366 | Hybrid drives | Drive concepts

Hybrid drives

As well as optimizing conventional drive Serial hybrid drive

concepts, motor vehicle manufacturers The series connection of the energy con-
also rely on alternative concepts in order verters is indicative of a serial hybrid con-
to ensure that existing and future noise cept. The serial arrangement of the hybrid
and emission restrictions are complied components requires two electric motors
with and reduce fuel consumption. and an internal-combustion engine. An
The use of hybrid cars as a means of electric motor operates as an alternator,
reducing environmental pollution and and the other as an engine. The internal-
increasing driving pleasure and comfort combustion engine is not connected to
is becoming increasingly popular. the drive. It charges the battery via the
alternator and/or provides the electric
A design which combines electric motor(s) motor with the required energy directly.
with an internal-combustion engine makes All of the power that is needed to move
it possible to use smaller engines (down- the vehicle is therefore transmitted to the
sizing) and other consumption-reducing drive shaft by the electric motor.
measures such as stopping the engine at
traffic lights, operating the engine within An advantage of this arrangement is that
the optimum efficiency range, and recu- the internal-combustion engine can be
perative braking. Hybrid drives allow most operated almost stationary, i.e. within its
of the basic weaknesses of electric or in- optimum efficiency range. Because there
ternal-combustion engine drive concepts is no mechanical connection, the electric
to be eliminated. motor and the internal-combustion engine
can be installed in different locations.
Drive concepts
One disadvantage of this arrangement lies
Definition in the multiple energy conversions and as-
Hybrid cars are vehicles whose accelera- sociated loss of efficiency. If you examine
tive force is provided by more than one the normal mean loss of the individual
source. These drive sources obtain the components, a total loss of about 30 %
energy that is required from a variety of must be assumed.
sources. The term that is currently used
to describe these vehicles is HEV (Hybrid
Electrical Vehicle), i.e. the combined de-
sign of an internal-combustion engine with 1 Serial hybrid drive

one or two electric motors and the associ-

ated energy accumulators (fuel tank and 1 2 3 4
battery).

Types of hybrid drive

A distinction is made between two basic
structures:
• serial and
Fig. 1 • parallel hybrid drives.
1 Internal-combustion
engine
A design which combines both structures
2 Fuel tank
is described as a split-power hybrid drive.
SAF0092-1Y

3 Alternator
4 Electric motor
5 Inverter 6 5
6 Battery

Robert Bosch GmbH (ed.), Bosch Automotive Electrics and Automotive Electronics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-01784-2_13, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014
 Hybrid drives | Drive concepts | 367

It has only been possible to make mean- There are different types of implementa-
ingful use of serial drive concepts since tion. The electric motor can be directly
the mid-80’s. Until this time, neither elec- flanged to the crankshaft (crankshaft-
trical machines nor storage media with mounted starter-alternator) or coupled
the required capacity for realizing serial to the internal-combustion engine by a
concepts were available. belt drive. Both drive sources can be used
A serial hybrid system is used in the together or individually to propel the vehi-
Toyota Coaster (Bus) Hybrid, for example. cle. Since only one electric motor is incor-
Other usage areas for the serial hybrid porated in the system, the vehicle cannot
drive are diesel trains and busses that be electrically powered whilst the battery
frequently travel in stop-and-go traffic is being charged. The electric motor can
in urban areas. The serial hybrid drive only operate as an alternator or for drive
is not used in passenger cars, however. purposes.
If a coupling is integrated between the
Parallel hybrid drive electric motor and the internal-combus-
The term “parallel hybrid drive” is used to tion engine (Fig. 2), the engine does not
describe an arrangement of hybrid compo- have to be carried along when the vehicle
nents in which the electric motor and the is being propelled using purely electric
internal-combustion engine can both indi- power. Drag torque losses can therefore
vidually deliver their output to the drive. be avoided.
If necessary, the outputs can be combined The drive-side positioning of the electric
by means of mechanically coupling the motor, i.e. directly on the drive shaft
motor and the engine to the drive. The downstream of the transmission, makes it
possibility of power addition allows the possible to prevent transmission efficiency
machines to be made with relatively small losses.
dimensions without adversely affecting
the driving performance. The components
that are required are designed according
to the most frequent area of use.

Fig. 2
1 Internal-combustion
2 Parallel hybrid drive 3 Split-power hybrid drive
engine
2 Fuel tank
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 Electric motor/
alternator
4 Coupling
5 Inverter
4 6 Battery

