MPC-004 : ADVANCED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)

Course Code: MPC-004
Assignment Code: MPC 004/ASST/TMA/2019-20
Marks: 100
NOTE: All Questions Are Compulsory
SECTION-A
Answer the following question in about 1000 words each 15 x 3 = 45 Marks

1 Discuss the methods of data collection and analysis used in social psychological
research. Explain the various ethical issues involved in social psychological research.
Answer- ​ Methods of Data Collection
Observations, the study of documents, questionnaire, interviews, testing and experiment etc.

Methods of Analysis-
Statistical Methods: Correlational, Factor analysis
Logical and theoretical: Constructs of typology, various means of explanations etc.

Our discussion will be limited to following methods:

l Observational method
lI Correlation method
lII Experimental method
lV Ethnography

I. Observational Method - Observation is the old method of social psychology. Many writers
have used different terms and categories for this method like method of systematic observation
(Morgan and King), direct observation (Hilgard and Atkinson) and Feldman has included it in
field study.

Observation is to simply observe the phenomena under study as it occur naturally. (Hilgard and
Atkinson 2003: 21) This method plays a very important role in the collection of data on overt
behaviour and the actions of individuals. The main problem involved in the application of this
method include, what to observe? How to fixate the observations? How to structure
observation? What should be the units of observation in social psychological research, and the
definite interval of time for observation?

This method proceeds in following two stages:

Describing behaviour: This methods starts with the observation of behaviours in natural setting
that is relevant for the research. The observation may be based on the questions like what do
people do? Can various behaviours be classified in systematic ways? How do people differ in
their behaviors? From description to causes: The method of systematic observation tells us
what do people do and how they differ in their behaviours. It may also be used to find out what
caused the observed behaviours. But one should to be cautious in inferring causes from
observation as

A behaviour may have many causes -

● The fact that an event comes before another event do not show that the first event is the
cause of the latter one.

● To establish likely causes of even simple behaviour, a number of observations would be

required.

● For more complex behaviours, establishing likely cause is much more difficult.

Thus to find out the course of a particular behaviours, we must look carefully at the result of
many observations, noting the effects of a particular factor. Observational method can be
relatively informal and unstructured or it can be formal and structured. But the object in each
case in the same, “to abstract information from the complex flux of social behaviours that are of
potential significance to the research questions; and to record each instance of such actions
over some period” (Manstead A.S. R. Semin G.R. 2001: 97).

The nature of research setting or topic dictates that observation is conducted in a relatively
informal and unstructured manner with the researcher posing as a member of the group being
observed. A Classical example of research employing this method is Festinger, Riecken and
Schachter’s (1956) study of the consequences of blatant disconfirmation of strongly held beliefs.
The investigators identified a religious sect which predicted that the northern hemisphere would
be destroyed by flood on a certain date. By joining that sect, members of the research team
were able to observe what happened when the predicted events failed to materialise? This is
called participant observation. In such observation researcher participate in the ongoing
activities of the people being observed.

Correlation Method - Correlation is a relationship between two (or more) variables such that
systematic increase or decrease in the magnitude of one variable is accompanied by systematic
increase or decrease in the magnitude of the others” ( Reber & Reber, 2001:158).

Correlational investigations try to determine, ‘what is the relationship among the variables of
interest to the researcher?’ The question is asked, ‘as something changes in amount, how do
other things vary? One may ask if wealthier people were happier than those who had little
money.

A Correlational study of the connection between income and happiness thus inquires whether
more money is associated with greater happiness (Positive correlation), or with lower happier (a
negative correlation) or does not go along with happiness (a zero correlation). The degree of
relationship is assessed mathematically and is expressed as a correlation coefficient ranging
from +1.00 to -1.00. A positive correlation indicates that the scores on the two variables move
in the same direction; as the scores rise (or fall) on one variable, they also rise or fall on the
other variable. A negative correlation indicates that the score move in opposite directions: an
increase in the scores on one variable is accompanied by a decrease in scores on the other.
The magnitude of the obtained correlation reflects the degree of this relationship. The plus sign
indicates a positive
relation and the minus sign a negative correlation. The closer a correlation value comes to
positive or negative 1.00, the stronger the relationship between two variables.

One of the most important points in understanding the result of correlation research is that
finding a correlation between two variables does not in any way imply that two are linked
causally. It may be that one variable causes the changes in the other, but it is just as plausible
that it does not. It is even possible that some third, unmeasured and previously unconsidered
variable is causing both variables to increase or decrease simultaneously. We can take the
example of the possible relationship between television violence and viewer aggression.
Because in most cases it is difficult to control adult viewers’ television viewing habits, researcher
must carry out correlation studies in which the aggressive content of television programs viewed
by an individual is compared with the degree of aggressive behaviour that person carries out.

Experimental Method - Experimentation has been the dominant research method in social
psychology, mainly because it is without equal as a method for testing theories that predict
causal relationships between variables. The goal of an experiment is to see what happens to a
phenomenon, such as obedience, when the researcher deliberately modifies some features of
the environment in which the phenomenon occurs (that is, if variable A is changed, will there be
resulting changes in B). There are two basic types of experiments in social psychology
laboratory and natural laboratory and natural experiments have their particular rules. The
laboratory experiment is of particular interest in social psychological discussions.

Social psychologists use some variations. Two of the most common of these variations are the
quasi-experiments and true randomized experiments. These two methods differ with respect to
realism of the setting in which data are collected, and the degree of control that the researcher
has over that setting.

Quasi-experimental Method - Quasi-experiment is conducted in a natural, everyday life setting,

over which the researcher has less than complete control. The lack of control over the setting
arises from the very fact that it is an everyday life setting. Here the realism of the setting is
relatively high, the control relatively low.
2 Explain the meaning of social influence. Elaborate the various areas of social influence.
Answer- Social influence is the change in behavior that one person causes in another,
intentionally or unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed person perceives themselves
in relationship to the influencer, other people and society in general.

Three areas of social influence are conformity, compliance and obedience.

Conformity is changing how you behave to be more like others. This plays to belonging and
esteem needs as we seek the approval and friendship of others. Conformity can run very deep,
as we will even change our beliefs and values to be like those of our peers and admired
superiors.

Compliance is where a person does something that they are asked to do by another. They may
choose to comply or not to comply, although the thoughts of social reward and punishment may
lead them to compliance when they really do not want to comply.

Obedience is different from compliance in that it is obeying an order from someone that you
accept as an authority figure. In compliance, you have some choice. In obedience, you believe
that you do not have a choice. Many military officers and commercial managers are interested
only in obedience.

Three areas of social influence are conformity, compliance and obedience. Conformity is
changing how you behave to be more like others. This plays to belonging and esteem needs as
we seek the approval and friendship of others. Conformity can run very deep, as we will even
change our beliefs and values to be like those of our peers and admired superiors. Compliance
is where a person does something that they are asked to do by another. They may choose to
comply or not to comply, although the thoughts of social reward and punishment may lead them
to compliance when they really do not want to comply. Obedience is different from compliance
in that it is obeying an order from someone that you accept as an authority figure. In
compliance, you have some choice. In obedience, you believe that you do not have a choice.
Many military officers and commercial managers are interested only in obedience.

