Fractals in Nature

Look at the following images. What have you noticed? What do they have in
common?

Figure 1 Self-similar patterns found in nature

Yes. They are all in nature. But did you notice the self-similar repeating
patterns and the roughness of the curves ? These are common among fractals.
The term fractal is derived from the Latin word ‘fractus’ which means
fragmented or broken.

Although the key concepts associated with fractals had been studied for years
by mathematicians, it was Benoit Mandelbrot who coined this term in 1975. He
defined fractal as “a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into
parts, each of which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the
whole.”

Mandelbrot is best known for his discovery in mathematics of the Mandelbrot

Set which can be programmed into basic lines of code that create an infinite
stream of changing, self-similar patterns. See animation here.

Figure 2 The Mandelbrot Set

Characteristics

A fractal, whether in nature or in mathematics, has the following

characteristics:

(1) Self-similarity
Its parts have the same form or structure as the whole, at least
approximately, if not exactly. That is, part of the object, when magnified, looks
like a copy of the whole image.

Example:

Figure 3 Fractal Patterns in a Tree Figure 4 The Sierpinski Triangle

(2) Fractal dimension

The associated degree of complexity of shape, structure and texture of
fractals are quantified in terms of fractal dimension. Fractal dimension is a
measure of the space-filling capacity of a pattern that tells how a fractal scales
differently than the space it is embedded in. In a rough sense, it measures
"how many points" lie in a given set
The fractal dimension does not have to be an integer. For self-similar
object, the fractal dimension D is given by

log(number of self  similar pieces)

D
log(magnification factor)
log N
D , where s is the scale
1
log 
s

Example: For this illustration, the term “mass” will be used to mean any
of the following measures: length, area, and volume. The mass scaling factor
M refers to the ratio of the mass of the smaller piece in relation to the mass of
the original object.
 Figure 5 Dimension of geometric figures

Using the formula, the Sierpinski triangle has dimension

log 3 log 3
D   1.585
  log 2
1
log 
 1 
2

For non-perfectly similar objects like coastlines, some use the grid counting
method or box-counting method and scaling them. The visualization of this
characteristic can be found in this link. You may also see detailed
computations here.

It is important to note that the bigger the fractal dimension, the more rough is
the structure. For instance, a curve with a fractal dimension very near to 1, say
1.10, behaves quite like an ordinary line, but a curve with fractal dimension 1.9
winds convolutedly through space very nearly like a surface. Similarly, a
surface with fractal dimension of 2.1 fills space very much like an ordinary
surface, but one with a fractal dimension of 2.9 folds and flows to fill space
rather nearly like a volume.
(3) As a mathematical equation, a fractal is nowhere differentiable.
An infinite fractal curve can be conceived of as winding through space
differently from an ordinary line – although it is still 1-dimensional, its fractal
dimension indicates that it also resembles a surface.

Geometric Fractals
Geometric fractals can be made by repeating a simple process involving
plane transformations. When a process is repeated over and over, each
repetition is called iteration.

(1) Cantor Set

Cantor Set is one of the first fractal shapes. It was studied by George
Cantor (1845-1918), the founder of set theory.

To construct this, follow the steps:

Step 1 Start with a line segment. Then divide the line segment into thirds.

Step 2 Remove the middle third line segment. Repeat the process for
each new line segment formed.

Each segment is replaced by two segments. Thus, N  2 . Each new segment

is 1/3 of the segment length from the previous level, so s  1 3 . Therefore,
the dimension is D = log 2 / log 3 = 0.63 .

(2) The Sierpinski Triangle

Fig 6 Sierpinski Triangle

 The Sierpinski triangle was named after the Polish mathematician Waclaw
Sierpinski who discovered and investigated it in 1915. The outline of the figure
is an equilateral triangle. All of the equilateral triangles inside are similar to the
original triangle. There are many smaller and smaller triangles inside.

The following are the steps to construct the Sierpinski triangle:

Step 1 Draw an equilateral triangle

with sides of 2 triangle lengths each.
Connect the midpoints of each side.

Step 2 Shade out the triangle in the center.

