
contains a wealth of materials, including a list of instructional
principles, sample classroom activities, suggestions for staff
development, background information on reform trends, and lists
of key printed and electronic resources on numeracy instruction.

Adults Numeracy and Maths On-line Project (ANAMOL)

www.aris.com.au/numeracy/anamol/
ANAMOL is an Australian site dedicated to providing a
forum for adult numeracy practitioners to exchange information,
resources, and opinions. Links include Teaching Ideas and
Conversations About Teaching.

Adult Numeracy Network

http://shell04.theworld.com/std/anpn//
This site is devoted exclusively to numeracy. It is for
numeracy practitioners around the world. It includes a numeracy
discussion group, activities, and resources.

Adult Numeracy Network, Boston Branch

http://www2.wgbh.org/MBCWEIS/LTC/CLC/numintro.html
This site contains resources and learning activities for Adult Basic
Skills practitioners. About Today’s Date and Puzzle of the Month are
two activities. It would be worthwhile to investigate the activities
and resources available at this site.

AlphaPlus Center
http://www.alphaplus.ca/mainframe.htm
A wealth of items from Ontario and abroad form the
comprehensive collection of resources, materials, links, discussions,
and current events in the world of numeracy and literacy.

- 364 -
Assessing Mathematical Knowledge of Adult Learners: Are
We Looking at What Counts? NCAL Technical Report TR98-05
http://literacyonline.org/products/ncal/pdf/TR9805
Adult students’ numeracy skills are typically assessed at
various points during instruction for a variety of purposes,
including student placement, informing instructional decisions,
and measuring student learning. However, the assessment
instruments available may not be adequate for providing
interpretable and useful information to instructors, program
directors, or learners. The authors of this report advance a set of
principles that reflect psychometric concerns and current research
policies. These principles can be used to evaluate existing
assessment practices and guide the development of new
assessment models. Commonly used assessment tools are
examined in light of these principles and are found wanting. The
authors suggest alternative items and strategies.

Canadian Literacy Enhancement Society

http://www.literacyplus.ca
This Canadian site offers activities, tools for tutors, and
resources for numeracy and literacy practitioners. It contains links
to many Canadian literacy sites.

Coping with Math Anxiety

http://www.mathacademy.com/pr/minitext/anxiety/index.asp
Coping with Math Anxiety is written by a math instructor for
students and instructors. This site defines math anxiety, suggests
strategies to overcome math anxiety, examines the roots of math
anxiety, and dispels some commonly believed myths about math.

GED 2002 Teachers Handbook, Florida

http://www.aceofflorida.org/ged
This site offers extensive information and materials such as a
printable Teachers’ Handbook and extensive lesson plans using
realia for all five GED testing areas. It offers two formats: view
materials online or a printer-friendly version.

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Framework for Adult Numeracy Standards
http://shell04.theworld.com/std/anpn//framewk.html
This paper, authored in 1996 by the Adult Numeracy
Network, was funded by the National Institute for Literacy and is
subtitled, The Mathematical Skills and Abilities Adults Need to Be
Equipped for the Future. It contains the research and methodology
behind the creation of the adult numeracy content, and process
themes built upon the Massachusetts Adult Basic Education Math
Standards.

Inclusive Teaching
http://depts.washington.edu/cidrweb/inclusive/diversify.html
Need to diversify your teaching style? This website gives
teachers helpful hints on how to change their teaching style and
lists resources for instructors to first assess their teaching style then
diversify it.

Issues and Challenges in Adult Numeracy NCAL Technical

Report TR9315
http://www.literacyonline.org/products/ncal/pdf/TR9315.pdf
This technical report presents a study that addresses the
need for a strong numeracy component in adult literacy programs.
It has four major sections: Mathematics Education for Adults;
Perspectives on Numeracy; Toward Defining Numeracy; and
Conclusions and Implications. Questions include: Is there a certain
level of mathematical knowledge that qualifies a person as
numerate? What does it mean to act in a numerate way? What links
should be maintained between literacy and numeracy instruction?
What specific skills should be emphasized in numeracy instruction?