Conformity - Conformity is the process by which an individual’s attitudes, beliefs, and

behaviours are conditioned by what is conceived to be what other people might perceive. This
influence occurs in both small groups and society as a whole, and it may be the result of subtle
unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity also occurs by the
“implied presence” of others, or when other people are not actually present. For example,
people tend to follow the norms of society when eating or watching television, even when they
are at home by themselves.

People often conform from a desire to achieve a sense of security within a group—typically a
group that is of a similar age, culture, religion, or educational status. Any unwillingness to
conform carries with it the very real risk of social rejection. In this respect, conformity can be
seen as a safe means of avoiding bullying or deflecting criticism from peers. Conformity is often
associated with adolescence and youth culture, but it affects humans of all ages. Although peer
pressure may be viewed as a negative trait, conformity can have either good or bad effects
depending on the situation. Driving safely on the correct side of the road is a beneficial example
of conformity. Conformity influences the formation and maintenance of social norms and allows
society to function smoothly and predictably. Because conformity is a group phenomenon, such
factors as group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment, and public opinion all help
to determine the level of conformity an individual will display (Aronson, et.al. (2007).

Factors Found to Increase Conformity

Asch’s experiment inspired a lot of follow-up research by other experimenters. Factors found to
increase conformity included the following:
1) Attractiveness of other members in the group . People tended to go along with a group of
attractive people.
2) Complexity or difficulty of the task . People were more likely to conform if the judgment was
difficult.
3) Group cohesiveness. People conformed more if friendships or mutual dependencies were set
up beforehand .

To appreciate further the nature of this dilemma, let us imagine an introductory lecture in
psychology. The instructor is describing the Asch study and has just shown a picture of the
experimental stimuli. Suddenly he is interrupted by a student who remarks, “But line A is the
correct answer...” Predictably, the class would laugh aloud and thereby communicate their
enjoyment of their peer’s joke. Suppose, however, that the dissenter failed to smile or to
otherwise confirm that he was trying to be funny. Suppose, instead, that he insisted, “Why are
you all laughing at me? I can see perfectly, and line A is correct.” Once convinced of the
dissenter’s sincerity, the class response almost certainly would be a mixture of discomfort,
bewilderment, concern, and doubt about the dissenter’s mental and perceptual competence. It
is this response that the Asch dissenters risked and, accordingly, it is not surprising that many
chose to avoid it through conformity.

Compliance - In psychology, compliance refers to the act of responding favourably to an explicit

or implicit request offered by others. The request may be explicit, such as a direct request for
donations, or implicit, such as an advertisement promoting its products without directly asking
for purchase. In all cases, the target recognises that he or she is being urged to respond in a
desired way. To study the compliance professions from the inside, Cialdini (2001) joined training
programs of a different compliance professions (sales, advertising, public relations, etc.) and
started the participant observation. He found that some principles are commonly used to
increase the probability of successful compliance, including reciprocation, credibility,
liking/friendship, scarcity and social validation.
Principles Observed by Robert Cialdini - The principles observed by Cialdini include (i)
reciprocation, (ii) credibility (iii) Liking / friendship (iv) Scarcity (v) Social validation and (vi)
Commitment.

Reciprocation - Based on the social norm “treat others as you would expect to be treated”,
when someone does us a favour, it creates an obligation to accept any reasonable requests he
or she might make in return. We feel a motivation to reciprocate. For
instance if someone does something for you (such as giving you a compliment), then you feel
more obligated to do something for them (buy a product they may be offering). Failing to
respond leads to violation of our obligation to reciprocate and bears the risk of social sanction.
Guilt arousal produces an increase in compliance. People who are induced to guilt are more
likely to comply with a request such as making a phone call to save native trees or donating
blood (Darlinton, & Macker, 1966).

Research findings supports in that this can be demonstrated by experiment. Participants acted
as subjects to answer questions under two conditions. When they answered wrongly,
participants acted as shock administrator and delivered shock in condition A . When participants
acted as witness, witnessing subjects being shocked in condition B. After a few trials, requests
for making calls were made. Results showed that participants in condition A were more likely to
comply with the requests by making many more calls (39 calls) than those in condition B (6.5
calls). It is because participants in condition A comply with the requests in order to ward off their
guilty feeling.

Credibility - The source of requests will also affect whether we comply or not. If the source
is an expert, with knowledge, abilities or skills, i.e. more credible, we would respect the request
more and would be more likely to comply. This principle is used as a marketing strategy, where
they put on white lab coats which, from a consumer’s point of view, will symbolise authority. One
of the experiments conducted in this regard invited five hundred university students to join the
study about their opinion of sleep. In the first stage, students gave their opinion on the optimum
length of sleep and the average result was about eight hours. Then, students received advice
from two sources, one was a physiologist who won a Nobel Prize before and was a specialist on
sleep research.

Liking/Friendship - People are more likely to say yes to those they know and like because of the
Social Exchange Theory, which states that human relationships are formed by using a
subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. Thus, complying with a
person we like certainly is more favourable. This principle is used by salesmen all over the
world. The principle of liking is common within neighbourhoods, neighbours selling and buying
things from each other. When you feel that you trust a person you feel more obliged to buy the
thing that they’re selling. In an experiment conducted by Dennis (2006), 115 female and 94
male undergraduate students were requested to complete a questionnaire asking them the
degree of intimacy with their partners. Besides, participants were also asked to consider 32
behavioural change messages e.g. smoking cessation, safe sex practice, etc. as if these were
delivered to them by their partners and to estimate their effectiveness on a 5-point scale.

The result showed that higher levels of intimacy within romantic relationships are significantly
and positively correlated with the estimated success of appeals targeted at health-related
behavioural motivations.

Scarcity - The scarcity effect refers to the influence of perceived scarcity on the subjective
desirability of an object. Individuals do not want to be left alone without an item. A consumer
often infers value in a product that has limited availability or is promoted as being scarce. The
idea of “Limited edition” which can be seen all over the world is based on the principle of
scarcity. When we see that an object is limited we feel the urge to buy them in order to not be
left out. This also relates to the key explanation to one of the fundamental concepts in
economics “Supply and Demand”.

A classical experiment was done by Worchel et al. (1975). Jars of chocolate chip cookies were
shown to the subjects who were then asked to rate ‘how much do you like the cookies’, ‘how
attractive the cookies are’ and ‘how much would you pay for the cookies’.

Obedience - Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual acts in response

to a direct order from another individual, who is usually an authority figure. It is assumed that
without such an order the person would not have acted in this way. Obedience occurs when you
are told to do something (authority), whereas conformity happens through social pressure (the
norms of the majority).

Obedience involves a hierarchy of power/status. Therefore, the person giving the order has a
higher status than the person receiving the order. Obedience is the act of obeying orders from
others. As humans we are indoctrinated to obey authority figures. This training begins from the
moment of birth as we are reliant on our parents to take care of our every need, in turn being
subservient to our authority figures or parents. As we begin to mature and are thrust into society
we obtain more influential authority figures from outside the household.

Schools have a system of order and authority. Teachers give us guidance and direction
academically and even socially because we begin to learn how to act in a group or societal
setting. The school environment is all a preparation for careers. When we begin working most of
us work for a company or organisation with all levels of management who we must be obedient
to. As we mature we are given more and more responsibility over our actions and judgments,
thus making it more beneficial to our societal advancement to be obedient. Stanley Milgram, a
famous social psychologist, performs a number of experiments on human obedience in the
1960’s.