Fig. 3
1 Internal-combustion
7 engine
2 Fuel tank
3 Planetary gear
SAF0093-1Y

SAF0094-1Y

4 Electric motor
5 Inverter
6 5 6 5 6 Battery
7 Alternator
368 | Hybrid drives | Drive concepts

Split-power hybrid drive The parallel hybrid with an electric motor

The split-power hybrid drive arrangement fixed to the crankshaft uses the internal-
(Fig. 3) is a combination of the two princi- combustion engine as its main energy
ples that were mentioned previously. source. The electric motor is used for as-
sistance during acceleration. Otherwise it
The use of a split-power transmission is mainly the internal-combustion engine
(planetary gear system) allows some of the that is used.
internal-combustion engine power to be In the parallel hybrid that can use elec-
relayed directly to the drive, i.e mechani- tric power only, the electric motor is used
cally, whereas the other part is converted more frequently and the internal-combus-
into electrical energy via the alternator tion engine less frequently than in a paral-
and optionally stored in the HV battery lel hybrid with an electric motor fixed to
(high-voltage battery) or directly relayed the crankshaft.
to the driving electric motor downstream In a split-power hybrid, the output of
of the transmission. the internal-combustion engine is appor-
tioned. This process is infinitely variable.
Both the electric motor and the internal- For this reason the electric drive continu-
combustion engine can be used as drives ously operates when the vehicle is being
in this combined design. The most con- propelled by the internal-combustion en-
sumption-efficient drive method is used gine, without affecting the frequency at
for the prevailing operating conditions. which purely electric propulsion is used.
Both drives can also provide their power
simultaneously for propelling the vehicle. Hybrid drive classification
It is also possible to use electricity only. Figure 4 shows an example of classifica-
The use of the planetary gear system in tion according to degree of hybridization.
combination with the alternator as a The engine start-stop, recuperative brak-
torque support allows the operating point ing, boosting (electric motor support) and
of the internal-combustion engine to be electric-only propulsion methods that are
varied within its optimum range, similarly shown can be realized using the following
to a combination with a CVT transmis- hybrid concepts. It remains to be said that
sion1). The planetary gear system is one both the structural and financial cost and
of the main component parts of the split- the fuel-saving potential can vary consid-
power hybrid concept. No additional erably depending on the concept that is
transmission is required for the internal- used.
combustion engine.
This is a form of the strong hybrid that The way in which the electrical and inter-
is used in the Toyota Prius, for example. nal-combustion engine components are
1) With CVT transmis-
combined and interconnected is another
sions (Continuously
Use of internal-combustion engine means of distinguishing between types of
Variable Transmission)
the force is transmitted and electric motor in the different hybrid. A distinction is also made between
via pulling media such hybrid systems the degree of hybridization and the type
as wide V-belts or lami- In the serial hybrid, the internal-combus- of energy flow. The operating strategy that
nated toothed chains. tion engine supplies the electric motor is used is another distinguishing feature.
The main components with energy. The vehicle is only propelled There are no fixed definitions or names
are two axially movable
by the electric motor. for the many distinguishing features.
V-pulleys with a pulling
medium running be-
They depend on the respective vehicle
tween them. A continu- manufacturer or supplier.
ous conversion ratio
can be achieved.
 Hybrid drives | Drive concepts | 369

Micro Hybrid (start/stop system) Strong Hybrid

The simplest form and the first step in the Strong hybrid systems make it possible
direction of hybrid vehicles is the micro to drive in urban traffic using electrical en-
hybrid, e.g. a starter/alternator system ergy only and therefore without producing
with start/stop function. In this system the emissions. The traction accumulator of
starter and the alternator are replaced these systems is more powerful than those
with an electrical machine. The internal- of the above-mentioned micro hybrid and
combustion engine is switched off when mild hybrid variants. It has a typical out-
the vehicle stops. When the vehicle sets off put of about 25 to 50 kW.
again it is quietly accelerated to idle speed
by the electrical machine, and then the ig- The mild hybrid system is more expensive
nition is activated. In the simplest micro to implement than other hybrid systems.
hybrid system, the conventional starter On the one hand, the vehicle electrical sys-
is replaced with a starter that has been tem has to be adapted to the voltages and
optimized for start-stop functionality. currents that are required, and on the
These systems generally only have a small other hand, additional components such
energy accumulator and comparatively as couplings and transmissions are needed
little electrical power. to ensure that the vehicle can be propelled
using electric power only. Examples of
Mild Hybrid strong hybrid systems are the parallel
If this system is combined with the start/ hybrid with two couplings (Fig. 2) and
stop, booster (internal-combustion engine the split-power system such as the one
assisted by the electric motor when start- used by Toyota (Fig. 3).
ing off and accelerating) and brake energy
recovery strategies, it is usually referred to
as a mild hybrid concept. Electric propul-
sion is possible for an extremely short time
in combination with cylinder shutoff, but
the internal-combustion engine must also
be carried along.
The electric motor can be directly
flanged to the crankshaft in a mild hybrid.
In mild hybrid systems, additional electri-
cal energy of up to 20 kW is provided by
the electric traction accumulator (battery).
This is mainly used for starting off and
accelerating at low engine rpm.

