Machining

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RIVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is an abrasive? What are superabrasives?


An abrasive is a material that is used in removing small amount of sharp or hard surface
on a substance making it smooth and fine. Machine plays a huge role in the application of
abrasives and it has two commonly used operations which are:
(a) Conventional abrasives that are made of Aluminum Oxide and Silicon Carbide.
(b) The super abrasives are made from Cubic Boron Nitride and Diamond, these two
compounds are the hardest materials known, making them super abrasives. They also
have the ability to fracture into smaller pieces and self-sharpening characteristics
which make them durable.

2. How is the size of an abrasive grain related to its number?


The size of the abrasive grain depends by the grit number, it has the same concept as the
sand paper, the lesser the girt size number the courser the abrasive and the higher gives a
very fine finish.

3. Why are most abrasives made synthetically?


Most abrasives were made synthetically because manufacturers can control the properties
of each mineral to be used. Abrasives materials are commonly found in nature but since it
has impurities and the properties is always not consistent it makes their performance
unreliable, which is why nowadays abrasives are made by fusing minerals making them
more durable and with controlled composition.

4. Describe the structure of a grinding wheel and its features


Grinding wheel is a bonded abrasive, which uses a large number of abrasives that acts
together and removes the surface of material at a given time. Abrasives are bind together
with a bonding material such as reisnoid, shellac, oxychloride, rubber, silicate, vitrified
and other material to form the grinding wheel. These binders also support the grains and
act as braces to form a void in between each grain so that chips would be produced.
Nowadays there’s a wide range of types and sizes of grinding wheel abrasives depending
on the use either it is a conventional or superabrasive. They have a standardized markings
specifying the type of abrasive, grain size, grade, structure and bond type.

5. Explain the characteristics of each type of bond used in bonded abrasives.


There are 6 most commonly used type of bond in abrasives.
1. Vitrified This is also called as ceramic bonds which is a composition of feldspar and
clay. These materials are molded and slowly heated to reach 1250° C to develop
structural strength. It can also be color coded for a specific use. Grinding wheels that
are bonded with vitrified are strong and stiff, it also has a resistance to oils, acid and
water but since the finish product is a ceramics or glasses it can form a thermal cracking
and can be brittle. To improve the strength, a backing steel plate can be added.
2. Resinoid This also called as organic wheels, because the bond that is used is an organic
compound. The bonding materials are thermosetting resins with wide range of
composition and properties. This type of bond is more elastic than of the vitrified since
it has a lower elastic modulus. The basic manufacturing techniques has 3 steps:
a. Abrasive is mixed with liquid or powdered phenolic resins and other additives. b.
Pressing of liquids into shape c. Curing until it reach the temperature of 175° C.
3. Reinforced Wheels These wheels are made from steel bars inserted during the
molding.It's made up of multiple layers of fiber glass mats with varying mesh
sizes.These are used to prevent the wheel from disintegrating and to give signal when
it is close to wear out.
4. Thermoplastic The common examples of thermoplastics are acrylics, cellulosic,
nylons, polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride. These polymers are easy to mold and can
return to its original hardness when cooled which makes them a good binder material
for abrasives
5. Rubber This type of bond is used in making thin wheels because of its flexible matrix.
The process includes mixing rubber and abrasive, then rolling it into sheets, cutting
into various diameters and heating each sheet to make it harder.
6. For this type of bond, metal powder is used along with the abrasive grains such as
diamond and cubic boron nitride which belong to superabrasive. These minerals are
bonded at the surface of metal at a high pressure and temperature

6. What causes grinding sparks in grinding? Is it useful to observe them? Explain.


Grinding sparks are caused by an exothermic interaction between the chips and the oxygen
in the air; they are chips that glow as a result of their reaction with the oxygen in the air.
By observing the color, intensity, and shape of sparks, it is possible to determine the sort
of metal being ground.
7. Define metallurgical burn.
A temperature spike during grinding can create metallurgical burn, which results in
excessive oxidation and a bluish color. Surface toughness and durability may be reduced
as a result of phase change on the work piece's surface.

8. Define (a) friability, (b) wear flat, (c) grinding ratio, (d) truing, and (e) dressing
A. Friability Friability is a property of abrasives that allows them to sharpen themselves
while in use. Abrasive with a high friability has a high abrasive strength.
B. Wear Flat Wear flat is a type of grinding wheel wear that occurs under attritious grain
wear and can alter the ground surface's performance and shape. This happens when the
grain becomes dull as a result of the grain's physical and chemical reactions with the work
piece.
C. Grinding Ratio The amount of work piece ground by a parameter is known as the
grinding ratio. This is calculated by dividing the volume of material removed by the
volume of wheel wear. The ratio is determined by the type of wheel, the materials used in
the workpiece, the grinding fluid used, and the operation.
D. Truing Truing is the process of changing the shape of the grinding wheel that has worn
out into a true circle.
E. Dressing Dressing is the process of re-enforcing worn-out grains with sharp new edges.
This is required if the grinding wheel becomes dull or when glazing develops.

