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ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

Supercapacitor technology and its applications: a review

Gautham Prasad G, NidheeshShetty, Simran Thakur, Rakshitha and Bommegowda K B

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
N.M.A.M Institute of Technology, Nitte, Karnataka, India

E-mail : [email protected], [email protected],[email protected],

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: Battery technologies are well established and widely used technology but they offer several
disadvantages like weight, volume, large internal resistance, poor power density, poor transient
response. On the other hand, due to advancement in the material and other technology, Supercapacitor
or Ultracapacitors or Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) are a most promising energy
storage device. They offer a greater transient response, power density, low weight, low volume and low
internal resistance which make them suitable for several applications. This paper summarizes recent
research and development in the field of supercapacitor technology. This paper gives a brief insight
into the design, characteristics and applications of the supercapacitor.

Keywords: Supercapacitor, capacitance, constant current, constant voltage, equivalent charge

resistance, electrostatic double layer capacitance.

1. Introduction
Battery technologies are well established and widely used, with applications ranging from toys to
medical implants. Some of the downsides with batteries are, lower lifecycle, less power density,
higher charging time, heating problem and they are not environmentally safe. There are several
alternatives available to batteries, one such device of interest is Supercapacitor (SC). The
supercapacitors are special capacitors with a large capacitance, they combine properties of batteries
and capacitors into a single device. The supercapacitors have significantly matured over the last few
years and have exhibited potential to provide advances in the energy storage system [1]. Compared to
conventional battery or capacitor, charging time of supercapacitor is very less and can discharge like a
regular battery. Comparatively, these are lightweight and environmentally friendly.

2.Construction and working of supercapacitor

Conventional capacitors stores energy by moving electrons from one electrode to another. SC based
on carbon materials has a higher surface area, where phenomena known as the electric double layer is
used to store charges. For SC involving metal oxide or polymeric materials, pseudo-capacitance is the
dominant charge storage mechanism [2][3]. Though supercapacitors and electrolytic capacitors are
governed by the same capacitance equations, SC can achieve higher capacitance because of thinner
dielectric and higher surface area of electrodes [4]. This also allows for power density greater than
battery and energy density greater than capacitors, as shown in Figure.1 [5]. Figure. 1 shows a
―Ragone plot‖, it shows the performance of various energy storage devices. SC occupies space
between batteries and capacitors, this presents a unique advantage that makes them indispensable for
applications which require high power delivered in a short time [5][6].

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

Figure 1.Ragone plot for different energy storage devices [7]

SC uses a dielectric material to separate two carbon-based electrodes, which not only acts an insulator
but also has electrical properties that affect the performance of SC. In SC there is no transfer of
charges, instead, charges are stored electrostatically. When a voltage is applied across the terminals,
an electric field is created in the electrolyte and because of this electrolyte is polarized. This causes
ions to diffuse through the dielectric to the porous electrodes of opposite charges [8]. Thus electric
double layer is formed at each electrode, as a result, distance between electrodes decreases and
surface area of electrode increases [6][9]. The energy storage capacity depends on the active material
used in the electrolyte, the surface area of electrode and utilization rate of micro-holes in the porous
electrode [10].

Figure 2.Schematic of a conventional Figure 3.Schematic of an

electrochemical double-layer capacitor [7] capacitor [7]

3.Taxonomy
Supercapacitors can be classified into 3 classes: EDLC, Pseudo-capacitors and Hybrid capacitors.
Based on charge storage techniques, they can be further classified as Faradaic, Non-Faradaic and
combination of both. In the Faradaic process, charges are transferred between electrode and
electrolyte. In Non- Faradaic process by means of physical process charges are distributed on the
surface.

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ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

Figure 4.Taxonomy of supercapacitors [7]

4.Quantitative modelling of supercapacitors

For better understanding the working principles of SC, several models are proposed. Quantitative
modelling helps to predict the performance characteristics, which in turn helps to reduce time and cost
of fabrication and physical experimentation. Physical characteristics cannot be completely and
precisely explained with one single model, so there are different models proposed [11]. Properly
characterizing SC has recently become important because of their enormous potential as energy
storage devices [12]. Electrical models can be used to describe SC behaviour in terms of voltage,
temperature and frequency [7][13][14][15].