Obedience, in human behaviour, is the quality of being obedient, which describes the act of
carrying out commands, or being actuated. Obedience differs from compliance, which is
behaviour influenced by peers, and from conformity, which is behaviour intended to match that
of the majority. Humans have been shown to be surprisingly obedient in the presence of
perceived legitimate authority figures, as demonstrated by the Milgram experiment in the 1960s,
which was carried out by Stanley Milgram to discover how the Nazis managed to get ordinary
people to take part in the mass murders of the Holocaust. The experiment showed that
obedience to authority was the norm, not the exception.

Forms of Obedience - Obedience is the tendency to follow orders given by an authority figure.
This can be explained by Milgram’s Agency Theory, which states that we are in either one of
two states. Forms of human obedience include:

● obedience to laws;
● obedience to social norms;
● obedience to a monarch, government, organisation, religion, or church;
● obedience to God;
● obedience to self-imposed constraints, such as a vow of chastity;
● obedience of a spouse or child to a husband/wife or parent respectively;
● obedience to management in the workplace.

Cultural Attitudes to Obedience - Obedience is regarded as a virtue in many traditional cultures;

historically, children have been expected to be obedient to their elders, slaves to their owners,
serfs to their lords in feudal society, lords to their king, and everyone to God. Even long after
slavery ended in the United States, the Black codes required black people to obey and submit to
whites, on pain of lynching. In some Christian weddings, obedience was formally included along
with honor and love as part of a conventional bride’s (but not the bridegroom’s) wedding vow.
This came under attack with women’s suffrage and the feminist movement. Today its inclusion
in marriage vows is optional in some denominations. As the middle classes have gained political
power, the power of authority has been progressively eroded, with the introduction of
democracy as a major turning point in attitudes to obedience and authority. Since the
democides and genocides of the First World War and Second World War periods, obedience
has come to be regarded as a far less desirable quality in Western cultures. The civil rights and
protest movements in the second half of the twentieth century marked a remarkable reduction in
respect for authority in Western cultures, and greater respect for individual ethical judgment as a
basis for moral decisions.

Forms of Obedience - Obedience is the tendency to follow orders given by an authority figure.
This can be explained by Milgram’s Agency Theory, which states that we are in either one of
two states. Forms of human obedience include:
● obedience to laws;
● obedience to social norms;
● obedience to a monarch, government, organisation, religion, or church;
● obedience to God;
 ● obedience to self-imposed constraints, such as a vow of chastity;
● obedience of a spouse or child to a husband/wife or parent respectively;
● obedience to management in the workplace.

Cultural Attitudes to Obedience - Obedience is regarded as a virtue in many traditional cultures;

historically, children have been expected to be obedient to their elders, slaves to their owners,
serfs to their lords in feudal society, lords to their king, and everyone to God. Even long after
slavery ended in the United States, the Black codes required black people to obey and submit to
whites, on pain of lynching. In some Christian weddings, obedience was formally included along
with honor and love as part of a conventional bride’s (but not the bridegroom’s) wedding vow.
This came under attack with women’s suffrage and the feminist movement. Today its inclusion
in marriage vows is optional in some denominations.

As the middle classes have gained political power, the power of authority has been
progressively eroded, with the introduction of democracy as a major turning point in attitudes to
obedience and authority. Since the democides and genocides of the First World War and
Second World War periods, obedience has come to be regarded as a far less desirable quality
in Western cultures. The civil rights and protest movements in the second half of the twentieth
century marked a remarkable reduction in respect for authority in
Western cultures, and greater respect for individual ethical judgment as a basis for moral
decisions.

Obedience Training of Human Beings - Some animals can easily be trained to be obedient by
employing operant conditioning, for example obedience schools exist to condition dogs into
obeying the orders of human owners. Obedience training seems to be particularly effective on
social animals a category that includes human beings; other animals do not respond well to
such training. Learning to obey adult rules is a major part of the socialisation process in
childhood, and many techniques are used by adults to modify the behaviour of children.
Additionally, extensive training is given in armies to make soldiers capable of obeying orders in
situations where an untrained person would not be willing to follow orders. Soldiers are initially
ordered to do seemingly trivial things, such as picking up the sergeant’s hat off the floor,
marching in just the right position, or marching and standing in formation. The orders gradually
become more demanding, until an order to the soldiers to place themselves into the midst of
gunfire gets a knee-jerk obedient response.

3 Discuss the factors affecting helping behavior and theories related to pro social
behaviour.
Answer- Helping behavior is providing aid or benefit to another person. It does not matter what
the motivation of the helper is, only that the recipient is assisted. This is distinguished from the
more general term prosocial behavior, which can include any cooperative or friendly behavior. It
is also distinguished from the more specific term altruistic behavior, which requires that the
motivation for assisting others be primarily for the well-being of the other person or even at a
cost to oneself.

FACTORS AFFECTING HELPING

BEHAVIOUR

1 Physical Attractiveness - Attractiveness is defined as physical attractiveness or the

attractiveness of a person’s personality or behaviour (DeVito, 1976). Researchers believe
physical attractiveness can be defined for any one individual situationally (DeVito, 1976).
Physically attractive people are more likely to receive help than unattractive people
(Harrell,1978). The explanation lies in the fact, that as a society, we consciously or
subconsciously tend to treat attractive individuals differently, expecting better lives for them
(Berscheid, Walster, Bohrnstedt, 1973). Adams and Cohen (1976) feel physical attractiveness is
a major factor in the development of prosocial behaviour in a child.

II. Similarity and Kinship - Finally, individuals are more likely to behave prosocially towards
similar or likable others (Penner et al., 2005), and towards others considered to be close,
especially kin (Graziano et al., 2007). Genetic relatedness aside, pro-social behaviour towards
family members probably involves a sense of duty, reciprocity, and affective relationships.
Individuals care more for victims who belong to their in-group rather than to their out-group
(Dovidio et al. 1997; Flippen et al. 1996; Levine et al. 2002). Park and Schaller (2005) found that
attitude similarity serves as a heuristic cue signaling kinship, which may motivate kin-recognition
responses (e.g., prosocial behaviour) even to unrelated individuals.

II Religiosity - Although several studies have examined the impact of donor characteristics
across various domains, the findings are not as robust as those about victim characteristics.
One consistent finding is that humanitarian values and religiosity are correlated with giving
(Burnett 1981; Pessemier, Bemmaor, and Hanssens 1977).

III Victim’s Perspective Batson and colleagues have shown consistently greater empathy and
altruistic behaviour by individuals who are primed to take the victim’s perspective (Batson, Early,
and Salvarani 1997; Batson et al. 2003).

IV. Personal Experience - A vast literature examines the impact of personal experience on
self-protective behaviour (Weinstein, 1989, for a critical review). Although the majority of studies
examine effects on victims themselves, a few assess the impact of knowing a victim as a form of
personal experience (Manheimer, Mellinger & Crossley 1966 and Schiff 1977). Barnett et al.
(1986) found that participants who had been raped reported greater empathy when watching a
video about a rape victim than did those who had never been raped. Batson et al. (1996) found
that for females but not males, the expectation of oneself receiving a shock affected
self-reported empathy when one observed a same-sex peer receiving a shock. Christy and
Voigt (1994) found that those who reported being abused as a child indicated that they would be
more likely than those who had never been abused to intervene if they saw a child being
abused.