4 Hybrid drive classification

Electric driving

Elec. motor supports

Recuperative brake
SAF0096E

Engine shutoff Start/Stop

Micro hybrid Mild hybrid Strong hybrid

370 | Hybrid drives | Operating strategies

Operating strategies for tric drive can increase the torque and
electric hybrid vehicles therefore provide improved acceleration
capability, particularly at low engine rpm.
The integration of electrical components An integrated examination of design and
in the drivetrain has wide-ranging effects strategy optimization is required in order
on the overall vehicle system. Because to utilize the maximum potential. In this
of the complexity of the drivetrain in case, operating strategy means a driving
an electric hybrid vehicle (HEV: Hybrid situation-dependent torque distribution
Electric Vehicles), system solutions with between the two drive sources of internal-
mutually coordinated components are combustion engine and electric motor.
of special significance. As well as having
a favorable combination of appropriate Figure 5 shows the networking of the indi-
components, the optimization of the oper- vidual components in the drivetrain using
ating strategy is the most important task the example of a vehicle with a parallel
in order to achieve the goals of reducing hybrid drive. The entire system is coordi-
consumption and emissions while increas- nated by a supervisory hybrid controller.
ing driving pleasure and driving comfort. This involves battery management, engine
HEV functions that reduce consumption management, electric drive management,
and emissions are start/stop operation of transmission management and brake sys-
the internal-combustion engine, recupera- tem management. It becomes clear that
tive braking and operating point optimiza- the development of these control systems
tion. (particularly the supervisory hybrid con-
troller) and the development of the com-
The electric propulsion function is an im- ponents have to be closely interlinked in
portant constituent of operating point op- order to achieve optimum functionality.
timization. Booster operation of the elec-

5 Networking of control systems in the drivetrain

Hybrid control

Battery Engine Electric drive Transmission Brake system

management management management management management

incl. electr. including

motor, clutch recuperative
and output braking
electronics

Bus
A S

A ......... S A ......... S A ......... S A ......... S

STH0005E

Fig. 5
A Actuator
S Sensor
 Hybrid drives | Operating strategies | 371

Influence of operating strategy on Internal-combustion engine friction

the design of the internal-combustion optimization
engine Part of the primary energy reduction in a
Use of suitable internal-combustion hybrid vehicle is achieved by reclaiming
engines braking energy (recuperation). This can be
Any internal-combustion engine from carried out during active braking and un-
vehicles with a conventional drivetrain der overrun conditions, e.g. when driving
can generally be used in a hybrid vehicle. downhill. In order to make maximum use
Gasoline, natural gas and diesel engines of this saving potential, the internal-com-
can be combined with an electrical drive, bustion engine must be shut down in these
but with differing optimization targets operating ranges. If this is not possible, the
(see sections “Operating strategy for diesel engine must be carried along and its drag
hybrid vehicles/gasoline hybrid vehicles”). friction restricts the recuperation poten-
tial. In this case, optimizing the friction of
The additional possibilities provided by the engine represents an important inter-
the HEV combination with regard to oper- nal-combustion engine requirement.
ating point adjustments, for example, can
be pursued for hybrid vehicles and other Emission and fuel consumption
internal-combustion engine concepts, optimization
as well as for conventionally propelled In order to achieve emission and con-
vehicles. Because the operating range has sumption reduction targets, degrees of
been made smaller, the efficiency optimi- freedom for internal-combustion engine
zation that is needed can be restricted to operation can be exploited that depend
this area and the high costs of providing on the topology of the drivetrain.
additional components can be avoided. Avoiding operating points where the in-
ternal-combustion engine is less efficient
If an adequate amount of power is pro- or has high emissions is an important
vided by the electrical accumulator, the strategy. The basic operating strategy must
electric drive can compensate for torque be optimized with regard to the improve-
deficits and slower response behavior ment target (e.g. consumption reduction
found in certain internal-combustion and CO2 or NOx reduction). The modified
engine concepts. operating conditions can be exploited to
The dynamic requirements that are optimize the internal-combustion engine
made of the drivetrain are realized by concept and the exhaust-gas treatment.
combining the electric drive and the The modified requirements result in
internal-combustion engine. The torque changes to the functionality and applica-
characteristic, which is particularly favor- tion of the engine management system
able at low engine speeds, and the rapid that are not examined in further detail
response behavior of the electric drive at this point.
relieve the strain on the internal-combus-
tion engine during dynamic processes. A requirement currently exists for im-
Internal-combustion engine peak loads provements to be made in vehicles with
can therefore be avoided. diesel engines with regard to NOx and par-
ticulate emissions. Improvements can be
achieved here by shifting the engine oper-
ating points in lower emission ranges.
372 | Hybrid drives | Operating strategies

If a gasoline or natural gas engine is used, medium loads in conventional vehicles,