Laubach Literacy
http://www.laubach.org/home.html
This site may be helpful in that it provides descriptions and
order information for Laubach materials from the New Readers
Press. Since many literacy programs use Laubach materials, this
site provides an easy way to access information on-line about
Laubach resources for numeracy and literacy.

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Learning Styles
http://www.d.umn.edu/student/loon/acad/strat/lrnsty.html
This is a web page from the University of Minnesota’s
Handbook. It has a summary of learning styles. It also delves into the
theories behind different learning styles. It includes a brief article
that describes students’ learning styles.

Learning Styles Questionnaire Index

http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
Not only does this site have a short questionnaire that
determines your personal learning style, but it also has a
description of each learning style and suggestions to help people
better adjust to different learning situations.

Math Anxiety
http://www.math.com/students/advice/anxiety.html
This website has numerous study tips and practical advice
needed to overcome math anxiety. It links to other sites that have
helpful tools such as formulas and tables.

Math in Daily Life

http://www.learner.org/exhibits/dailymath/
This site provides text-based commentary on applications of
numeracy in everyday situations, including savings and credit,
home decorating, population growth, etc. Some hands-on activities
are included. Learners with a sufficient reading level may find
these applications interesting supplements to text-based work, and
instructors could borrow from the scenarios to illustrate concepts.

Math Forum
http://forum.swarthmore.edu
The Math Forum is an extensive site with many links,
including Student Center, Teachers’ Place, and Parents and
Citizens. It is not directed specifically to adult educators, but it has
some interesting generic information. The link to Ask Dr. Math
offers explanations to universal frequently asked questions in

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mathematics at a variety of levels. Also, there is a section on
“classic” problems that could be suitable for group work or
“Problem of the Week” activities.

Math, Numeracy, Resources, and Discussions

http://www.Mathgoodies.com
Much time could be spent at this site by both instructors and
learners. It is a source of interactive lessons, puzzles, homework
help, message boards, and much more. The website links to both
topic-specific resources and subtopics: Real World Connections,
Parents Place, Teacher Talk, etc. Adult learners and instructors will
benefit from visiting this interesting site.

Math Word Problems For Children

http://www.mathstories.com
Do not be misled by the name. Though some of the
worksheets available on this site are aimed at elementary school
children, many are suitable for use with learners of any age. The
worksheets contain not just answers but solutions at the bottom of
each page. The content and level of worksheets varies and are
updated from time to time. This site is a great source of
supplemental word problems for numeracy instructors.

Measure 4 Measure
http://www.wolinskyweb.com/measure.htm
Measure 4 Measure offers students and instructors the
opportunity to explore a collection of Internet math sites that
estimate, calculate, evaluate, and translate. The site has three main
areas: Science Math, Health Math, and Finance Math. Some of the
links offer informational literature; and some are cute and quirky.
One site calculates all angles, whereas another calculates the
advantages of not smoking.

Multiple Intelligences
http://www.thomasarmstrong.com
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983
by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard

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University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence,
based on IQ testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broad range
of human potential in children and adults. This site has a link for
multiple intelligences that provides general background
information about the theory of multiple intelligences as well as
numerous practical strategies for using multiple intelligence theory
in learning and teaching.

National Adult Literacy Database (NALD)

http://www.nald.ca
NALD is a comprehensive Canadian site for adult educators
devoted to adult literacy and numeracy. The audience includes
literacy and numeracy instructors, volunteers, and administrators.
The site includes events, newsletters, articles, resource lists, and
more. It is easy to navigate and also provides a forum for literacy
discussion. At times there are adult education-related surveys
posted directly on the site.

Numeracy/Mathematics-CD ROMs
http://www.neufeldmath.com
Neufeld Learning Systems, Inc. maintains this website to
showcase its collection of mathematics software. Compact discs are
available for a variety of topics, and previews may be downloaded
for review. Worksheets to support the CD can also be viewed.