Some of the basic models are [11][12][16][17][18].

1. Electrical double layer model
2. Porous electrode model
3. Equivalent Circuit Model
4. Intelligent Model

5.Charging and discharging

General SC charging and discharging cycle begins with a constant current (CC) mode followed by
constant voltage (CV) mode or with a CC mode followed by constant power mode followed by CV
mode. Otherwise just a CV mode [19].

Figure 5.Charging and discharging Figure 6. Profile of supercapacitor

at constant current [20] discharging [21]

Based on SC charging and discharging at constant current, Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) and
capacitance measuring methods are devised for DC characterization [20]. Initially, SC is charged at

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ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

Constant Current (CC) till it reaches a small voltage, then it is connected to a fixed voltage DC
source. Then SC is discharged at CC, until voltage drop is seen at the beginning of the discharge cycle
[22][23][24]. Charging time can be increased by changing some of the parameters [25]. Figure. 6
shows the profile of the discharging process. SC voltage comprises of capacitive and resistive
component. Voltage due to charge and discharge is represented by the capacitive component. Voltage
change due to internal resistance is given by the resistive component and internal resistance is given
by ESR [21]. SC charge redistribution leads to voltage drop or boost in a relatively short term
compared to self-discharge [26]. Effects of supercapacitor self-discharge for low power applications
and high power application have been investigated using different models [27][28][29][30].

Figure 7.Charge-redistribution of a 10 F supercapacitor [15]

6.Lifetime analysis
Compared to other charge storage devices, SC has a much longer lifetime. With Non-Faradaic
process, there is no chemical associated as there is no transfer of charge between electrolyte and
electrode, which means it can last longer than capacitors and batteries which uses chemicals to store
charges. The SC with polymer electrodes has a lesser lifetime as liquid electrolytes evaporate
overtime, which is a function of temperature and voltage applied. Temperature and voltage plays a
vital role on a lifetime of SC [31]. In designing an energy storage system an accurate aging model
[32][33] plays a critical role. In order to estimate the balance charge left in the device, precise
calculation of instantaneous SC energy has to be done. In a certain scenario, SC is subjected to rapid
charging/discharging cycles with constant power characteristics that is, when current increases voltage
decreases and vice-versa [34][35]. Increase in current causes voltage drops and these losses escalates
especially when cells are connected in series [5], due to high ESR. ESR and equivalent capacitance
(EC) values changes with the device age [36][37][38]. Generally, manufacturers provide ESR and EC
values with 20% tolerance [34], complicating the energy balance estimation [39].

7.Selection of supercapacitor
To replace the batteries in the system, choosing the correct values and ratings of supercapacitors is
very important. Also, it is important to relate capacitance and energy in terms of watts per hour.
Battery charging and discharging time is calculated based on the ampere-hour rating, an equation (1)
relating ampere-hour and capacitance is given below [4].

Ah = [ (Vmin+ Vmax) / 2 ] * [ F / 3600 ] (1)

Here, Ah = Ampere hour
F = Farad
Vminand Vmaxare terminating voltage levels

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ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

Table 1.Battery equivalent capacitance rating [4]

Sl. No. Battery rating (mAh) Equivalent capacitance (Farad)
1 1000 782
2 1250 978
3 1500 1173
4 1800 1408
5 2100 1643

Stacked and rolled type supercapacitor have different effective characteristics, choosing between them
is also important [40]. An ideal SC must have a high energy density, high power density, high pulse
current, high capacitance and low resistance.