V Identifiable Victim Effect - Previous research has shown that people give more to identifiable
victims than to unidentifiable or statistical victims (Kogut and Ritov 2005a, b; Small,
Loewenstein, and Slovic 2006). This effect has even been demonstrated when no meaningful
information is provided about the identified victim (Small and Loewenstein 2003). Other
identifying factors, such as showing a victim’s face or being in the presence of a victim, also
increase pro-social behaviour (Bohnet and Frey 1999). Charities do often describe or show
images of specific victims to potential donors in their advertising campaigns, but such attempts
seem designed to benefit from the identifiable victim effect (Kogut and Ritov, 2005a, b; Small et
al. 2006), rather than to create “friendship” between donors and victims.

VII. Attributions Concerning Victim’s Responsibility - People also give more to victims who are
perceived as “deserving,” in other words, whose needs arise from external rather than internal
causes (Weiner 1980). Thus, disabled children are deemed deserving; healthy unemployed
men are not (Schmidt and Weiner 1988). Finally, the effect of deservingness on prosocial
behaviour is mediated by sympathy, suggesting that giving decisions are not based on cold
mental calculations (Weiner, 1980). A study carried out on the New York subway showed that
people were more likely to help ‘blind’ rather than ‘drunk’ confederates who had collapsed
(Piliavin, 1969).

VII. Positive Friend Influence - Barry and Wentzel (2006) supported the notion that friends in
particular can be important socialisers of prosocial behaviour. Children are similar to their
friends in the degree to which they display pro-social behaviour and are motivated to behave
this way (Wentzel, Barry, & Caldwell, 2004; Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997). Adolescents who have
friends are more likely to be pro-social than those without friends (McGuire & Weisz, 1982).

VIII. Gender - Females engage in prosocial behaviours more frequently than males (Fabes,
Carlo, Kupanoff, & Laible, 1999), which is consistent across ratings from parents, teachers, and
peers (Holmgren, Eisenberg, & Fabes, 1998). Additionally, observational studies have indicated
that females are more likely than males to share and cooperate when interacting (Burford,
Foley, Rollins, & Rosario, 1996). Beutel and Johnson (2004) reported that in a study of 12
through 17 year-olds, females placed more importance on prosocial values than males at
younger ages, and the gender gap in prosocial values was larger at older ages. Eagly and
Crowley (1986) did a meta-analysis and found that men are more likely to help in chivalrous,
heroic ways, and women are more likely to help in nurturant ways involving long-term
commitment.
IX Age - Older adolescent males placed less importance on prosocial values than younger
adolescent males (Beutel & Johnson, 2004). Further, in a study of adolescent soccer players’
behaviours, recruited from age groups of under 13, under 15, and under 17, significant
differences among the age groups indicated that the oldest group displayed more frequent
antisocial behaviours and less frequent prosocial behaviours compared to the younger groups
(Kavussanu, Seal, & Phillips, 2006). However, there appears to be an increase in the use of
some prosocial behaviours after a certain point in adolescence, as Eisenberg et al. (2005) found
that prosocial moral reasoning and perspective-taking abilities showed increases with age from
late adolescence to early adulthood, whereas helping and displaying sympathy did not increase
with age.

Theories of prosocial behaviour -

Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help other people. Prosocial behavior is characterized
by a concern for the rights, feelings, and welfare of other people. Behaviors that can be
described as prosocial include feeling empathy and concern for others and behaving in ways to
help or benefit other people.

There are a large number of theories which explain prosocial behaviour and these are described
and discussed below:

I Social Learning Theory - Social learning theory suggests that pro-social behaviour is learned
(Bandura, 1977; Bandura & McDonald, 1963; Batson, 1998). Observing role models who are
loved or respected, such as parents or authorities, engaged in pro-social behaviour,
demonstrates how people can and should behave prosocially. Rewards reinforce helping
behaviour; punishments reduce unhelpful or hurtful behaviour. Within a group context, social
recognition, not just private reward, increases prosocial behaviour (Fisher & Ackerman,
1998).Observational modeling processes with reinforcement will result in learning over time
(Compeau & Higgins, 1995; Lim et al., 1997).

II Motivation Perspective - Theorists differentiate altruistic prosocial behaviour from egoistic

prosocial behaviour depending upon the motivation of the helper (Batson, 1991; Nelson, 1999;
Piliavin & Charng, 1990). Altruistic prosocial behaviour is motivated purely by the desire to
increase another person’s welfare; egoistic prosocial behaviour is motivated by the desire to
increase one’s own welfare or that of one’s group or cause through helping others (Batson,
1998; MacIntyre, 1967). Some researchers believe that pro-social behaviour does not need to
be based on unobservable underlying motivations of children (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989), but
other researchers believe that another person’s well-being must be of primary concern in
prosocial behaviour (Cialdini, Kenrick, & Bauman, 1976). It is generally understood that an
intention of prosocial behaviours is to achieve positive consequences for others (Jackson &
Tisak, 2001; Tisak & Ford, 1986), but it is possible that there are other reasons children behave
prosocially as well.
Children’s expectancies may influence their likelihood of engaging in prosocial behaviours.
Adolescents who expect positive adult reactions to their prosocial behaviours report engaging in
more prosocial and less aggressive behaviours (Wyatt & Carlo, 2002).

III Social Identity Theory - Social identity theory and self-categorisation theory (Tajfel & Turner,
1986; Turner et al., 1987) are helpful in understanding why some people exhibit substantial
prosocial behaviour over time. Social identity theory is based on the premise that people identify
with particular groups in order to enhance their self-esteem. Identification leads to selective
social comparisons that emphasise intergroup differences along dimensions. This leads to
favouring the ingroup and confer positive distinctiveness on the ingroup when compared to the
salient outgroup (Hogg & Abrams, 1988). Categorising the self and others in terms of groups
accentuates the similarities between group members with respect to their fit with the relevant
group prototype or ‘cognitive representation of features that describe and prescribe attributes of
the group’ (Hogg & Terry, 2000). The prototype guides the participants’ understanding of the
group and its expected behaviours and attitudes. People identified with a group will thus be
more likely to exhibit behaviours that are consistent with shared group norms and will cooperate
with the group and its members.

Group identification is an important antecedent to cooperative behaviours related to group

maintenance and survival (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Kramer, 1993; Mael & Ashforth, 1995; Tyler,
1999).

Biological Perspective- Empathy, altruism and prosocial behaviour are considered vital for the
good functioning of society. Although psychological theories emphasise the importance of
cognition and socialisation, genes also have a role to play. Monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs share
100% of their genes, whereas dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs share 50%; thus the comparison of MZ
and DZ twin similarities and differences allows for estimates to be made of genetic influences
(Plomin et al. 2001). Several studies have found that by adulthood, approximately 50% of the
variance in altruism, empathy and social responsibility is due to genes and 50% to non-
genetic factors (Rushton et al. 1986; Rushton 2004).

SECTION-B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words each 5 x 5 = 25 Marks

4 Discuss the historical developments of social psychology.

Answer- The field of social psychology is growing rapidly and is having an increasingly
important influence on how we think about human behavior. Newspapers, magazines, websites,
and other media frequently report the findings of social psychologists, and the results of social
psychological research are influencing decisions in a wide variety of areas. Let’s begin with a
short history of the field of social psychology and then turn to a review of the basic principles of
the science of social psychology.