Ohio Mathematical Planning Committee

http://archon.educ.kent.edu/Oasis/Resc/Educ/numthe.html
In response to the development of standards for adult
numeracy programs, this paper investigates each of the seven
content and process themes developed by the Adult Numeracy
Network. Included under each theme is a description and
commentary on the related implications for teaching and learning.

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Project Based Teaching and Learning WWW Links
http://www.michaelmino.com/links/external.html
This site has numerous links and resources for teachers
interested in project-based learning. There is also a list of ideas for
teacher projects.

Quantitative Literacy Bibliography

http://www.stolaf.edu/other/ql/publ.html
From 1940 to 1999, this site includes a chronological list of
publications related to numeracy. The content of most entries is
summarized.

Science and Numeracy Special Collection

http://literacynet.org/sciencelincs
This site originates from the Literacy Information and
Communication System (LINCS), a cooperative electronic network
affiliated with the National Institute for Literacy. The Science and
Numeracy Special Collection includes a link to a student/learner
section that contains many interactive activities suitable for all
levels of Adult Basic Skills learners.

Sure Math: Teaching Problem Solving Techniques

http://www2.hawaii.edu/suremath
This site offers “reliable problem solving in all subjects that
use mathematics for problem solving. Algebra, Physics, Chemistry
– from grade school to grad school and beyond.” It includes a short
guide to lesson plans for problem solving.

Teaching Styles
http://www.indstate.edu/ctl/styles/tstyle.html
This is a useful website by Indiana State University that
provides teachers with an overview of teaching styles, a test for
teachers to determine their teaching styles, and a curriculum
planning guidebook organized by teaching styles.

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Using Technology and Real World Connections to Teach
Secondary Mathematics Concepts
http://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/realworld/document
.shtm?input=FOC-000706-index
This article advocates the use of technology to connect
mathematics to real life. The authors give examples of how teachers
can connect mathematics to geology, history, and economics. Even
though it is written for the high school audience, the material can
easily be adapted for use in Adult Basic Skills.

Walter McKenzie’s Multiple Intelligences Page

http://surfaquarium.com/MI/
This website is slightly on the wacky side, but it contains
many useful activities that explore all intelligences. Author Walter
McKenzie also has a discussion group on the site where he answers
questions about multiple intelligences.

Worksheets for Learners

http://www.schoolhousetech.com
This site allows users to create practice worksheets for basic
academic skills in both numeracy and literacy. Some topics are
downloadable; others must be purchased, but a free trial is
available. The worksheets can be customized in terms of the level of
difficulty and appearance.

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- 372 -
 Chapter

17

Mathematical
Terms

Dianne B. Barber

The Universe is a grand book which cannot be read

until one first learns to comprehend the language and
become familiar with the characters in which it is
composed. It is written in the language of mathematics.
Galileo

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- 374 -
 Introduction
Adult Basic Skills students often struggle with the language
of math. For many, it is like learning a foreign language. This
chapter includes explanations of many mathematical terms in easy-
to-understand language and is illustrated with simple diagrams. It
contains terms from all levels of Adult Basic Skills numeracy,
beginning math through algebra, geometry, and statistics.
This listing of Math Terms had its beginnings when I was a
math instructor. Often students knew how to perform the math
operations but did not know (or understand) the vocabulary. I
found that when I made sure that students knew the vocabulary
associated with the mathematical concepts they performed better
on assessments and tests. It was helpful for students to make index
cards with the vocabulary words encountered in math lessons. On
these cards the students would write the mathematical definition
and then write the definition “in their own words.” On the back of
the card I would have the students write their own test question
demonstrating how that term might be used on a test. Over time
their stack of cards grew. When it came time to review for a test
each student had their own review test by using the problems on
the back of their cards. In lab they often worked together to be sure
they could do the problems that other students had written.
The terms may also be used to make games such as bingo or
concentration. Students always enjoy playing games. Students
often make remarks such as, “It doesn’t feel like I’m learning when
we play these games. For me, math is ALWAYS hard work.” “I
understand math because you let us play these games.”