the operating strategy is designed to save and therefore in ranges with high
fuel and reduce CO2 emissions. NOX emissions.
Figure 6b shows a hybrid vehicle with
Operating strategy for diesel hybrid a parallel concept that avoids low internal-
vehicles combustion engine loads (unfavorable effi-
Particularly in part-load operation, ciency) by operating with electricity only.
vehicles with lean combustion concepts Since the characteristic curve ranges of
achieve low consumption values but have low NOX emissions are at low loads, the
higher exhaust-gas values than vehicles electric motor and the internal-combus-
with stoichiometrically operated internal- tion engine should be used in conjunction
combustion engines. The main focus as (boost) in order to avoid engine operation
far as diesel vehicles are concerned is at high loads.
therefore on reducing emissions. The post- The electrical energy that is required
combustion reduction of hydrocarbon and cannot usually be recovered by means
carbon monoxide emissions from lean of recuperation alone, and the electrical
internal-combustion engines using oxida- machine is subsequently operated in alter-
tion-type catalytic converters is in an ad- nator mode. This means that the electric
vanced stage of development. Diesel par- drive alternates between engine mode
ticulate filters with high exhaust cleaning and electric mode almost continuously,
efficiency are already being used to reduce depending on the cycle. A compromise
particulate emissions. The primary goal as must be found between two opposing
far as diesel hybrid vehicles are concerned goals: on the one hand, the NOX and CO2
is to reduce nitrogen-oxide emissions emissions must be lowered as much as
(NOX), whereby the intention is also to possible, and on the other hand, the en-
reduce CO2 emissions at the same time. ergy throughput from the electric accu-
mulator must be restricted. The energy
Figure 6 shows the best ranges in which to throughput has a significant influence on
operate the internal-combustion engine in the service life of the traction battery.
order to optimize NOX emissions.
Figure 6c shows the situation for a split-
Figure 6a shows the operating point range power hybrid vehicle in which flexible use
for an internal-combustion engine during is made of the internal-combustion engine
a driving cycle. In the New European Driv- speed (within certain limits), indepen-
ing Cycle (NEDC), internal-combustion en- dently of the vehicle speed (ECVT effect).
gines are operated at low part loads and Engine operating points can be relocated
Fig. 6
a Operating point
range in driving
cycle 6 Operating point relocation with NOx strategy

b Boost: combined a Conventional drive b Parallel hybrid c Split-power hybrid

operation of Mmax Mmax Mmax
internal-combustion
engine and electric
Torque

Torque

Torque

motor

c ECVT effect:
STH0006E

operating point
relocation to faster
Rotational speed nmax Rotational speed nmax Rotational speed nmax
engine speeds
 Hybrid drives | Operating strategies | 373

to faster speeds, which reduces the inter- In the New European Driving Cycle
nal-combustion engine torques that are (NEDC), internal-combustion engines are
needed, leading to additional NOX reduc- operated in conventional vehicles with a
tion. low part load and therefore at sub-optimal
Because of the serial operating mode on efficiency. In vehicles with a parallel hy-
the electrical path (simultaneous alterna- brid drive, low internal-combustion engine
tor operation of the first electric motor loads can be avoided by driving with elec-
and engine operation of the other), the tric propulsion only (Fig. 7b).
traction battery energy throughput and Since the electrical energy that is re-
cycling can be kept lower than with a quired cannot usually be recovered by
parallel hybrid. means of recuperation alone, the electrical
machine is subsequently operated in alter-
Operating strategy and internal- nator mode. In comparison to a conven-
combustion engine concepts for tional vehicle, this moves the operation of
gasoline hybrid vehicles the internal-combustion engine into the
The lowest emission values are achieved higher load range and therefore to a higher
with vehicles with stoichiometrically oper- level of efficiency. This means that more
ated gasoline internal-combustion engines electrical energy can be made available
due to the three-way catalytic converter than with the previously described
technology. The lowest emissions can also NOX strategy, making it possible to use
be achieved with large-displacement inter- a greater proportion of electrical propul-
nal-combustion engines in hybrid vehicles sion. However, a compromise must be
by using appropriate warm-up strategies. found between CO2 emissions and energy
It may even be possible to reduce the de- throughput because of the service life re-
mands that are made on the exhaust-gas quirements that are made of the traction
treatment system. The main objective with battery. The energy throughput has a sig-
the gasoline hybrid vehicle is therefore to nificant influence on the service life of the
save fuel and increase performance. traction battery.

Figure 7 shows a possible internal-com- The operating range of the internal-com-

bustion engine operating range optimiza- bustion engine in the split-power hybrid
tion with regard to minimal CO2 emissions vehicle (Fig. 7c) is more restricted than it is
for the three HEV topologies (i.e. con- in the parallel hybrid vehicle. It is usually
sumption reduction). operated speed-dependently when engine Fig. 7
loading is such that it allows the entire a Operating point
range in driving
cycle

b Avoiding low
7 Operating point relocation with CO2 strategy internal-combustion
engine loads by
a Conventional drive b Parallel hybrid c Split-power hybrid using electrical
Mmax Mmax Mmax propulsion and
subsequent
charging
Torque

Torque

Torque

c ECVT effect:
operating point
STH0007E

relocation to

Rotational speed nmax Rotational speed nmax Rotational speed nmax optimum energy
range of drivetrain
374 | Hybrid drives | Operating strategies

drivetrain to operate in the most energy- Definition in the finite state machine
efficient way. Because of the serial operat- However, torque distribution is not needed
ing mode on the electric path (simultane- in all driving conditions. Figure 8 shows
ous alternator and engine operation of the different driving conditions of a hybrid
both electrical machines), here too the vehicle, which are defined in a finite state
energy throughput and cycling of the trac- machine depending on driver request,
tion battery can be kept low in comparison the status of the electric accumulator and
to a parallel hybrid. vehicle speed.