Think of this as cutting a hole in the triangle.

Step 3 Draw another equilateral triangle

with sides of 4 triangle lengths each.

Connect the midpoints of the sides and

shade the triangle in the centre as before.

Notice the three small triangles that also need

to be shaded out in each of the three triangles
on each corner - three more holes.

Step 4 Draw an equilateral triangle with

sides of 8 triangle lengths each.
Follow the same procedure as before,
making sure to follow the shading pattern.

Step 5 Continue the process and

obtain the figure on the right
(3) Sierpinski Carpet

Figure 7 Sierpinski Carpet

This is a famous fractal first described in 1916 by Waclaw Sierpinski

(1882-1969). This was used in designing antennas in cell phones as the
number of scales allows for a wide range of receptions.

This figure is constructed using the following steps:

Step 1: Draw and shade a square.

Step 2: Draw another square like the one in Step 1. Think of this as a
square made up of nine smaller squares. Remove the shade of the middle
square.

Step 3: Redraw the same object in Step 2. There are eight shaded squares.
Divide each into nine smaller squares. Remove the shade of the middle
square.

Figure 8 Construction of Sierpinski carpet

The original square is reduced to eight smaller squares in the next level, so
N= 8. The magnification factor is 3 (or scaling factor is 1/3) because the side
length of these squares can be multiplied by 3 to find the side length of the
original shape, s = 1/3. Thus, its dimension is D = log 8/ log 3 = 1.89.
(4) Menger Sponge

Menger sponge is a famous fractal solid that is the three-dimensional

equivalent of the one dimensional Cantor set and the two-dimensional
Sierpinski carpet.

Step 1: Put 20 cubes together to form another cube with the center parts
removed.

Step 2: Using the same pattern, 20 step 1 cubes can be put together to form a
step 2 structure with 20x20=400 cubes.

Step 3: Twenty step 2 cubes form a step 3 cube with 20x20x20=8,000 cubes.
The cube is being emptied of its volume.

Figure 9 Menger sponge iterations

At any stage k, there are 20 k cubes. Also, at each stage, the edge-length of
the last cube is reduced by 1/3 and replicated 20 times. Thus, N =20, s = 1/3
and D = log 20/log 3 = 2.73.

(5) Koch Snowflake

The Koch Snowflake first appeared in a paper published by the Swedish

mathematician Niels Fabian Helge von Koch in 1906.
 Figure 10 The Koch Snowflake

Steps to construct Koch snowflake:

Step 1 Start with a large equilateral triangle.

Step 2 Make a star. Divide one side of the triangle into three parts and
remove the middle section. Replace it with two lines the same length as
the section you removed. Do this to all three sides of the triangle.

Step 3 Do it again and again.

 Step 4 3rd iteration

Step 5 4th iteration

Each segment is replaced by the motif that has 4 pieces, so N = 4.

Each new segment is 1/3 of the segment length from the previous level s = 1/3.
Thus, D = log 4/ log 3=1.26.

Fractals in Algebra

Fractals can also be created algebraically by repeatedly calculating a simple

equation. Because the calculations are done many times, computers are
necessary. Branching fractals are also observed in algebraic fractals. It is a
never-ending process called bifurcation.

(1) The Mandelbrot Set

One of the most intricate and beautiful images in mathematics is the

Mandelbrot set, discovered by Benoit Mandelbrot in 1980. Mandelbrot’s
discovery and popularization of this image is responsible for the development
of fractal science.

Mandelbrot set was discovered shortly after the invention of personal

computer. The time when Mandelbrot began his research in IBM.
 Benoit Mandelbrot (1924-2010)

In discussing with The New York Times his seminal 1982 book, The Fractal
Geometry of Nature, he defended mathematical objects that others had
dismissed as "monstrous" and "pathological." Using fractal geometry, he
argued, the complex outlines of clouds and coastlines, once considered
unmeasurable, could now "be approached in rigorous and vigorous
quantitative fashion."