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2-D, 3-D two-dimensional, three-dimensional. Having two or
three dimensions respectively.
absolute value the distance a number is from 0 on the number line
acute angle an angle of less than 90°

acute triangle a triangle with three acute angles

algebraic a mathematical statement involving variables and/or

expression numbers written in words or symbols, e.g. 3a + 5 or six
plus seven times a number
analog clock usually has 12 equal divisions around
the perimeter/ circumference, labeled
1 to 12 to represent hours. It has two
hands that rotate around the center.
The hour hand completes one
revolution in 12 hours and the minute
hand completes one revolution in one hour.
angle a configuration of two line segments meeting at a point.
The term is often used for the measure of rotation from
one of the line segments to the other. In this sense, a
right angle measures 90°, an acute angle is less than
90°, an obtuse angle is greater than 90° but less than
180°, and a reflex angle is greater than 180°.

approximation a result that is not exact but sufficiently close to be

useful in a practical context. Verb: approximate.
Adverb: approximately.

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area a measure of a surface. Measured in squares, e.g.
square inches (in2), square feet (ft2), square
centimeters (cm2), square meters (m2).
area of circle area = ! x radius2
area of rectangle area = length x width
area of triangle area = 1/2 base x height
associate property grouping does not matter in addition or multiplication,
e.g., for numbers a , b, and c;
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c

average sometimes used synonymously with arithmetic mean,

e.g., average = sum of quantities ÷ number of
quantities
average speed average speed = total distance ÷ total time
bar chart a statistical diagram made up of bars. Frequencies are
represented by bars of equal width where the lengths
are proportional to the frequencies. The bars may be
presented vertically or horizontally.
binominal an algebraic expression containing two terms, e.g.,
2a + 3b
bisect cut exactly in half
bisector a line which divides another line or an angle exactly in
half
block graph a statistical diagram made up of blocks. In its simplest
form, where the class intervals are equal and
rectangles have bases of the same size, the block
graph can be considered as a bar chart, and the length
of each rectangle represents the total in each class.
borrow to regroup from a greater place value to a lesser place
value in order to subtract, e.g., one ten to ten ones

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calculate efficiently use knowledge of number systems and operations,
e.g., use multiplication rather than repeated addition. In
the context of using tools, to use available operations
and functions, e.g., memory and constant functions on
a calculator, sum formula in a spreadsheet for a range
of cells, rather than addition of individual cells.
cancel divide the numerator (top) and denominator (bottom) of
a fraction by the same number to make a smaller
fraction
capacity volume, i.e., a measure in three-dimensional space,
applied to liquids, materials that can be poured, or
containers. Units include cubic inches (in3), cubic feet
(ft3), cubic centimeters (cm3), cubic meters (m3). Note:
a liter is 1000 cm3 (the volume of 1 kg of water).
cardinal number a counting number, i.e., one, two, three, etc.
carry to regroup from a lesser place value to a greater place
value in order to add, e.g., ten ones to one ten
chart visual organization and presentation of data in rows
and columns
circumference the perimeter of a circle, i.e., the
distance all the way around a circle;
if the radius of a circle is “r” units,
and the diameter is “d” units, then
the circumference is 2Π r or Πd
clockwise moving the same direction as the hands of a clock
move
coefficient the number in front of a variable, e.g., for the term 4a
the coefficient of a is 4
combined events a set of independent events with a single outcome. An
independent event does not influence a subsequent
event. For example, one throw of a die does not
influence a second throw. Two throws of a die is a
combined event with 36 possible outcomes (6 x 6). The
probability of throwing two sixes is 1/36.