9. What is creep-feed grinding and what are its advantages?


Creep feed grinding is a method of removing significant amounts of material from a work
item. With 225 kW of power, high stiffness, and damping capacity, the machine utilized
for this grinding has a unique feature. Because the wheel can be formed into various work
pieces, this grinding operation has a higher advantage.

10. How is centerless grinding different from cylindrical grinding?


Cylindrical grinding, also known as center type grinding grounds the external surface of a
work piece, it that has a support on the center to have its own axis of rotation. While the
wheel may be moved back and forth, it also rotates and spins at its own speed to uniformly
grind the surface. This machine is capable of grinding rollers with a diameter of up to 1.8
meters.
The center less grinding, on the other hand, is supported by a work rest blade at the bottom
of the work piece, which is sandwiched between two wheels. The larger wheel does the
grinding, while the smaller wheel controls the axial movement of the work piece. This
machine can grind small objects as small as 0.1 mm in diameter.

11. What are the differences between coated and bonded abrasives?
Bonded abrasive is a mixture of abrasive grains bonded together by bonding material such
as rubber or metal and other material to form the grinding wheel. While a coated abrasive
is a thin layer of abrasive grain attached to a medium. Bonded abrasive is more durable
since it is a combination of components to make a whole wheel.

12. What is the purpose of the slurry in chemical– mechanical polishing?


For a chemical-mechanical polishing process, slurry and polishing pad are used to polish
a wafer surface. The purpose of the slurry’s abrasive particle is to grind against the work
piece surface and loosening it. It is the scrapped and dissolved by the chemicals in the
slurry.

QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
13. Explain why grinding operations may be necessary for components that have previously
been machined.
Grinding operations are required as a finishing step in order to give the work item a more
polished appearance and to remove surface imperfections.

14. Why is there such a wide variety of types, shapes, and sizes of grinding wheels?
There are wide varieties of types, shapes and sizes of grinding wheel because there is also
a wide range of materials to be ground. Each material needs a specific type of grinding
wheel such as the abrasive type, grain size, grade, structure and bond type. And every
grinding machine has its purpose from large scale to even the smallest one.

15. Explain the reasons for the large difference between the specific energies involved in
machining (Table 21.2) and in grinding (Table 26.2).
Because of the presence of wear flats, which impact the performance and shape of the
ground surface, there is a lot of friction, which causes the grinding specific energy to be
larger than the machine specific energy. Additionally, the chips produced during grinding
and the grit size number can both contribute to increased grinding specific energy.

16. The grinding ratio, G , depends on the type of grinding wheel, workpiece hardness, wheel
depth of cut, wheel and workpiece speeds, and the type of grinding fluid. Explain.
During grinding, a wheel may act soft or hard, independent of the wheel grade this is
because the work piece may have a different composition and different reaction to the
wheel grinder. The stronger the force, the more likely grains may shatter or become
displaced from the wheel surface, resulting in increased wheel wear and a lower grinding
ratio. The grain force increases as the work piece's strength, work speed, and cut depth
increase. When the wheel speed and diameter increase, the grain force drops.

17. What are the consequences of allowing the temperature to rise during grinding? Explain.
Allowing the temperature rise during grinding may cause the work piece's surface to burn,
resulting in a bluish tint that indicates oxidation. Because some parts will be deeper when
the temperature rises at a surface, uneven grinding can occur.

18. Explain why speeds are much higher in grinding than in machining operations.
Because the grinding wheel removes small chips of material at a time, the wheel speedmust
increase to maintain a reasonable production throughout.

19. It was stated that ultrasonic machining is best suited for hard and brittle materials. Explain.
Ultrasonic machining is best suited for hard and brittle materials because it removes the
materials surface by micro chipping and with the use of water slurry that carries away
grains from the work piece. It has a special tool that is suitable for brittle materials called
sonotrode, which release high stress at a short period of time to clear the surface.

20. Explain why parts with irregular shapes, sharp corners, deep recesses, and sharp
projections can be difficult to polish
Parts with irregular shapes can be difficult to polish because it will have different applied
force in every surface, and each grinding part should be made for different shapes so it can
fit to give satisfactory result.
21. List the finishing operations commonly used in manufacturing operations. Why are they
necessary? Explain why they should be minimized.
Finishing operations that are commonly used in manufacturing operations are coated
abrasives, belt grinding and honing. These activities are required to provide the product
a high-quality finish. Coated abrasives, for example, are often used to polish flat or
curved surfaces on metals and woods. Belt grinding was commonly used on firearms,
turbines, medicinal, and dental tools. The honing procedure is used to polish the surface
of holes. While these finishing procedures are vital, they can also effect production time
and expense. As much as feasible, only consider operations that are required for the
product so that cost and production, as well as product needs, are minimized.