The Mandelbrot set is a set of points in the complex plane, the boundary of
which forms a fractal. Mathematically, the Mandelbrot set can be generated
using a very simple iterative formula, called the quadratic recurrence equation,
applied to points in complex plane

z n 1  z n2  C

That is, a complex number c is in the Mandelbrot set if the value of z n never
exceeds a certain number.

Algorithm:

Start by picking a complex number to be the value of c and using 0 as the initial
value of z n . This will then result to a new value z n 1 . Proceed by substituting
the obtained value to z n in the recursive formula. The aim is to determine
what happens to the z values for different starting values of C.

Figure 10 Mandelbrot Set and its recursive formula

All starting values of c outside the Mandelbrot cause z to go to infinity. (point
far from the Mandelbrot set rapidly move towards infinity while points close to
the Mandelbrot set slowly escape to infinity)

All starting values of C inside the Mandelbrot set cause z to stay finite (points
inside the Mandelbrot set never escape to infinity). See this video to visualize
this.

(2) Julia Sets

Gaston Julia (1893-1978)

Julia sets, discovered by Gaston Maurice Julia, are closely related to

Mandelbrot set. The iterative function used to produce them is the same as
that of the Mandelbrot set. They differ only in the way the formula is used.

To create Mandelbrot set, the formula is iterated for each point C always
starting with z0  0 . In Julia sets, C must be constant during the whole
generation process while the value of z0 varies. The values of C determines
the shape of the Julia set.

Figure 11 Julia Set

Another comparison comes from the fact that the Mandelbrot set is connected
while a Julia set is connected only if it is associated with a point inside the
Mandelbrot set.
 Disconnected Julia Set Connected Julia Set

In every Mandelbrot, is an infinite number of Julia sets.

Figure 12 Mandelbrot and the infinite number of Julia sets

Applications of Fractals

Astrophysicists believe that the key to finding out how stars were formed is the
fractal nature of instellar gas, like smoke trails or clouds in the sky.

Biologists have traditionally used Euclidean geometry to model nature.

However, they have come to recognize that many systems and processes in
nature are typically characterized by many levels of substructure, with the
same general pattern appearing repeatedly. These are better handled using
fractals. For example, scientists discovered that the basic architecture of a
chromosome is tree-like. That is, chromosomes consists of many
smaller-version chromosomes, and therefore, can be treated as a fractal. Self
similarity has also been found in DNA sequences.
In computer science, many image compression methods use fractal algorithms.
Computer graphic artists make use of fractals to create textured landscapes
and other intricate models. Fractal algorithms have been applied to generate
realistic images of natural objects as well as landscapes such as the
geography of the moon, mountain ranges and coastlines, allowing people to
define environment mathematically with a higher accuracy than ever before.

Engineers and manufacturers began turning to fractals to look for models in

building useful devices.

Computer chipcooling circuit

The fractal branching pattern is
used to channel liquid nitrogen
across the surface to keep chip cool

Fractal antennas in cellphones and

other devices. The fractal shapes
allow the antennas to be very
compact while receiving radio signals
across a range of frequencies.

High precision fluid mixing. The

space-filling fractal devices allow
fluids to be carefully and precisely
blended without the need for stirring.

Fractal analysis is used to assess

the health of blood vessels in
cancerous tumors as well as the
condition of lungs in cases of
emphysema or other pulmonary
illnesses
Fractals Around Us

Most people are extremely familiar with fractals because they are seen
throughout the natural world. Here are some of the most stunning examples of
fractals in nature.

Credit: Alexey Kljatov/flickr (CC BY-NC 2.0) Credit: Thomas Brown/Wikipedia (CC BY 2.0)

Credit: Chris 73/Wikimedia Commons (CC Credit: cyclonebill/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 2.0)
BY-SA 3.0)

Credit: Schnobby/Wikipedia (CC BY_SA 3.0)) Credit: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0)

Credit: Postdif/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0) Credit: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0)
Online References and Suggested Readings:

https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Fractal_dimension

http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/fractal

https://www.wahl.org/fe/HTML_version/link/FE4W/c4.htm

http://thescienceexplorer.com/nature/8-stunning-fractals-found-nature

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/151595/10/10_chapter-2.p
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