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common an adjective used to describe units, instruments,
measures, date formats, etc. that are widely used in
everyday life in non-specialist contexts
common fraction a fraction where the numerator and denominator are
both integers. Also known as a simple or vulgar
fraction.
commutative order does not matter in addition
property or multiplication, e.g., 2 + 3 = 3 + 2
and 2 x 3 = 3 x 2. Subtraction and
division are not commutative.
complementary angles that add up to 90°
angles

composite shape an irregular shape which can be partitioned into two or

more regular or simple shapes, e.g., an L-shape made
up of two rectangles
congruent two or more figures that are
the exact same shape and
the exact same size

continuous data data resulting from measurement, e.g., length,

temperature. Continuous data can take any value
between two values, and can only be measured
approximately to a certain degree of accuracy.
Continuous data are usually represented by a line.
consecutive numbers which follow one another, e.g., 4, 5, 6 are
numbers consecutive numbers; 1, 3, 5 are consecutive odd
numbers; and 2, 4, 6 are consecutive even numbers

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coordinates ordered pairs; the x coordinate comes first; then the y
coordinate; coordinates are always written in pairs
within parentheses with a comma between the
numbers, e.g., (3,5) where 3 is the x coordinate and 5
is the y coordinate
counter clockwise moving in the opposite direction of the hands on a
clock
cube (1) a three-dimensional figure with six square faces
(2) a number multiplied by itself and then by itself
again, e.g., the cube of 3 is 3 x 3 x 3; cubed is written
to the power of three, e.g., 2 cubed = 23 = 2 x 2 x 2
cylinder a circular prism
data information of a quantitative nature consisting of counts
or measurements; where they refer to items or events
that are separate and can be counted, the data are
discrete; where they refer to quantities such as length
or capacity that are measured, that data are
continuous. Singular: datum.
decimal relating to base ten. Most commonly used
synonymously with decimal fraction, where the number
of tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. are
represented as digits following a decimal point. The
decimal point is placed at the right of the units column.
Each column after the decimal point is a decimal place.
For example, the decimal fraction 0.275 is said to have
three decimal places. The system of recording with a
decimal point is decimal notation. U.S. currency is
based on the decimal system.
decrease to make smaller
denominator the bottom number of a
fraction; tells the number of
parts in a whole

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diagnonal a straight line from one corner of a figure to another
corner, going across the space inside
diameter the distance across the middle of a
circle; the diameter is twice the
radius, i.e., d = 2r

difference the answer to a subtraction problem, e.g., the

difference between 3 and 5 is 5 – 3 = 2
digit one of the symbols of a number system, i. e., most
commonly the symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
For example, the number 38 is a two-digit number, but
there are three digits in 3.75. The position of the digits
conveys place value.
digital clock 12-hour clock that displays time in hours past midnight
and midday and uses a.m. and p.m. to differentiate.
direct proportion two quantities or variables are in direct proportion
when they increase or decrease in the same ratio. For
example, if 3 apples cost $1.00 and 6 apples cost
$2.00, then cost is in direct proportion to quantity, i.e.,
they both double, or both halve; expressed
mathematically as y = kx where k is constant.
discrete data data resulting from a count of separate items or events,
e.g., number of people
distribution in recording data, the way values in a set of
observations are arranged
distribution table a statistical table showing the number of items in each
group, sometimes called a frequency table
distributive property Multiplication is distributive
over addition and subtraction

- 381 -
dividend the number being divided into equal parts
quotient
divisor) DIVIDEND

divisor the number divided into the dividend

quotient
€ DIVISOR) dividend

equal angles angles that have the exact same measure

equation a mathematical statement that says two or more
€
expressions are equal
equilateral triangle a triangle with three equal sides
and three equal angles

equivalent fractions fractions of equal value. For example, 6/12, 3/6, and
1/2 are equivalent.
estimate to arrive at a rough answer by calculating with suitable
approximations for numbers
evaluate to work out the value of an expression when numbers
(an expression) have been substituted for variables
event used in probability to describe the outcome of an action
or happening
exponent the number of times a number
is multiplied by itself

expression a mathematical statement involving variables and/or

numbers written in words or symbols, e.g., length x
width, a x b, or ab
factor a number that divides evenly into another,
e.g., 24 = 3 x 8, so 3 and 8 are factors of 24
A prime factor is a factor that is a prime number.