The science of social psychology began when scientists first started to systematically and
formally measure the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of human beings (Kruglanski & Stroebe,
2011). The earliest social psychology experiments on group behavior were conducted before
1900 (Triplett, 1898), and the first social psychology textbooks were published in 1908
(McDougall, 1908/2003; Ross, 1908/1974). During the 1940s and 1950s, the social
psychologists Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger refined the experimental approach to studying
behavior, creating social psychology as a rigorous scientific discipline. Lewin is sometimes
known as “the father of social psychology” because he initially developed many of the important
ideas of the discipline, including a focus on the dynamic interactions among people. In 1954,
Festinger edited an influential book called Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, in
which he and other social psychologists stressed the need to measure variables and to use
laboratory experiments to systematically test research hypotheses about social behavior. He
also noted that it might be necessary in these experiments to deceive the participants about the
true nature of the research.

Social psychology was energized by researchers who attempted to understand how the German
dictator Adolf Hitler could have produced such extreme obedience and horrendous behaviors in
his followers during the World War II. The studies on conformity conducted by Muzafir Sherif
(1936) and Solomon Asch (1952), as well as those on obedience by Stanley Milgram (1974),
showed the importance of conformity pressures in social groups and how people in authority
could create obedience, even to the extent of leading people to cause severe harm to others.
Philip Zimbardo, in his well-known “prison study” (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973), found that
the interactions of male college students who were recruited to play the roles of guards and
prisoners in a simulated prison became so violent that the study had to be terminated early.

Social psychology quickly expanded to study other topics. John Darley and Bibb Latané (1968)
developed a model that helped explain when people do and do not help others in need, and
Leonard Berkowitz (1974) pioneered the study of human aggression. Meanwhile, other social
psychologists, including Irving Janis (1972), focused on group behavior, studying why intelligent
people sometimes made decisions that led to disastrous results when they worked together. Still
other social psychologists, including Gordon Allport and Muzafir Sherif, focused on intergroup
relations, with the goal of understanding and potentially reducing the occurrence of stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination. Social psychologists gave their opinions in the 1954 Brown v.
Board of Education U.S. Supreme Court case that helped end racial segregation in American
public schools, and social psychologists still frequently serve as expert witnesses on these and
other topics (Fiske, Bersoff, Borgida, Deaux, & Heilman, 1991). In recent years insights from
social psychology have even been used to design anti-violence programs in societies that have
experienced genocide (Staub, Pearlman, & Bilali, 2010).
The latter part of the 20th century saw an expansion of social psychology into the field of
attitudes, with a particular emphasis on cognitive processes. During this time, social
psychologists developed the first formal models of persuasion, with the goal of understanding
how advertisers and other people could present their messages to make them most effective
(Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1963). These approaches to attitudes
focused on the cognitive processes that people use when evaluating messages and on the
relationship between attitudes and behavior. Leon Festinger’s important cognitive dissonance
theory was developed during this time and became a model for later research (Festinger, 1957).

In the 1970s and 1980s, social psychology became even more cognitive in orientation as social
psychologists used advances in cognitive psychology, which were themselves based largely on
advances in computer technology, to inform the field (Fiske & Taylor, 2008). The focus of these
researchers, including Alice Eagly, Susan Fiske, E. Tory Higgins, Richard Nisbett, Lee Ross,
Shelley Taylor, and many others, was on social cognition—an understanding of how our
knowledge about our social worlds develops through experience and the influence of these
knowledge structures on memory, information processing, attitudes, and judgment.
Furthermore, the extent to which humans’ decision making could be flawed due to both
cognitive and motivational processes was documented (Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982).

In the 21st century, the field of social psychology has been expanding into still other areas.
Examples that we consider in this book include an interest in how social situations influence our
health and happiness, the important roles of evolutionary experiences and cultures on our
behavior, and the field of social neuroscience—the study of how our social behavior both
influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain (Lieberman, 2010). Social
psychologists continue to seek new ways to measure and understand social behavior, and the
field continues to evolve. We cannot predict where social psychology will be directed in the
future, but we have no doubt that it will still be alive and vibrant.

5 Describe the relevance of attribution towards explaining the causes of behavior and
explain the various errors of attribution.
Answer- In social psychology, attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or
behaviors. In real life, attribution is something we all do every day, usually without any
awareness of the underlying processes and biases that lead to our inferences.

For example, over the course of a typical day, you probably make numerous attributions about
your own behavior as well as that of the people around you.

When you get a poor grade on a quiz, you might blame the teacher for not adequately
explaining the material, completely dismissing the fact that you didn't study. When a classmate
gets a great grade on the same quiz, you might attribute his good performance to luck,
neglecting the fact that he has excellent study habits.
errors of attribution - ​While people strive to find reasons for behaviors, they fall into many
traps of biases and errors. As Fritz Heider says, Our perceptions of causality are often distorted
by our needs and certain cognitive biases”. The following are examples of attributional biases:

Fundamental Attribution Error:

The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to overvalue dispositional or
personality-based explanations for behaviour while tinder-valuing situational explanations. The
fundamental attribution error is most visible when people explain and assume the behaviour of
others. For example, if a person is overweight, a person’s first assumption might be that they
have a problem with overeating or are lazy and not that they might have a medical reason for
being heavier set.

The core process assumptions of attitude construction models are mainstays of social cognition
research and are not controversial as long as we talk about “judgement”. Once the particular
judgement made can be thought of as a person’s “attitude”, however, construal assumptions
elicit discomfort, presumably because they dispense with the intuitively appealing attitude
concept.

Culture Bias:
People in individualist cultures, generally Anglo-America and Anglo-Saxon European societies,
value individuals, personal goals, and independence. People in collectivist cultures see
individuals as members of groups such as families, tribes, work units and nations, and tend to
value conformity and interdependence. This cultural trait is common in Asia, traditional native
American societies and Africa. Research shows that culture, either individualist or collectivist,
affects how people make attributions. People from individualist cultures are more inclined to
make fundamental attribution error than people from collectivist cultures. Individualist cultures
tend to attribute a person’s behaviour to his internal factors whereas collectivist cultures tend to
attribute a person’s behaviour to his external factors.

Research suggests that individualist cultures engage in self-serving bias more than do
collectivist cultures, i.e. individualist cultures tend to attribute success to internal factors and to
attribute failure to external factors. In contrast, collectivist cultures engage in the opposite of
self-serving bias,,i.e. self-effacing bias, which is: attributing success to external factors and
blaming failure on internal factors (the individual).

Actor/Observer Difference:
People tend to attribute other people’s behaviors to their dispositional factors while attributing
own actions to situational factors. Basically, even in the same situation, people’s attribution can
differ depending on their role (actor or observer). For example, when a person gets a low grade
on a test, he/she finds situational factors to justify the negative event such as saying that the
teacher asked a question that he/she never went over in class. However, if other people get low
grades on the test, he/she attributes the results to their internal factors such as laziness and
inattentiveness in classes. The actor/ observer bias is used less frequently with people one
knows well such as friends and family since one knows how his/her close friends and family will
behave in “certain situation, leading him/her to think more about the external factors rather than
internal factors.