Operating point optimization: The internal-combustion engine is shut

drive torque distribution down in the event of all-electric propul-
Different forms of hybrid vehicle control sion or recuperation and the maximum
and different operating strategy optimiza- available torque is requested from both
tions have significant effects on fuel con- drive sources during boost operation.
sumption, emissions, the amount of avail- All-electric driving mode is restricted to
able torque and the design of the compo- slow vehicle speeds and low acceleration.
nents (e.g. operating range of the electrical Recuperation only occurs during vehicle
machine and the internal-combustion en- deceleration. Boost operation is mainly
gine, energy throughput and cycling of the used when maximum accelerative force
electric accumulator), since their operat- is requested by the driver (kick-down).
ing points are directly dependent on the
operating strategy. It has already become Distribution by operating strategy
clear that the system-encompassing hybrid The expansive scope of hybrid propulsion
controller is extremely important. There in which the drive torque distribution
are many options and degrees of freedom must be specified lies between the operat-
for optimizing operation. The distribution ing statuses that are defined by the finite
of the requested drive torque to the inter- state machine. Because of the many de-
nal-combustion engine and electrical ma- grees of freedom and the large number of
chine drive sources is extremely important interdependent factors, an optimization is
with regard to exploiting the fuel saving required that can be achieved most effec-
potential. tively using model-based procedures.

8 Hybrid vehicle driving conditions

Electric driving
Driver request
Recuperation
Charge level of State machine (trailing throttle, braking)
the battery (SOC) (finite state machine)
Boost (MFW = max.)
Speed Hybrid driving
STH0008E

(optimized torque distribution)

 Hybrid drives | Operating strategies | 375

Figure 9 shows the operating strategy de- Since it is not usually possible to generate
pendencies. The hybrid controller distrib- enough energy from recuperation alone
utes the required drive torque between the and the battery has limited storage capa-
drive sources of internal-combustion en- bility, internal-combustion engine charg-
gine and electrical machine on the basis of ing is unavoidable. In order to minimize
vehicle speed and the status of the electric the amount of fuel that is used to do this,
accumulator, among other things. The op- this type of electrical-energy generation
erating strategy also needs an equivalence should only be performed when the inter-
value of the stored electrical energy that nal-combustion engine is being used in
indicates how much fuel has been con- low-efficiency operating ranges and the
sumed in generating this electrical energy. additional load can be used to improve
efficiency. The optimum utilization of the
The different types of electrical power efficiency improvement during internal-
generation (recuperation and internal- combustion engine charging is an operat-
combustion engine charging) are exam- ing strategy issue, since it involves torque
ined in order to assign an optimization distribution between the internal-combus-
parameter equivalence value (e.g. fuel tion engine and the electric machine.
consumption) to the energy content of
the battery. This equivalence value forms
the basis for deciding which energy source
to use.

Power generation strategy

In a hybrid vehicle, electrical energy can
be generated by means of internal-com-
bustion engine charging and recuperation
(brake energy recovery). Whereas the lat-
ter is acquired without using fuel, the for-
mer requires fuel consumption. The effi-
ciency of this charging process depends
on the current operating point of the
internal-combustion engine during this
process.

9 Operating strategy

Equivalent value
of electrical energy

Target torque
Driver request torque internal-combustion
Control strategy engine
Charge level of the battery (SOC)
(hybrid control)
STH0009E

Target torque
Speed
electric motor
376 | Hybrid drives | Recuperative brake system

Recuperative brake system Recuperative braking strategies

Concept
In order to make better use of a hybrid In a strong hybrid the internal-combustion
drive system, it must be possible to charge engine is decoupled for recuperative brak-
the electrical energy accumulator effi- ing and the drag torque is replaced by
ciently. An adequate amount of electrical an equivalent electric motor alternator
energy must be made available for torque (drag torque simulation). The en-
▶ The frequent internal-combustion ergy that is released is stored. If the inter-
engine repeat starts that occur under nal-combustion engine cannot be decou-
certain circumstances with the micro pled (as with a mild hybrid), a lower
hybrid alternator torque can be applied to the
▶ Electric torque support or electric drivetrain in addition to the drag torque
driving mode in mild or strong hybrid of the internal-combustion engine
systems (drag torque increase).

The electrical energy for charging the However, taking the driving behavior into
battery can be provided by increasing the consideration, no major braking decelera-
load of the internal-combustion engine or tion can be achieved by simulating or in-
by operating the electric motor as an alter- creasing the drag torque. The different
nator. On the other hand, the vehicle’s recuperative brake torques that occur
kinetic energy during deceleration pro- during individual braking procedures and
cesses can also be used. This energy is the resulting braking power variations are
converted to heat in conventional vehicles problematic. These must be adapted to the
either by the engine-drag torque or by battery charge level and the thermal load
the vehicle service brake by operating of the electric drive. If significant battery
the brake pedal. temperature increase occurs after several
braking procedures, the recuperative out-
By using the electric motor as an alterna- put may need to be reduced in order to
tor, hybrid vehicles open up the possibility prevent the system from overheating.
of reclaiming at least some of the energy
and using it for electric consumers or the
vehicle’s electric drive. This procedure us
referred to as recuperative or regenerative
braking.
10 Maximum torque trend with electric machine in
alternator mode
Brake torque in Nm