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factoring the process of expressing a
given number (or expression) as
the product of two or more
numbers (or expressions)

familiar describes contexts, situations, numbers, measures,

instruments, etc. of which the learner has some prior
knowledge or experience
formula any identity, general rule or mathematical law; a
sentence in which one variable is given in terms of
other variables and/or numbers
fraction a way of showing (expressing) parts of a whole
frequency table a statistical table showing how many things are in each
group, sometimes called a distribution table
graph visual representation comparing data from different
sources over time
grouped data observed information arising from counts and grouped
into non-overlapping intervals, e.g., number of people
in different age groups with intervals 0-9, 10-19, 20-29,
30-39, 40-49, etc.
hypotenuse the longest side of a right triangle, the side opposite
the right angle

hypotenuse

improper fraction a fraction in which the numerator (top) is equal to or

larger than the denominator (bottom)

- 383 -
imperial unit a unit of measure.
Units include inch,
foot, yard, mile,
acre, ounce, pound,
stone, ton, pint,
quart, and gallon.

increase to make bigger

integer any positive or negative whole numbers including zero

intersection where two or more lines meet or what two or more

items have in common
<----intersection

inverse operations operations that, when they are combined, leave the
entity on which they operate unchanged. Inverse
operations include addition and subtraction
(3 + 4 – 4 = 3) and multiplication and division
(3 x 4 ÷ 4 = 3).
isosceles triangle a triangle with two equal sides and two
equal angles (remember the angle that
is between the two equal sides is NOT
one of the equal angles)

like fractions fractions that have the same denominator

line graph a diagram showing a
relationship between two
variables

- 384 -
line symmetry also reflective symmetry. The
property of a shape where one half is
a reflection of the other; the ‘mirror
line’ is the axis of symmetry or line of
symmetry.

lowest terms no number will equally divide both the numerator and
denominator
mass a fundamental characteristic of a body, relating to the
amount of matter within it. Mass differs from weight.
Under certain conditions a body can become
weightless, whereas mass is constant.
mean a measure of average. The arithmetic mean is the sum
of quantities divided by the number of quantities. For
example, the arithmetic mean of 5, 6, 14, 15, and 45 is
(5 + 6 + 14 + 15 + 45) ÷ 5 = 17.
measures of central a statistic describing a typical value of a numerical data
tendencies set; i.e., mean, median, mode
median a measure of average. The middle number or value
when all are arranged in order of size. For example,
the median of 5, 6, 14, 15, and 45 is 14. Where there is
an even number of values, the median is the mean
(average) of the two middle values. For example, the
median of 5, 7, 7, 8, 14 and 45 is (7 + 8) ÷ 2 = 7.5.
mental math strategy for finding an answer without writing or using a
calculator
metric relating to the decimal system of measurement based
on the meter, kilogram, and second
metric unit unit of measurement in the
decimal system. Metric units
include meter, centimeter,
millimeter, kilometer, gram,
and kilogram.

- 385 -
mixed fraction a whole number and a fractional part expressed as a
common fraction, e.g., 1 2/3 is a mixed fraction; also
known as a mixed number
mixed number a whole number and a fractional part expressed as a
common fraction, e.g., 1 2/3 is a mixed number; also
known as a mixed fraction.
mode a measure of average. The most frequently occurring
number in a set of data. For example, the mode of 5, 6,
6, 6, 7, 8 and, 10 is 6.
monomials an expression with one term
multiple any number that has a given number as a factor is
called a multiple of that factor, e.g., 12 = 6 x 2,
36 = 6 x 6 and 60 = 6 x 10; so 12, 36, and 60 are all
multiples of 6
natural number a positive integer; a positive whole number
negative number a number less than 0

non-standard unit unit of measure which is not fixed or widely agreed

upon, e.g., pace—each person has a different pace
number bond a pair of numbers with a particular total, e.g., number
bonds to ten means all pairs of numbers with the total
10
numeral a symbol used to denote a number. The Roman
numerals I, V, X, L, C, D and M represent the
numbers one, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five
hundred, and one thousand. The Arabic numerals 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are used in the Hindu-Arabic
system giving numbers in the form that is widely used
today.

