Chapter 2

Neurons (LO 2.2)

Cells of the Nervous System  Neurons come in many shapes and

varieties according to the job they
 Neurons or nerve cell- billions perform.
 Nervous system 2 basic division
 CNS  The 4 structures or region of neurons
 PNS 1. Cell body (soma)
The Nervous System: An overview (LO 2.1) 2. Dendrites
3. Axon
 CNS- contains the brain and spinal 4. Terminal Buttons
cord.
 Communicates with
the rest of the body
though nerves.

 PNS- all the nerves that branch out

from the CNS including the muscles
and organs.
(1) Soma- contains the nucleus; life of the cell
 Sensory neurons- specialized cell in
the PNS that control Information in (2) Dendrites- receiver of message; antennas
the form of light, sound waves, odor, like; receive message from other neurons:
taste or contact with objects. receive neural messages that will be
transmitted across synapse.
 Motor Neurons- Control movements
(3) Axon- long slender tube; covered by
that are accomplished by the
myelin sheath; carries the basic message,
contraction of muscles.
action potential; come in different shapes and
sizes.
 Transmit Impulses  Action potential- brief pulse;
 Carry Signals splits but not diminish in
 Found in muscles size; main electrical event.
 Specialized type of
brain cell (4) Terminal Buttons- axons end branches;
secrete chemical called neurotransmitter.
 Interneurons- found between sensory  Can form synapses on the
and motor neurons membrane of the dendrites
or soma.
2 types of Interneurons
 Neurotransmitter – either excites or
1.) Local Interneurons- analyze inhibits; helps to determine whether an
small pieces of information action potential occurs in its axon;
releasing chemical in the synapse.
2.) Relay Interneurons- connect
circuits of local interneurons in one  Axoplasmic transport- active process
region of brain with those in other that propels substances along
regions. microtubule “tracks” that run inside
the length of axon.
  Cytoskeleton- gives neuron a shape;
2 types of axoplasmic transport
made of 3 kinds of protein;
1.) Anterograde- movement from soma to
terminal buttons; Means front; helped my
molecule protein called “kinesin”. - Microfilaments
- Intermediate
 Remarkably fast: 500 mm per day fibers
2.) Retrograde- movement from terminal
buttons to soma; helped my molecule protein - Microtubules
called “dynein” (thickest)

 Half fast as anterograde  Cytoplasm- fluid, jelly like: filled the

inside of the cell.
Kinesin Dynein
Organelles
Resemble a pair of Carries substance
legs & feet attach from the terminal  Nucleus- round or oval in structure;
to the item being buttons to the found in soma
transported down soma.
the axon.  Nucleolus- responsible for ribosome
production
Other cell structures
 Chromosomes- consist the DNA,
 Cell membrane- boundary of neuron; mRNA
consist of double layer of lipid
molecules.  Endoplasmic Reticulum- appears in
two forms: Rough ER and Smooth ER
 Proteins- some detects substances  RER- contains the ribosome
outside the cell; some control access  SER- provides channel for
to the interior of cell; act as segregation
transporter; serves as enzymes:
proteins that found in the neuron’s  Golgi Apparatus- Special form of
membrane are especially important in SER; serves as wrapping or packing
passing of information; Produced agent; produce lysosomes
through 2 step process
 Exocytosis- cell secretion process
1.) Transcription- information from  Lysosomes- contain enzymes that
the DNA that can’t leave nucleus will break down substances that are no
be transcribed into portable form: longer needed.
mRNA
 Mitochondria- powerplants of
2.) Translation- the information takes neurons: Provide special molecule
by mRNA will be taken to the called “ATP”
ribosome; the ribosome will use the
mRNA information to create proteins.

Supporting Cells (LO 2.3)

 Neurons have no means of storing

nutrients; has very high metabolism
 rate; need constant supply of nutrients  Only provides myelin for one axon
and oxygen.  Glial cells support in PNS are
cooperative.
CNS Supporting Cells
 Provides myelin and assist in neural
 Neuroglia- Most important supporting integration.
cells; also called “nerve glue”.