Dispositional Attributions:
Dispositional attribution is a tendency to attribute people’s behaviors to their dispositions that is,
to their personality, character and ability. For example, when a normally pleasant waiter is being
rude to his/her customer, the customer will assume he/she has a bad temper. The customer,
just by looking at the attitude that the waiter is giving him/her, instantly decides that the waiter is
a bad person. The customer oversimplifies the situation by not taking into account all the
unfortunate events that might have happened to the waiter which made him/her become rude at
that moment. Therefore, the customer made dispositional attribution by attributing the waiter’s
behaviour directly to his/her personality rather than considering situational factors that might
have caused the whole “rudeness”.

6 Discuss the characteristics, steps and methods of ethnography.

Answer- ​ ​Characteristics of Ethnography -
Ethnography is characterised by
l Gathering data from the range of sources, e.g. interviews, observations, conversations and
documents.
lII Studying behaviour in everyday contexts rather than experimental conditions.
lV Using an unstructured approach to data gathering in the early stages, so that key
issues can emerge gradually through analysis.
V Comprising an in-depth study of one or two situations.

Steps in Ethnographic Method

Steps:
1) Ethnographer starts with selection of a culture, review of the literature pertaining to the
culture and identification of variables.
2) The ethnographer then goes about gaining entrance, which in turn sets the stage for cultural
immersion of the ethnographer in the culture. It is not unusual for ethnographers to live in
culture for months or even years.
3) The middle stages of the ethnographic method involve gaining informants, using them to gain
yet more informants in a chaining process, and gathering data in the form of observational
transcripts and interview recordings.
4) Data analysis and theory development come at the end, though theories may emerge from
cultural immersion and theory-articulation by members of the culture.
However, the ethnographic researcher strives to avoid theoretical preconceptions and instead to
induce theory from the perspectives of the members of the culture and from observation. The
researcher may seek validation of induced theories by going back to members of the culture for
their reaction. Ethnographic methodologies vary and some ethnographers advocate use of
structured observation schedules by which one may code observed behaviours or cultural
artefacts for purposes of later statistical analysis.

Other Methods of Ethnography - ​Macro-ethnography is the study of broadly-defined cultural

groupings, such as
“the Indians”. Micro-ethnography is the study of narrowly-defined cultural groupings, such as
“young working class women” or “members of Congress.” Emic perspective is the ethnographic
research approach to the way the members of the given culture perceive their world. The emic
perspective is usually the main focus of ethnography.

Etic perspective is the ethnographic research approach to the way non-members (outsiders)
perceive and interpret behaviours and phenomena associated with a given culture. Situational
reduction refers to the view of ethnographers that social structures and social dynamics emerge
from and may be reduced analytically to the accumulated effects of micro situational interactions
(Collins, 1988). Put another way, the cosmos is best understood in microcosm. Symbols, always
a focus of ethnographic research, are any material artefacts of a culture, such as art, clothing, or
even technology. The ethnographer strives to understand the cultural connotations associated
with symbols. Technology, for instance, may be interpreted in terms of how it relates to an
implied plan to bring about a different desired state for the culture. Cultural patterning is the
observation of cultural patterns forming relationships involving two or more symbols.
Ethnographic research is holistic, believing that symbols cannot be understood in isolation but
instead are elements of a whole.

One method of patterning is conceptual mapping, using the terms of members of the culture
themselves to relate symbols across varied forms of behaviour and in varied contexts. Another
method is to focus on learning processes, in order to understand how a culture transmits what it
perceives to be important across generations. A third method is to focus on sanctioning
processes, in order to understand which cultural elements are formally (ex., legally) prescribed
or proscribed and which are informally prescribed or proscribed, and of these which are
enforced through sanction and which are unenforced. Tacit knowledge is deeply-embedded
cultural beliefs which are assumed in a culture’s way of perceiving the world, so much so that
such knowledge is rarely or never discussed explicitly by members of the culture, but rather
must be inferred by the ethnographer.

7 Elaborate upon the various applications of social psychology.

Answer- Social psychology as it is today with broadening it field by the research work on
touching various aspects of life, viz. population psychology, health psychology, environmental
psychology, legal system and psychology. It can be used to understand personal health
problems as well problems our earth is facing. Social psychology has adopted multicultural
perspective to understand behaviour with respect to the cultural and social context.

Dissonance and attribution theory have created the most voluminous body of experimental
work. During the late 1960, it was pointed out that the mainstream social psychology had
emphasised predominantly individual cognitive processes and had neglected the social context
and that it had relied too exclusively on experiments in laboratory settings. Modern Social
psychology has notable features such as that it has broadened its repertoire of methods. It has
become much more relevant to the understanding of everyday life with research works focused
on its application in various areas.

The social phenomena are explained with respect to different social and cultural settings.
The cognitive approach to the explanations which was more or less sidelined by experimental
and behavioural approach is again gaining significance. New trends such as sociobiology and
evolutionary social psychology have broadened the realm of theoretical tools of social
psychology. Practical demands have always far surpassed the theoretical knowledge is social
psychology. The 1970 and 1980 were marked by growing concerns with the application of social
knowledge. “Applied social psychology is the utilisation of social psychological principles and
research methods in real word settings in an effort to solve a variety of individual and societal
problems” (Weyant 1986).

​various applications of social psychology

I. Population Psychology - Population psychology concentrates on the effects of the rapid

expansion of the number of humans on this planet and on efforts to control this expansion. How
is it that the number of human beings has grown in this fashion? Sagan (1989) explains the
mathematical phenomenon in terms of the ‘Secret of the Persian In addition to this indirect
effect the body’s immune system functions less well when stress is high. This finding of a direct
link between psychological responses and the body’s defense against disease has led to the
development of the field of psychoneuro-immunology. This interdisciplinary approach studies
stress, emotional and behavioural reactions, and the immune system simultaneously.
Zimmerman (1990) suggests that the term ‘learned hopefulness (as contrasted with learned
helplessness) be applied to individuals who know how to solve problems and who feel a sense
of control.

Several other personality variables have been studied which predict the possibility to develop or
not develop sickness, for example neurotic individuals react more negatively to stress than
those who are not neurotic and are also more likely to become ill as a result. Health is also
affected by the kind of goals for which we strive. People also differ in their characteristic feelings
of pessimism and optimism. Those with a pessimistic outlook view events uncontrollable. Type
A behaviour pattern (competitiveness, anger, an urgency about time and a workaholic lifestyle)
as a personality variable is associated with aggression.
Research indicates that people identified as Type A, compared to Type B, have higher blood
pressure, produce smallest amounts of HDL-good cholesterol and are twice as likely to suffer
from heart disease. It appears that the anger component is a critical factor that leads to
coronary problems. Thus, working hard to achieve does not cause heart disease, but failure to
achieve elicit a hostile self-schema for the Type A person. This hostility in turn is detrimental to
good health.

II A familiar concept in health psychology is the importance of social support-physical and

psychological comfort from friends and family. The general finding is that people who interact
closely with family and friends are better able to avoid illness than those who remain isolated
from others, if illness does occur, those who receive social support recover more quickly. It is
because there is someone with whom one can talk about unpleasant life events rather than
engaging in self- concealment. When an illness does strike, the person has to make a series of
critical choices
and decisions- noticing and interpreting symptoms, deciding to take action and coping with
medical procedures. Thus, research in health psychology focuses on individual lifestyles and
their perceptions and attitudes so that it can contribute to the better personal health just by
enthusing right kind of thinking.