- 386 -
numerator the top number of a fraction; it
tells how many parts of the whole
were used

obtuse angle an angle that measures more than 90° but less than
180°

operation a means of combining numbers, sets or other

elements. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division are four operations on numbers.
order of operations the set of rules for finding the value of mathematical
expressions
ordinal number a term that describes a
position within an
order, e.g., first,
second, third, fourth …
twentieth, etc.

origin the point (0,0) where the x axis crosses the y axis
parallel always the same distance apart, e.g.,
parallel lines are always the same distance
apart; they do not meet

pattern a systematic arrangement of numbers, shapes, or

other elements according to a rule
percent out of 100, written %
percentage a fraction expressed as the number of parts per
hundred and recorded using the notation #%, e.g.
one-half can be expressed as 50%, the whole can be
expressed as 100%

- 387 -
 perimeter the complete distance around the
outside of a figure

perpendicular at right angles

90°

pi ( π ) the symbol used to denote the ratio of

the circumference of a circle to its
diameter
€ pictogram a statistical diagram made up of pictures. Suitable
pictures/symbols/icons are used to represent objects.
For large numbers one symbol may
represent a number of objects (one
apple may represent 100 bushels);
a part symbol then represents a
rough proportion of the number (1/2
apple represents 50 bushels).
pie chart a statistical diagram shaped like a
circular pie, with slices of pie
showing amounts. The frequency or
amount of each quantity is
proportional to the angle at the
center of the circle.
place value the value of a digit that relates
to its position or place in a
number, e.g. in 1,321 the digits
represent thousands, hundreds,
tens, and units respectively.
The value of the 1 on the left is
one thousand while the value of
the 1 on the right is one.

- 388 -
plot to represent graphically on a chart
prime number a prime number has
exactly two factors,
itself and 1. For
example, 2 has factors
2 and 1, 3 has factors
3 and 1; however 6 is
not a prime number
because it has factors
2 and 3 in addition to 1
and 6.
probability the likelihood of an event happening; a measure of
certainty. Probability is expressed on a scale from 0 to
1 either as a fraction, decimal or percent. Where an
event cannot happen, its probability is 0 and, where it
is certain, its probability is 1. The probability of scoring
1 with a fair die is 1/6 or about .167 or 16.7%.
product the answer to a multiplication problem, e.g., the
product of 2, 3, and 4 is 24 (2 x 3 x 4)
property any attribute, e.g., one property of a square is that all
sides are equal
proportions an equation made up of two
equal ratios

Pythagorean measure of the hypotenuse in a right triangle, the sum

Theorem of the measure of the legs = the sum of the square of
the hypotenuse, e.g., leg2 + leg2 = hypotenuse2 most
often written as a2 + b2 = c2

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quadrilateral a polygon with four sides and four interior angles
quotient answer to a division problem
QUOTIENT
divisor ) dividend

radius the distance from the center of a circle

to the circumference; half the diameter
€

range a measure of spread in statistics; the difference

between the least and greatest in a set of numerical
data
ratio a comparison of quantities of the same kind, written
a:b. For example, a mixture made up of two ingredients
in the ratio 3:1 is 3 parts of the first ingredient to 1 part
of the second; the first ingredient makes up 3/4 of the
total mixture, and the second makes up 1/4 of the total.
reciprocal the reversal of a fraction, to turn upside down, e.g., the
reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2
rectangle a quadrilateral (four-sided polygon) with four right
angles. The pairs of opposite sides are equal.
Adjective: rectangular.
reflex angle an angle that is more than 180 degrees but less than
360 degrees
regular a polygon is a regular polygon if all the sides are equal
and all the internal angles are equal, e.g., a regular
quadrilateral is a square. When referring to a shape,
the adjective ‘regular’ refers to common 2-D and 3-D
shapes whose areas can be found using a formula,
e.g., a rectangle, circle, cylinder.
revolution all the way around, i.e. 360°