Engine speed in rpm

STH0001E
 Hybrid drives | Recuperative brake system | 377

Cooperative recuperative brake system ▶ Determine a suitable brake torque

In order to exploit more kinetic energy, distribution between the vehicle axles
the service brake system must be modified ▶ Adjust the friction brake torque
at higher braking deceleration levels.
This is done by replacing some or all of the Replacing the recuperative brake torque
service brake friction torque with recuper- with the friction brake torque requires a
ated brake torque without changing the suitable data interface between the drive-
vehicle deceleration with the brake pedal train and the brake control unit.
position in the same position and using the
same amount of pressure. This is achieved Cooperative braking maneuver
in the cooperative recuperative brake sys- The maximum alternator torque that can
tem by making the vehicle controller and be achieved by the electric motor changes
the brake system interact in such a way continuously over a wide speed range
that the friction brake torque is always re- during braking (Fig. 10). This is due to the
duced by exactly the amount of alternator fact that the output of the electric motor
brake torque that can be replaced by the (i.e. torque * speed) is constant within
electric motor. this range. The electric motor only has a
constant maximum torque range at slow
Requirements speeds. If the speed becomes even slower,
A cooperative recuperative brake system the recuperative brake torque that can be
must be able to perform the following achieved drops back down to zero.
requirements:
▶ Determine driver braking deceleration There must be constant torque at the
request wheels in order to have constant vehicle
▶ Maintain the service brake performance braking deceleration. If the electric motor
capability and operation that is usual in that is being operated as an alternator is
conventional vehicles utilized up to its limit torque, the friction
▶ Determine a suitable brake torque brake torque must be continuously
distribution between the friction brake reduced as the speed drops due to the
and the recuperative brake, taking sta- fact that the alternator torque increases.
bility, comfort and efficiency criteria Figure 11 shows an example of the braking
into consideration procedure of a split-power hybrid. At the
beginning of the maneuver, the alternator
torque is increased until it reaches its
11 Cooperative braking maneuver with a
maximum (if this corresponds to the
split-power hybrid
required total brake torque). Towards
the end of the braking maneuver, the alter-
nator torque is reduced and completely
Time in s replaced with friction braking torque be-
cause the electric motor cannot provide
Brake torque

Vehicle speed
any more alternator torque at extremely
low rpm (Fig. 10).
Speed
in m/s

in Nm

When braking from a fast speed to a stand-

still, the distribution between friction
Fig. 11
Friction Friction brake torque and recuperative brake Friction brake torque
STH0002E

brake torque brake torque

reduction buildup torque is continuously adjusted if the reduction and increase,
pedal is operated with constant pressure. and replacement with
alternator brake torque
378 | Hybrid drives | Recuperative brake system

Braking-force distribution The electrical output of the battery has

Like conventional brake systems, when a major influence on the use of recupera-
a recuperative brake system is being tion, since it is the restrictive element for
designed, the braking-force distribution the uptake of electrical energy from vehi-
between the front axle and the rear axle cle movement. As the output from the en-
is extremely important for the directional ergy accumulator increases, the maximum
stability of the vehicle. The normal force possible recuperative braking decelera-
on the wheels of the front axle increases tion increases. However, for reasons of ve-
together with braking deceleration, hicle stability, a large alternator braking
whereas the normal force on the wheels torque can only be transmitted to the front
of the rear axle decreases. axle. High levels of recuperative braking
deceleration can therefore only be
If the electric motor is connected to the achieved with a vehicle possessing front-
wheels of the front axle, additional wheel wheel drive or all-wheel drive. In the latter
torque can be transmitted at the front axle case, the brake torque is distributed to
as the braking deceleration and therefore both axles in such a way that it approxi-
the normal force increases. The friction mately corresponds to the ideal braking-
value utilization at the front axle should force distribution of the friction brake,
therefore not increase the friction value depending on the type of differential
utilization of the rear axle in order to ob- transmission.
tain directional stability.
If the vehicle has rear-wheel drive or an Influences on stability control
electrically powered rear axle (i.e. inter- Since the recuperative brake system af-
nal-combustion engine at the front axle fects braking stability, ABS and ESP con-
and electric motor at the rear axle), the trol systems must be adapted to the change
amount of recuperative torque that can in automotive physics.
be applied decreases as the braking
deceleration increases.