 Glia- glue the CNS together Axons 2 modes of Growth

 Glial cells- surrounds neuron and hold
First mode- elongate to reach their target.
them in place; act as housekeepers
 Creates an environment conducive to Second mode- stop elongating and begin
neural function. sprouting terminal buttons because they have
reached their target.
3 most important types of Glial Cells
1.) Astrocytes- star cell; describe cells shape;  CNS and PNS results from differences
provides physical support; clean up debris in in the characteristics of supporting
brain; produce chemical that neuron needs; cells, NOT FROM DIFFERENCES
provide nourishment to neurons: mostly IN THE AXONS.
surround somatic and dendritic membranes of
neurons; receive glucose from capillaries and Difference of Oligodendrocytes of the CNS
break down to lactate; store carbohydrate and Schwann cells of the PNS
called “ glycogen”; matrix that holds neuron in  The chemical composition of the
place myelin protein they produce.
Processes

 Wrapped around blood vessels The Blood Brain Barrier (LO 2.4)
 Wrapped around parts of neurons
 Phagocytosis- cellular process for Characteristics and Features
ingesting and eliminating particles.
 Selective permeable
2.) Oligodendrocytes- Provide support to  specialized system of brain
axons: Produce the myelin sheath; Produces microvascular endothelial cells
80% lipid and 20% proteins in the form of  Not uniformed throughout the nervous
tube surrounding the axon; Produce up to 50 system
segments of myelin
Function
 Node of Ranvier- segments in between
 Makes the extracellular fluid easy to
axon.
regulate.
3.) Microglia- smallest in glial cells; act as
Communication within a Neuron
phagocytes; representative of the immune
system in brain; responsible for inflammatory  Ions- small charged particles; move
reaction in response to brain damage. between the interior of the axon and
PNS Supporting Cells the fluid that surrounds.

 Schwann cells- perform the same 2 basic types of Ions

function- supports axons and produce - Cations (+)
myelin. Anions (-)

 Most axons here are myelinated

  Synapses- points of contact between  Depolarized- Inside of the axon
neurons where information is passed becomes more positive.
from one neuron to the next.
 Action potential is a burst of rapid
Neural Communication: An depolarization followed by
overview (LO 2.5) hyperpolarization.
The membrane potential ( LO 2.7)
 Excitatory Synapses(excitation) -
action potential in a presynaptic  Diffusion- Process whereby molecules
neuron increases the probability of an distribute themselves evenly in the
action potential occurring in a medium in which they are dissolved.
postsynaptic cell.
 Electrolytes- Property in substances
 Inhibitory Synapses(inhibition)- that are dissolved in water and split
prevents hyperexcitability by into 2 parts each with an opposing
providing activity-dependent electrical charge.
inhibition.
 Electrical charge is the results of
balance between two opposing forces-
diffusion and electrostatic pressure.
Measuring Electrical Potentials of Axons
(LO2.6)  Particles with the same charge repels
 Microelectrodes- Electrical recording  Particles with different charges
techniques using a small sensor; attracts each other.
record changes in electrical activity
across the axon membrane; Axon at  Electrostatic pressure- force exerted
rest detects negative charge by attraction and repulsion.

 Most neurons are approximately 70  Intracellular fluid- fluid within the

units (-70 mv) cells
 Extracellular fluid- fluid surrounding
 Membrane potential- Difference in the cell.
charge (positive or negative)
Important Ions
 Resting Potential- when the neuron is A
−¿¿
Organic Anion
at rest and not involved in C L−¿ ¿ Chloride Ions
communicating N a+¿ ¿ Sodium Ions
k + ¿¿ Potassium ions
 Hyperpolarization- process of
making the membrane potential more  K+ negatively charged proteins and
negative intermediate products of the cell’s
metabolic processes are found in the
 Hyperpolarized- inside of the axon intracellular fluid.
becomes more negative relative to the
outside.  The other 3 anions are found both in
intracellular and extracellular fluid.
 Depolarization- process of making
the membrane potential less negative  Na+ and Cl- are predominantly more
in extracellular fluid
  Synaptic transmission- primary
 Fluid that surrounds our cell is similar means of communication between
to sea water. neurons.

 Potassium Ion K+- concentrated

within the axon.  Presynaptic cell- messaged that are
carried by neurotransmitters released
 Chloride ion Cl- - greatest by terminal buttons.
concentration outside the axon.
 Postsynaptic cell-fluid filled gap
 The membrane is approximately 100 between the terminal buttons and the
times more permeable in K+ than in membrane of the neurons: a form of
Na+. synapse.

 Sodium Potassium pump- transporter  Postsynaptic potential- produced by

found in the cell membrane. neurotransmitter.

 Binding site- particular region of a

The Action Potential (LO 2.8)
receptor molecule.
 Ion channels- type of protein
molecule that provides opening that  Ligand- chemical that is attached to
permits ions to enter or leave the cells. binding site.