8.Comparative analysis of supercapacitor and other storage devices

Compared to the battery or electrolytic capacitors, SC has higher energy density and higher power
density together with smaller volume and weight. SC has a long life cycle compared to batteries, up to
500000 times [21]. It can be said that battery and SC are complementary because batteries are limited
in the power levels they can support but have high energy to weight ratio, whereas SC can support
various power levels but has lower energy to weight ratio [41]. Modern applications are high power
rated, this has led to the manufacturing of batteries with high power which in turn requires to sacrifice
energy density and life cycle. Similarly with the capacitors, as they now suffer from low energy
density and higher self-discharge [42][9][43]. Compared to individual SC and battery, hybrid energy
storage systems can achieve better energy and power performances [44][45]. There have been several
hybrid models proposed [46][47][48] which show superiority over battery-only systems. Battery-
supercapacitor, fuel cell-supercapacitor hybrid models are some examples [49][50].

Table 2.Comparison between supercapacitor, electrolytic capacitor and battery performance [13]
Storage device characteristics Super capacitor Capacitor Battery
Charging time 1 – 30 s 10-3< t < 10-6S 1<t<5h
Discharging time 1 – 30 s 10-3< t < 10-6S T > 0.3 h
Energy density (Wh/kg) 1 – 10 < 0.1 10 – 100
Life time (Cycle number) 106 106 1000
Power density (W/kg) 10,000 > 1,000,000 < 1000
Charge / discharge efficiency 0.85 – 0.98 > 0.95 0.7 – 0.85

9.Advantages and future scopes

Batteries are dangerous when mistreated, overheating may cause batteries to explode. SC does not
overheat because of low internal resistance. The lifecycle of batteries are low, comparatively, SC has
a lifetime of virtual infinity. This makes these devices useful where it is subjected to frequent
charging and discharging cycles [4]. Shorting terminals of fully charged SC will cause it to discharge
quickly, which may result in electrical arching, which might damage the device.

Some of the features of supercapacitors are [51]:

i) Low ESR.
ii) Low leakage current.
iii) Higher life cycle.
iv) A wide range of operating temperature.
v) Higher useable capacity.

Some of the fields where supercapacitors can be used are:

1. In transmission lines [52].
2. SC UPS: For critical loads which need ride-through of few second, SC system without any
batteries are useful [53].
3. Hybrid SC-Battery UPS: SC and battery can complement each other in their short-coming
which would reduce battery cycling, in turn, increasing battery life [54].
4. System frequency and stability control [54][55].

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ICMSMT 2019 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 561 (2019) 012105 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012105

5. Microgrid and micro-generation: SC can be used as an energy storage device in a micro

source system connected to microgrid [56].
6. SCs are suited as an energy storage system for hardening sensitive equipment against voltage
sag [57].
7. In a wind turbine system [58]: SC can provide a simple, highly reliable solution.
8. In telecommunication, to achieve highly reliable operation, usually, they are supported by
―hot standby system‖ like battery backup, parallel type UPS and redundant DC-DC converter.
There is some power consumption in the standby unit. It becomes a serious problem because
power saving is an important issue. So they require a cold standby device like diesel generator
set, fuel cell etc. But their response time is large. The solution is to use SC which operates in
a shorter time as soon as an interrupt occurs in a system.
9. Cold starting of the diesel-fueled engine [59][52], diesel-fueled engines are more difficult to
start at a temperature up to -40°C. Lead acid batteries are used in engine cranking. At low-
temperature resistance offered by a battery is high which affect the high current discharge of a
battery which is necessary in the situation. Again, battery ages, the internal resistance further
increases and currentdischarge capability further reduces. SC bank can be used with battery to
supply necessary cranking current to cranking motor.
10. Hybrid electric vehicle [59][60] use battery alone system to drive the vehicle through inverter
and motor. If along with battery which is rich in energy density [44], SC which is rich in
power density is used together, the transient requirement i.e., a pulse of current during
acceleration is supplied by SC and during deceleration or breaking the energy will be returned
back to the SC. An appreciable amount of energy used during acceleration will be regained.

10.Conclusion
In this paper, some of the characteristics of the supercapacitors have been discussed which will be
helpful to select supercapacitor and design energy storage system using it. With high power density,
short charging time, large discharging time, long life and environmentally friendly properties
supercapacitor may be chosen as an alternative for battery or other energy storage devices.

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