12 System circuit diagram of the cooperative recuperative brake system

Alternator

Vehicle Alternator torque

control

Regeneration Regeneration
potential requirement

Driving braking request Torque Brake torque

coordinator

Wheel brake
STH0004E

Driving condition
variables
 Hybrid drives | Recuperative brake system | 379

If unstable driving conditions are detected The block diagram of the cooperative
or the amount of brake slip is excessive, recuperative brake system (Fig. 12) is
it is advisable to suppress the recuperative something that all versions have in com-
part of the braking and only use the fric- mon. The vehicle control system continu-
tion brake system for braking deceleration ously monitors all relevant parameters
and stabilization corrections. Otherwise of the hybrid drive and determines the
instability and drivetrain oscillation could torque that the electric motor can provide
have a detrimental effect on the wheel slip for braking. When the brake pedal is oper-
control system. ated, the torque coordinator of the brake
control unit calculates the distribution of
Compared to partial braking operations, the brake torque to the friction brake and
brake stabilization system interventions the recuperative brake system.
via the vehicle systems occur so infre- The proportion of recuperative torque
quently that suppressing recuperative is fed back to the vehicle control system
braking in these situations has no notice- and relayed to the electric motor actuator.
able effect on the average consumption The residual brake torque is set by the
of the vehicle. friction brake while vehicle stability and
wheel slip are monitored.
Friction brake implementation
There are different types of friction brake
in the cooperative recuperative brake sys-
tem.
These are usually mechatronic brake
systems that decouple the brake pedal and
the wheel brake and simulate brake pedal
characteristics by adding a pedal simula-
tor. The energy storage that is needed for
brake boosting can be provided hydrauli-
cally or pneumatically.
380 | Hybrid drives | Electrical energy accumulators

Electrical energy Energy accumulator requirements for

accumulators traction vehicle electrical systems in
hybrid vehicles
Vehicle electrical systems of hybrid Whereas lead-acid systems are used in the
systems 12V vehicle electrical systems of motor
Irrespective of the design of the hybrid vehicles for powering the starter motor,
vehicle (serial, parallel or split-power hy- the ignition, the engine management sys-
brid), the vehicle electrical system consists tem and the chassis components, the trac-
of at least two subsystems with different tion vehicle electrical systems of hybrid
voltage conditions: vehicle require additional energy storage
▶ The traction power supply for supplying systems. The selection of suitable electro-
the electrical part of the drivetrain; chemical systems depends on the specific
the nominal voltage is significantly requirements:
above 42 V in this case, whereby the ▶ High steady-state voltage of the individ-
battery voltage can be less than the ual cells
traction power supply voltage ▶ Good cold startability
▶ The conventional 12 V vehicle electrical ▶ Operation at average charge levels with-
system for supplying the body compo- out affecting service life, SOC (State Of
nents (power windows, radio etc.) and Charge) charge level approx. 60 %
the internal-combustion engine (engine ▶ Good charging/discharging performance
control unit, radiator fan, additional at average charge level
water pump etc.) ▶ High efficiency in charging and dis-
▶ A sub-power supply with different charging mode (recuperation, accelera-
voltage conditions if necessary tion) at all temperatures
▶ High cycle strength with as much energy
Both the traction part and the body part of throughput as possible
the vehicle electrical system are equipped ▶ Long traction battery service life (at
with an energy accumulator. A facility for least the same as the vehicle service life)
connecting the voltage levels using a ▶ Thermal management system
DC/DC converter is usually provided. ▶ Easy operation and diagnosis
The provision of a power supply net- ▶ Good safety level during operation and
work with different voltage conditions in the event of accidents
and the way in which it is connected to ▶ Preferential use of recyclable and non-
the other sub-power supplies depends toxic materials
on the design of the respective hybrid
vehicle. State of charge
The energy accumulator is operated at an
In order to ensure that the battery oper- average charge level in order to achieve
ates reliably with a high voltage condition good recuperation current absorption and
in a hybrid vehicle, a control unit (battery good power output in order to assist accel-
management system) is needed that moni- eration. High charge levels provide high
tors the individual battery components power output, and low charge levels make
and controls charging and discharging, it possible to feed back large quantities of
thermal management and various safety recuperated electrical energy.
functions.
 Hybrid drives | Electrical energy accumulators | 381

The traction battery of plug-in hybrids is Energy accumulator for hybrid systems
fully charged from the mains power supply Nickel metal hydride batteries (NiMH)
at regular intervals. The vehicle is oper- are currently used as standard for hybrid
ated with electricity up to a preselected vehicles. Nickel cadmium batteries are
average charge level, after which it is oper- not used in modern vehicles because of
ated like other hybrid vehicles. the fact that the cadmium material is toxic
and damages the environment.
Thermal management Lithium battery systems are undergoing
The acceleration and recuperation phases further development for use in hybrid
alternate during vehicle operation. Even vehicles.
at high charge/discharge efficiency levels,
this leads to heat losses that cause the bat- Nickel metal hydride systems (NiMH)
tery to become warm. In order to remove Nickel metal hydride batteries are particu-
the heat in a suitable way (air/liquid cool- larly useful for hybrid vehicles because
ing) the battery system must have a ther- designs with a high power density can be
mal management system. realized, given the materials that are used.
The alkaline electrolyte (caustic potash
Charge quantity solution, KOH) does not take part in the
During battery system selection it must be electrode reaction (compared to lead/acid
taken into consideration that only a limited systems).
charge quantity can be used during the Also, operation in a partially charged
lifetime of the battery in cycle operation; condition does not adversely affect the
this can occur in many flat cycles with service life. High efficiency levels with
small changes to the charge level, or high charge/discharge currents can be
fewer cycles with a large discharge depth achieved in other charge condition ranges.
(Fig. 13). The charge quantity that can be
used tends to be less with low discharge The disadvantages of the NiMH system are
cycles. the high self-discharge rate and extensive
It must also be noted that the internal power loss at low temperatures.
resistance of the battery increases with The relative low steady-state voltage
age, and performance deteriorates. of NiMH cells is also unfavorable. In order
to achieve a battery voltage that is compa-
rable with lead systems, approximately
13 Service life in relation to depth of discharge 1.6 times as many NiMH cells are required.
In order to ensure that the entire battery
16 system is reliable, the quality and unifor-
Number of charge/discharge cycles