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right angle an angle of exactly 90°; one-quarter of a complete turn

90°
roman numerals most common used roman numerals are

IV=4 (1 before 5), IX=9 (1 before 10),VII=7 (5 + 2 = 7)

rotation turning a figure about a point, the point is called the
center of rotation
round (verb) to express a number or measurement to a required
degree of accuracy, e.g., 764 rounded to the nearest
ten is 760
scale a measuring device usually consisting of points on a
line with equal intervals
scalene triangle a triangle with no equal sides and
no equal angles

scientific notation a way of writing very large numbers and very small
decimals in which the numbers are expressed as the
product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of
10
sequence a succession of terms formed according to a rule, in
which there is a definite relation between one term and
the next and between each term and its position in the
sequence, e.g. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, etc.

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sign a symbol used to denote an operation, e.g., addition
sign +, subtraction sign –, multiplication sign x, division
sign ÷. In the case of directed numbers, the positive +
or negative – sign indicates the direction in which the
number is measured from the origin along the number
line.
simplify work out to give the shortest possible answer
square number a number that can be expressed as the product of two
equal numbers, e.g., 25 = 5 x 5, so 25 is a square
number
square unit unit used to measure the area of a two-dimensional
figure; units needed to cover a surface
standard unit units that are agreed upon throughout a community,
e.g., the foot is a standard measure of length. Non-
standard units are not widely agreed upon.
straight angle an angle that measures 180 degrees

substitute to assign a value to a variable

sum answer to an addition problem
supplementary angles which add up to 180 degrees
angles

symbol a letter, numeral, or other mark that represents a

number, an operation or another mathematical idea.
For example, V is the Roman symbol for 5 and > is the
symbol for “is greater than.”

- 392 -
symmetry a figure has symmetry if parts can be
interchanged without changing the
whole. A geometric figure may have
reflective symmetry or rotational
symmetry. Adjective: symmetrical.

system (of measure) units are defined in a fixed relationship to each other
table an orderly arrangement of information, numbers or
letters, usually in rows and columns
tally to make marks to represent objects counted
term one of the parts of an expression, e.g., 3a – 2 has two
terms: 3a and -2
translation moving the position of an object so that it looks the
same but is in a different place. It does not rotate, only
moves left or right or up or down.
trinominal an expression containing three terms, e.g., 3x2 – 4x + 5
has three terms: 3x2, -4x and 5
unit one, a standard used in measuring, e.g., a meter is a
metric unit of length
unit fraction a fraction that has 1 as the numerator and whose
denominator is a non-zero integer, e.g., 1/2, 1/3
unit price the cost of one item
unlike fractions fractions with different denominators
variable a letter or symbol used to represent an unknown
number
vertex common endpoint of two rays that form
an angle

- 393 -
volume the amount of space inside a solid;
measured in cubes, e.g., cubic inches
(in3), cubic centimeters (cm3)

weight the force with which a body is attracted towards the

earth’s center. In non-scientific contexts, often used
synonymously with mass (though technically different).
Units of weight include pounds (lbs), ounces (oz),
kilograms (kg) and grams (g).
x axis the horizontal (across) axis

x intercept the point at which a line crosses the x-axis on a

coordinate graph; the ordered pair (x,0)
y axis the vertical (up/down) axis

y intercept the point at which a line crosses the y-axis on a

coordinate graph; the ordered pair (0,y)

- 394 -
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