III. Environmental Psychology - Environmental psychology is the field that deals with interaction
between physical world and human behaviour. Among the environmental factors affect
behaviours are environmental stress, noise, temperature, air pollution, atmospheric electricity
etc. The negative effects of human actions on the environment in include global warming and
the ever-mounting problem of waste. Studies designed to consol littering suggest that
pro-environmental behaviour can be increased by the use of prompts, rewards and legislations.

IV. Industrial Organisational Psychology - It is an application of social psychology which focuses

on understanding behaviours in work settings, especially within the field of industries and
organisations. Work related attitudes include employees’ evaluation of jobs (job satisfaction)
and of their organisations. Research has emphasised the determinants and the consequences
of these attitudes.

Work motivation is influenced by cognitive factors, the outcomes of performance, and the
perception of inequity. A common problem in organisations is conflict, and psychologists have
identified both organisational causes competition over scarce resources, and interpersonal
causes such as stereotypes, prejudices, grudges and ineffective communication styles.
Organisational conflicts can be reduced or resolved by such techniques as bargaining,
superordinate goals and the induction of represses incompatible with anger and conflict.

8 Explain the methods of conflict resolution.

Answer- Conflict resolution refers to the process geared toward reaching an agreement in a
dispute, debate, or any other form of conflict between two or more parties. It can take different
forms: Participants may negotiate and attempt to solve their problems to mutual satisfaction,
they may withdraw from the situation and avoid interacting with each other, they may fight and
try to dominate their counterpart, or they may yield and give in to their adversary’s position.

Mutually beneficial goal: A common approach to ameliorate social conflict is to establish

mutually beneficial goals. Such goals prompt the warring parties to work in close cooperation
and help reduce feelings of group struggle. In a classical experiment Sherif and Sherif put two
groups in a social situation which involved competition between the two parties. It was observed
that very soon they developed feelings of animosity and competition. Things reached to a level
where both parties raided each other’s camps to hurt and damage their prospects of attaining
goal. In the next phase of the experiment both the warring parties were put in a situation which
called for joint efforts to reach the goal. Since neither of them had sufficient resources to attain
goal on their own, they were left with no
alternative but to help each other to surmount problems faced by them. Not longer than before it
was observed that members of both parties began trying to understand each other’s concerns.
They started seeing members of the opposite group very often and appreciated each other’s
approach to handle problems.

Thus by the end of the experiment both the groups had developed a better understanding of
each other and there was a marked reduction in feeling of conflict.

Compromise: Reaching a compromise between the two parties also leads to reduction of
struggle. Compromise is a situation where no party stands to gain or lose anything. Thus it
gradually leads to reduction in struggle. For example, when Gurjars in Rajasthan pressured the
government for inclusion into scheduled tribes, the Meenas vehemently opposed their demand
since they have been the biggest gainer in Rajasthan. This conflict led to open war between
them and resulted in many casualties and bloodshed. Now that the location of both communities
is such that they are found living side by side almost all over Rajasthan, they soon realised the
futility of opposing each other. A compromise was struck between the
two and an understanding was arrived at under which gujjars dropped their demand for
inclusion into scheduled tribe but asked for a separate quota for themselves and Meenas
agreed to support Gurjars demand. Thus under the new agreement both parties stood to gain or
lose nothing at the cost of each other.

Developing special norms: Conflict between two warring factions or groups may be reduced
through the development of special norms. For example, in a game, the question of who will
take first turn may be settled by leaving it to the umpire. Thus the bone of contention is removed
and thereby the cause of conflict is removed. Psychologists have delineated social conditions,
on the basis of studies, where conflict and struggle can be handled through developing special
norms. According to them social conditions where both parties have the ability and will influence
each other lend themselves to such interventions. This technique has reportedly been
successfully used in a number of situations with different communities.
Prosocial behavior: By prosocial behaviour we mean behavior that creates some kind of positive
social influence among others. For example, giving charity, working for the welfare of others,
helping others in distress are some of the forms of prosocial behaviour. Studies reveal that
when members of a community engage in some kind of prosocial behaviour toward members of
other community it has direct impact on their perception and opinion about them and results
significantly in the reduction of feelings of conflict and struggle.

SECTION-C
Answer the following in about 50 words each 10 x 3 = 30 Marks

9 ​ ​Scope of social psychology.

Answer- ​ Social psychology can be defined as the systematic study of the nature and
causes of human social behavior. Letus look at certain features of this definition. Social
psychologists examine factors that cause behaviors to unfold in a given way in the presence of
others. They study conditions under which certain behavior, actions, and feelings occur. Social
psychology is concerned with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and goals are
cognitively constructed and how these mental representations, in turn, influence our interactions
with others.

Social psychology traditionally bridged the gap between psychology and sociology. During the
years immediately following World War II there was frequent collaboration between
psychologists and sociologists. The two disciplines, however, have become increasingly
specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists focusing on "macro
variables" (e.g., social structure) to a much greater extent than psychologists.[citation needed]
Nevertheless, sociological approaches to psychology remain an important counterpart to
psychological research in this area.

In addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there has been a somewhat less
pronounced difference in emphasis between American social psychologists and European
social psychologists. As a generalization, American researchers traditionally have focused more
on the individual, whereas Europeans have paid more attention to group level phenomena (see
group dynamics).

10 Mass psychology.
Answer- Mass psychology or Crowd psychology, also known as mob psychology is a branch
of social psychology. Social psychologists have developed several theories for explaining the
ways in which the psychology of a crowd differs from and interacts with that of the individuals
within it. Major theorists in crowd psychology include Gustave Le Bon, Gabriel Tarde, Sigmund
Freud, and Steve Reicher. This field relates to the behaviors and thought processes of both the
individual crowd members and the crowd as an entity. Crowd behavior is heavily influenced by
the loss of responsibility of the individual and the impression of universality of behavior, both of
which increase with crowd size.
The psychological study of crowd phenomena was documented decades prior to 1900 as
European culture was imbued with thoughts of the fin de siècle. This "modern" urban culture
perceived that they were living in a new and different age. They witnessed marvelous new
inventions and experienced life in new ways. The population, now living in densely packed,
industrialized cities, such as Milan and Paris, witnessed the development of the light bulb, radio,
photography, moving-picture shows, the telegraph, the bicycle, the telephone, and the railroad
system. They experienced a faster pace of life and viewed human life as segmented, so they
designated each of these phases of life with a new name. They created new concepts like "the
Adolescent," "Kindergarten," "the Vacation," "camping in Nature," "the 5-minute segment," and
"Travel for the sake of pleasure" as a leisure class to describe these new ways of life.

11 Impression formation.
Answer- Impression formation is essentially a form of person perception. The reader no doubt,
while doing a basic course in psychology must have become familiar with the process of
perception and some of the principles governing the same. He must have come to know that
very often because of its dynamic nature, an impression is formed on the basis of a few pieces
of information. People, while forming impression do not always depend entirely on sensory data
or facts.