 Voltage- dependent ion channels –  Many synapses occur on the smooth

sodium channels, only opened by surface of a dendrite or dendritic
changes in the membrane potential. spine.

 Refractory- the channels become  Presynaptic membrane- located at the

blocked and cannot open again until end of terminal buttons.
the membrane once more reaches the
resting potential.  Postsynaptic membrane- located on
the neuron that receives the message.
Conduction of the Action Potential (LO 2.9)

 All or non-law- action potential either  Post and Pre synaptic membranes are
occurs or do not occurs, and once facing each other across the synaptic
triggered, it is transmitted down the cleft.
axon to its end.
 Synaptic cleft- gap that varies in size
 Saltatory conduction- Hopping from from synapse to synapse; contains
node to node. extracellular fluid which the
neurotransmitter diffuses.
2 advantages of Saltatory conduction
 Synaptic Vesicles- small round
1.) Economic objects in the shape of spheres or
2.) Advantage to myelin is speed ovoids.

 Transport protein- fills vesicles with

Structure of Synapses (LO 2.10)
the neurotransmitter.
  Trafficking protein-involved in the  Excitatory postsynaptic potential
release of neurotransmitters and (EPSP)- when sodium channels are
recycling of vesicles. opened- results in depolarization.

 Release zone-region from which the  Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

neurotransmitter is released. (IPSP)- if potassium channels open,
some of this cation will follow
gradient ang will leave the cell.
Release of Neurotransmitter
Termination of Post synaptic potentials (LO
 Docking- accomplished when clusters 2. 14)
of protein molecules attach to other
protein molecules located in the  Reuptake- postsynaptic potential
presynaptic membrane produced by most neurotransmitter is
terminated. Extremely rapid removal
 Fusion pore- Hole through both of neurotransmitter from the synaptic
membranes that enables them to fuse cleft by the terminal button.
together.
 Enzymatic Deactivation-
3 distinct pools of the synaptic vesicles
accomplishes by an enzyme that
a.) Release ready vesicles- docked against the destroys molecules of the
inside of the presynaptic membrane. neurotransmitter. Postsynaptic
potentials are terminated in this way
b.) Recycling pool- 10-15% of the total of for acetylcholine. Postsynaptic
vesicle pool. potentials produced by Ach are short-
c.) Reserve pool- 85-90% of the total of lived because the postsynaptic
vesicle pool. membrane at these synapses contains
enzyme called acetylcholinesterase.
 Bulk endocytosis- process of entering
the cell by breaking off the large
Effect of Postsynaptic Potentials: Neural
pieces of the membrane of the
Integration (LO 2.15)
terminal button inward.
Activation of Receptors (LO 2.12)  Neural Integration- effects of
excitatory and inhibitory synapses on
 Postsynaptic Receptors- binding site a particular neuron.
of special protein molecules located in
the postsynaptic membrane.  Neural Inhibition- does not always
produce behavioral inhibition.
 Ionotropic Receptors- produce
electrical current in torpedo.  Excitation of neurons that inhibit a
behavior suppresses that behavior.
 Metabotropic Receptors- Does not
open Ion channels directly but instead
Autoreceptors (LO 2.16)
start a chain of chemical events.
 Respond to the neurotransmitter that
 Second Messenger- Enzymes that they themselves release. Located on
stimulates the production of a the membrane of any part of the cell.
chemical.
Postsynaptic potentials (LO 2.13)
Other types of synapses (LO 2.17)
  Presynaptic inhibition- Effect if the
activity of the axoaxonic synapse
decreases the release of
neurotransmitter.

 Presynaptic facilitation- Effect if the

activity of the axoaxonic synapse
increases the release of
neurotransmitter.
 Gap Junction-membranes meet and
almost touch.

Other form of chemical communication

(LO 2.18)

 Neuromodulators- chemicals
released by neurons that travel farther
and are dispersed more widely than
are neurotransmitter.

 Peptides- chain of amino acids.

 Hormones- secreted by cells of
endocrine glands.

 Target cells- cells that contain

receptors for a particular hormone.

 Steroid- hormones consist of very

small fat-soluble molecules.

Nervous System Diseases

 Myasthenia Gravis – breakdown of

proteins in Immune System

 Multiple Sclerosis- attacks the myelin

protein produced by oligodendrocytes.

 Area Postrema (not a disease)- Part of

the brain that controls vomiting.