General Physics 1

Lesson 1.1

Units of Measurement

● Measurements and units are essential not only in science

but also in several other fields. This extensive usage of
measurement requires a reference standard.

● In the past, Egyptians and Babylonians used their

body parts to estimate the length of an object.

● This can result in varying outcomes and may even

be the source of disputes.

● It is a process of assigning a quantity to describe a property

of an object by comparing it with a standard.

● A standard should be universal and does not change with time.

● It is the standard system of measurement for the fundamental

quantities abbreviated from Système International.

● It was established in 1960.

● It is also called the “metric system”.

SI base units with their corresponding symbols

Quantity Typical Unit Symbol

Symbol

Time t second s

Length l, x, r, meter m

Mass m kilogram kg

Electric Current l, i ampere A

Thermodynamic Temperature T kelvin K

Amount of Substance n mole mol

Luminous Intensity I candela cd

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SI Base Units

Second (s)

● the time required for 9 192 631 770 cycles of

microwave radiation in cesium-133 atoms.

Meter (m)

● the distance traveled by light in

a vacuum in 1/299 792 458 second.

Kilogram (kg)

● Shown on the right is a replica of the International

Prototype Kilogram (IPK) used since the 19th century.

● Kilogram was redefined in May 2019.

● It was redefined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be
6.626 070 15 ✕ 10−34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s−1.

Ampere (A)

● It was defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to
be 1.602 176 634 ✕ 10−19 when expressed in the unit C, equivalent to the product
of current (A) and time (s).

Kelvin (K)

● It was defined by taking the fixed numerical value Boltzmann constant k to be

1.380 649 ✕ 10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1, equivalent to kg m2 s-2 K-1.

Mole (mol)

● one mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 ✕ 1023 elementary entities, which is
the fixed value of the Avogadro constant, NA when expressed in the unit mol−1.

Candela (cd)

● defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic
radiation with frequency of 540 ✕ 1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the unit
lm W-1, equal to cd sr W-1 or cd sr kg-1 m-2 s3.
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Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefixes are added to the base units to make the value of the unit smaller or larger.

Derived Quantities
These are based on the seven fundamental quantities and
are expressed from the product of two or more base units.
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Derived Quantity Special Name Symbol Derived units in terms of base

units

volume V m³

speed, velocity v m s⁻¹

force newton N kg m s⁻²

energy, work joule J kg m² s⁻² or N m

heat capacity J/K kg m² s⁻² K⁻¹

electric charge coulomb C As

Other Systems of Measurement

● The British Imperial system or imperial units are used limitedly in some countries.

● It was established from the Weights and Measures

Act of 1824 and was continuously reformed.

● While the British continued to refine their measurement, the Americans

adopted the units from the act of 1824 and called it the U.S. customary units.

Unit Abbreviation Metric Equivalent

pound lb 4.448 lb

slug slug 14.59 slug

ounce oz 28.350 grams

mile mi 1 609 m or 1.609 km

foot ft 30.48 cm

inch in 2.54 cm

Conversion of Units

● An equation or expression should always be

consistent with the units to correctly solve it.

● Units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other.
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Lesson 1.2

Scientific Notation

● Scientific notation is a way of writing very large or very small numbers.

A number is written in scientific notation when the number between 1
and 10 is multiplied by a power of 10. For example, 650,000,000 can be
written in scientific notation as 6.5 ✕ 10⁸.

● Moving the decimal point to the left makes the exponent

positive while moving it to the right makes it negative.
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Lesson 1.3

Significant Figures

● A significant figure (SF) is a reliably known digit. Significant

figures help in accurately reporting values that the measurement
equipment is capable of determining.

● Significant figures are characterized by the fewest digits

used in reporting values without losing accuracy.

● The number of significant figures increases as the

accuracy of the equipment also increases.

● Nonzero digits are always significant.

● Zeros between nonzero digits are considered significant.

● Only the final zero and trailing zeros following a

decimal point are considered significant.

● Zeros that appear before the nonzero

digits are not significant.

Calculations:
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Lesson 1.4

Sources and Types of Errors

● In measurement, error signifies an inevitable uncertainty

that is present in all types of measurement.

● It cannot be completely eliminated even if one is conducting

an experiment carefully.

● However, it is still the main goal to reduce the number of

errors and to estimate or quantify the error present.

Two main types of errors

● Systematic Error

➢ Error that remains constant or changes in regular

fashion even if measurements are repeated.

➢ It causes the measured values to veer away from the accepted or predicted value.

➢ The measurements are off by 0.02 inches.

➢ All measurements have the same error, hence, the error is systematic.

Sources of Systematic Error

I. faulty calibrations of instruments

II. poorly maintained instruments
III. incorrect reading by the user

● Random Error

➢ Occur when repeated measurements produce randomly different results.

➢ Random errors are observed after repeated measurements.

Examples of Random Errors

● electrical noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument

● irregular changes in the heat loss rate of a solar panel due to the
● changes in the wind
● resolution of the instrument
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Types of Scattering in Experiments

● fundamental noise
● technical noise

I. A good experimenter tries his or her best to reduce technical noise.

II. However, if the fundamental noise is the main reason why the
data is scattered, it is suggested to change the method of
experiment or to change the measuring device.

Mistakes

● Mistakes are similar in nature to systematic errors and are also difficult to detect.

● There are also no statistical techniques available to quantify it.

● Fortunately, it can be avoided and can be reduced by

being extra careful in any measurement activity.

Concept of Least Count

● The least count is the smallest division found on an instrument.

● If you need a more precise measurement, use

a measuring device with finer gradations.

● The instrument limit of error is generally taken to be

the least count or some fraction of the least count.

● The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
A meter ruler may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval .

Example
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Error Bars

● Error bars are graphical representations that indicate the

range by which each point probably lies in the graph.

● Error bars are included to assess proportionality between variables.

Example:

Let’s Sum It Up!

● Error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value.

● Random errors occur when repeated measurements produce

varying results. It influences the precision of the result.

● Errors are categorized as systematic if it remains constant or

changes in a regular fashion even if measurements are repeated.

● The least count is the smallest division found in a measuring device.

● Error bars are graphical representations indicating

the range of uncertainty of a specific value or data.

● Errors cannot be 100% eliminated in measurement but there

are techniques that can be used to lessen its occurrence.
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Lesson 1.5

Uncertainties and Deviations in Measurement

Some conclusions and discoveries in the sciences are “not absolute” and might
change after some time as technology and scientific knowledge advance.

How do we describe a good measurement?

Error
● difference between the true value and the measured value.

Uncertainty
● net effect of error; quantifies the doubt that
exists in any reported value of the measurement.

Accuracy

● It indicates how close the measured value is to the true value.

EX. 21.7 ± 0.2 mm

● The actual range can be calculated by a value

higher and lower by 0.2 mm from the true value.

EX. 21.5 mm to 21.9 mm

● Accuracy can also be expressed in terms

of fractional error or percent error.

EX. 21.7 ± 0.9 %

● When accuracy is not explicitly stated, it can be indicated

by the correct number of significant figures.

EX. 21.7 ⟶ 3 SF
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Precision

● It describes the scatter or the variability of a set of measurements made.

EX. 21.7, 21.6, 21.5 ⟶ precise

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Basic Statistical Calculations

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