NiMH
14 Li Ion mity of the individual NiMH cells must be
Lead (AGM) somewhat greater.
12
Lead (liquid)
10 Nickel oxide hydroxide is used as the ac-
x 1,000

8 tive electrode material (as in NiCd batter- Fig. 13

ies) and (instead of cadmium) a material NiMH: Nickel metal
6
that stores hydrogen (misch metal). Misch hydride system
Li-Ion: Lithium ion
4 metal is an alloy with high lanthanum,
system
2 cerium and neodymium content.
AGM: Absorbent Glass
The cell is operated with slight hydrogen Mat
STH0010E

0
2% 5% 10% 25% 50% 100% overpressure and has a pressure relief Liquid lead: Lead-acid
Depth of discharge valve or bursting disk so that it can blow system/liquid
out hydrogen in critical operating condi- battery
382 | Hybrid drives | Electrical energy accumulators

tions. During operation, it must be ensured and 10 s pulse duration). Because of the
that excessive overcharging does not occur high energy content of the electrode mate-
and that ventilation facilities are provided. rial and the high cell voltage, special mea-
Clouds of caustic alkali can be expected sures are required:
to occur when the overpressure is being ▶ Use of organic electrolyte with special
released. The fact that hydrogen can form conductive minerals
oxyhydrogen gas when it is mixed with air ▶ Safety structures that prevent the cell
must also be taken into consideration. from exploding if it becomes damaged,
for example
Lithium ion systems (Li ions) ▶ Monitoring of individual cells in order to
Compared to NiMH systems, lithium avoid overcharging and overheating
systems provide even higher energy and
power densities at cell voltages of approxi- The positive electrode consists of special
mately 3.6 V. These systems are therefore metal oxides (Ni, Mn, Co or mixtures
mainly used in portable electrical systems thereof) that can store lithium ions. These
(mobile phones, laptops), where they have ions can move to the counter-electrode
essentially replaced NiMH batteries. and back during the discharging/charging
Efforts are currently being made to sub- process in a reversible mechanism. The
ject these cells to further development for counter-electrode is made from graphite
use in hybrid vehicles. Special attention is and can also absorb Li ions because of its
being paid to the use of low-cost and reli- stratified structure.
able electrode materials (e.g. LiMn2O4,
LiFePO4). Lithium-polymer batteries
A special version of the Li ion battery is
The use of lightweight Li metal and the the Li polymer battery. It contains electro-
properties of the other materials involved lytes in non-liquid form This version is
(graphite as the anode material) make it particularly suitable for manufacturing
possible to manufacture extremely thin pliable, flexible cells. It is currently being
electrodes (< 0.5 mm), which can be used investigated whether Li polymer batteries
to create structures with extremely high can be used in hybrid vehicles.
output (e.g. 3 kW/kg with SOC 60 %, 25 °C

14 Power and energy value estimation

140
Specific energy content in Wh/kg

120
Lithium ion system
100

80
Fig. 14
Nickel metal hydride
The comparison 60
system
only provides an
40
estimate of the basic Lead-acid
possibilities of the 20 system Supercaps
different systems.
Each electrochemical
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
system can be
STH0011E

Specific power in W/kg

optimized towards
at SOC = 50%
either energy or power
within certain limits.
 Greenhouse effect | 383

▶ Greenhouse effect

Short-wave solar radiation penetrates the The primary cause of this increase has been
earth’s atmosphere and continues to the the burning of coal and petroleum products.
ground, where it is absorbed. This process In this process, the carbon bound in the
promotes warming in the ground, which then fuels is released in the form of carbon
radiates long-wave heat or infrared energy. dioxide.
Some of this radiation is reflected in the The processes that influence the green-
atmosphere and heats the earth. house effect within the earth’s atmosphere
Without this natural “greenhouse effect” are extremely complex. The fact that anthro-
the earth would be inhospitable with an pogenic emissions (i.e. caused by man) are
average temperature of –18 °C. The green- the main cause of the climate change is dis-
house gasses in the atmosphere (water va- puted by another scientific theory. According
por, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, dinitro- to this theory, the warming of the earth’s
gen monoxide, aerosols and cloud particles) atmosphere is being caused by increased
provide average temperatures of approxi- solar activity.
mately +15 °C. Water vapor, in particular, There is, however, a large degree of una-
retains substantial amounts of heat. nimity in calling for reductions in energy con-
Since the beginning of the industrial age sumption in order to lower carbon dioxide
over 100 years ago, the concentration of emissions and combat the greenhouse
carbon dioxide has been increasing rapidly. effect.

Heat radiation

Water vapor
and trace gases

Insolation
SMA0050E