22. Referring to the preceding chapters on processing of materials, list the operations in which
burrs can develop on workpieces.
Burrs are thin cracks that can be seen around the surface of a work piece developed by
operations such as machining, shearing metals, trimming forgings, and castings.

23. Explain the reasons that so many deburring operations have been developed over the years.
Many deburring techniques have been developed over the years due to their cost-
effectiveness, which is dependent on the factors required for each work item, such as
shape, scale, and material. It's important to think about the complexity and location. Each
deburring operation has a distinct purpose, which is why a number of processes have
evolved over time.

24. What precautions should you take when grinding with high precision? Comment on the
machine, process parameters, grinding wheel, and grinding fluids.
Grinding wheels can be brittle so they must be handled, stored, and used with caution.
These precautions or instructions are listed on every grinding wheel label and should be
followed to ensure that the grinding wheel lasts as long as possible. They must also be
properly preserved and protected from hot environments like high temperatures and
humidity. Visually inspecting grinding wheels for cracks and corrosion is also
recommended. In order to fit the needs of the work piece and reduce flat wear, the grinding
fluid must be carefully selected.

25. Describe the factors involved in a grinding wheel acting “soft” or acting “hard.”
Depending on the substance of the work piece, the grinding wheel might operate hard or
soft. It has the same concept as when a pencil is written on rough paper, it acts soft and the
lead may be finished quickly, but when it is written on a soft covered paper, it acts hard
and produces less lead. As a result, the grinding wheel's hardness and softness are
determined by the surface material to be ground; the higher the force, the greater the
potential for grains to fracture, and the higher the wheel wear (acting soft), the lower the
grinding ratio.

30. What difficulties, if any, could you encounter in grinding thermoplastics? Thermosets?
Ceramics?
Thermoplastics Due of their low thermal conductivity and elastic elasticity, thermoplastics can
be difficult to grind, necessitating high speeds and sufficient work piece support. To avoid
physical changes, the temperature should be kept under control. To keep it from becoming
sticky or adhering to the instruments, it needs to be kept cool from the outside.
Thermosetting plastics Thermosetting plastics, like thermoplastics, can be difficult to grind
because they are brittle and sensitive to heat gradients.
Ceramics Ceramics may be ground without difficulty because there are a variety of grinding
processes and materials accessible, as well as machinable ceramics.

31. Observe the cycle patterns shown in Fig. 26.22 and comment on why they follow those
particular patterns.
In the given textbook figure, it shows a computer controlled pattern that passes along the
cylindrical path multiple times to achieve a fine finished surface. These patterns made for
different shapes and sizes, and they must be followed to completely optimize the usage of the
grinder in its most economical way possible.

32. Which of the processes described in this chapter are particularly suitable for workpieces
made of (a) ceramics, (b) thermoplastics, and (c) thermosets? Why?
Almost all of the processes covered in this topic may be used to grind ceramics, thermoplastics,
and thermosettings; the only difference is in their forms and sizes, as some processes have
restricted dimensions. The temperature of thermoplastics and thermosets should also be
monitored and managed because they tend to melt and lose their physical properties. It's also
important to think about the type of abrasive.
33. Grinding can produce a very fine surface finish on a workpiece. Is this finish necessarily
an indication of the quality of a part? Explain.
Grinding is required to create the desired shape, form, and fine finish. Bolts and other small
materials, for example, must be suitably formed and have a fine surface to serve their purpose.
It also reveals the part's quality because it removes abrasive debris that could cause damage
during the preceding operation while retaining mechanical qualities because all grinding
processes are thoroughly assessed before being carried out.

34. Jewelry applications require the grinding of diamonds into desired shapes. How is this
done, since diamond is the hardest material known?
Diamond is thought to be the hardest substance on the planet. Only a diamond can cut a
diamond, but it can be polished with a spinning wheel that contains superabrasives with
diamond grains.

35. List and explain factors that contribute to poor surface finish in the processes described in
this chapter.
Factors that contribute to poor surface finish are:
a. Temperature When temperature is not appropriately addressed, it can impair a
material's finish, quality, and even induce metallurgical burn. It can also result in
surface deformation.
b. Wheel wear The grinding wheel gets dull, causing a wear flat and inefficiency, as well
as a temperature rise in the material surface.
c. Chatter is the uneven surface markings caused by vibrations between the work piece
and the grinding tool.

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