People form impression about other individuals or groups of people either on the basis of limited
experience or even without experience. Thus people form impressions about occupations and
many other things. Some occupations are considered to be noble and others not. The process
of impression formation is often highly subtle, even unconscious and is influenced by a number
of factors.

12 Self handicapping.
Answer- Self-handicapping was first defined in 1978 by Steven Berglas and Edward Jones as
“any action or choice of performance setting that enhances the opportunity to externalize (or
excuse) failure and to internalize (reasonably accept credit for) success.” Self-handicapping
involves putting a barrier or handicap in the way of one’s own success. If one fails, then the
failure can be blamed on the handicap rather than on (the lack of) one’s innate ability. If one
succeeds despite the handicap, then one can claim extra credit for success because one
succeeded despite the impediment to success. Thus, self-handicapping both protects the
person from the implications of failure and enhances the success if one should succeed despite
the handicap.

One example of self-handicapping is staying out and partying the night before a big exam. If the
person does poorly on the exam, he or she can blame it on partying all night. If the person does
well on the exam, he or she can take credit for doing well on the exam despite partying the night
before. Researchers have cited many other examples of self-handicapping, which include
procrastination, underachievement (or low effort), alcohol or drug use or abuse, test anxiety,
getting too little sleep, under preparing or inadequate practice before evaluation, exaggerating
the effects of an injury or illness, complaints of physical symptoms or hypochondriacal
complaints, traumatic life events, shyness, and choosing extremely difficult or unattainable
goals.

13 Interpersonal attraction.
Answer- Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to the
development of platonic or romantic relationships. It is distinct from perceptions such as physical
attractiveness, and involves views of what is and what is not considered beautiful or attractive.

The study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of research in social psychology.

Interpersonal attraction is related to how much one likes, dislikes, or hates someone. It can be
viewed as a force acting between two people that tends to draw them together and to resist their
separation. When measuring interpersonal attraction, one must refer to the qualities of the
attracted and those of the attractor to achieve predictive accuracy. It is suggested that to
determine attraction, both the personalities and the situation must be taken into account.

There are many factors that lead to interpersonal attraction. Studies suggest that all factors
involve social reinforcement. The most frequently studied include physical attractiveness,
propinquity (frequency of interaction), familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking,
and reinforcement. The impact of familiarity, for example, is shown in the way physical proximity
and interaction enhances cohesiveness, a social concept that facilitates communication and
positive attitude towards a particular individual on account of similarities or the ability to satisfy
important goals. Similarity is believed to more likely lead to liking and attraction than differences.
Numerous studies have focused on the role of physical attractiveness to personal attraction.
One finding was that people tend to attribute positive qualities such as intelligence, competence,
and warmth to individuals who have a pleasing physical appearance.

14 Expectation States Theory.

Answer- Expectation states theory is a social psychological theory first proposed by Joseph
Berger and his colleagues that explains how expected competence forms the basis for status
hierarchies in small groups. The theory's best known branch, status characteristics theory, deals
with the role that certain pieces of social information (e.g., race, gender, and specific abilities)
play in organizing these hierarchies. More recently, sociologist Cecilia Ridgeway has utilized the
theory to explain how beliefs about status become attached to different social groups and the
implications this has for social inequality.

The theory attempts to explain: "When a task-oriented group is differentiated with respect to
some external status characteristic, this status difference determines the observable power and
prestige within the group whether or not the external status characteristic is related to the group
task". In other words, the theory attempts to explain how hierarchies are created in small group
interactions (with a shared goal) based on status cues. Specifically, this theory explains unequal
distribution of participation, influence, and prestige between members of the group. This theory
has implications for macro- and population-level hierarchy and inequality between groups.

In general, expectation states theory is meant to explain the way that interpersonal status
hierarchies work. "Interpersonal status hierarchies" refers to the emergence of differential levels
of social esteem and influence that occurs when groups of people interact. Research has found
that several factors may influence the ways that status hierarchies emerge; however, the driving
force seems to be implicit assumptions that group members hold about each other members'
level of ability for completing the task at hand. Expectation states theory originated in the
sociology literature and started with observations about differences in participation, influence,
and prestige across members small groups, and these differences varied as a function of status
characteristics.

The primary goal of expectation state theory as applied to gender is to explain how observed
differences between social groups become the basis for inequality in everyday social
encounters. While expectation states theory describes the development of status beliefs
broadly, and can be applied to the study of any social groups, it is most commonly used to
examine and explain inequality as it relates to gender.

15 Importance of group dynamics.

Answer- ​ Importance of Group Dynamics:
1. The group can influence the thinking of its members. The members are always influenced by
the interactions of other members in the group.

2. A group with a good leader performs better as compared to a group with weak leader.

3. The group can give the effect of synergy, that is, if the group consists of positive thinkers then
its output is more than the double every time.

4. Group dynamism can give job satisfaction to the members.

5. The group can also bring team spirit among the members.

6. Even the attitude, perceptions, and ideas of members depend on group dynamism. For
example, the negative thinkers can be converted to positive thinkers with the help of the
facilitator.

16 Role of cooperation.
Answer- Co-operation is so important in human life that it is difficult for man to survive without
it. Co​operation is the foundation on which our social life is built up. Without active co-operation
of fellow beings, a man cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. In a family without active
co-operation of wife, a man cannot lead a happy conjugal life; Man cannot fulfill his basic needs
like food, clothing and shelter without co-operation. Progress in science, technology, art,
literature depends upon co​operation. Co-operation brings all round development of individual as
well as of society. Without this, the very existence of human society is impossible.

17 Active crowd.
Answer- The active crowd identifies an object or group of objects outside itself and proceeds to
act directly upon it or them. It will brook no delay or interference, no discussion of the desirability
of acting, and no dissent from its course of action. Because of the high pitch of crowd
interaction, subtle and indirect courses of action cannot win crowd support, though members are
highly suggestible to all proposals and examples for action in keeping with the mood and the
object. The stage of transformation from shared mood to shared action constitutes the
beginning of the true crowd or mob.

The crucial feature of this stage is overcoming the barriers to such behaviour as the destruction
of property or violence toward persons—actions against which most people have strongly
ingrained inhibitions. At least four aspects of the way crowd members feel about the situation
make this possible. First, there is a sense of an exceptional situation in which a special moral
code applies. The crowd merely carries further the justification for a special code of ethics
incorporated in the slogan “You have to fight fire with fire!” Second, there is a sense of power in
the crowd, with its apparent determination and uniform will, that overcomes the individual’s
doubts concerning his own ability to carry out a momentous task successfully. Third, there is a
sense of impunity, of safety from personal injury and punishment so long as the individual is on
the side of the crowd. And finally, there is a sense of inevitability—that the crowd aim will be
accomplished regardless of the doubts and opposition of individuals.

18 Features of group.
Answer- Features of group -
(1) A group consists of more than one person.

(2) They meet together to satisfy some common motive or common purpose say to collect
money for flood affected persons, or national defence fund. The common motive may be
biogenic or sociogenic.

(3) The group may disintegrate when the common motive is satisfied. This refers to a temporary
group like a party or groups formed to collect money for relief fund or to celebrate Ganesh Puja.
But a group can also have permanent motive or purpose like family, religious groups and clubs
which are formed to fulfil some permanent purposes. These are stable groups and continue for
a long period. Usually sociogenic needs have got an upper hand in group situation.