CHAPTER

2
Sets

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 2.1
Section Basic Properties of Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Sets

3
Sets
Any group or collection of objects is called a set. The
objects that belong in a set are the elements, or members,
of the set. For example, the set consisting of the four
seasons has spring, summer, fall, and winter as its
elements.

The following two methods are often used to designate a

set.
• Describe the set using words.
• List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }.
This method is called the roster method. Commas are
used to separate the elements.

4
Sets
For instance, let’s use S to represent the set consisting of
the four seasons. Using the roster method, we would write

S = {spring, summer, fall, winter}

The order in which the elements of a set are listed is not

important. Thus the set consisting of the four seasons can
also be written as

S = {winter, spring, fall, summer}

5
Sets
The following table gives two examples of sets, where each
set is designated by a word description and also by using
the roster method.

Define Sets by Using a Word Description and the Roster Method

Table 2.1

6
Example 1 – Use the Roster Method to Represent a Set

Use the roster method to represent the set of the days in a

week.

Solution:

7
Example 2 – Use a Word Description to Represent a Set

Write a word description for the set

Solution:
Set A is the set of letters of the English alphabet.

8
Sets
The following sets of numbers are used extensively in
many areas of mathematics.

9
Sets
The set of natural numbers is also called the set of
counting numbers. The three dots ... are called an ellipsis
and indicate that the elements of the set continue in a
manner suggested by the elements that are listed.

The integers ... , –4, –3, –2, –1 are negative integers. The
integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are positive integers. Note that the
natural numbers and the positive integers are the same set
of numbers. The integer zero is neither a positive nor a
negative integer.

10
Sets
If a number in decimal form terminates or repeats a block
of digits without end, then the number is a rational number.
Rational numbers can also be written in the form

where p and q are integers and q  0. For example,

are rational numbers.

11
Sets
The bar over the 27 means that the block of digits 27
repeats without end; that is,

A decimal that neither terminates nor repeats is an

irrational number. For instance, 0.35335333533335. . .
is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal and thus is
an irrational number.

Every real number is either a rational number or an

irrational number.

12
Example 3 – Use the Roster Method to Represent a Set of Numbers

Use the roster method to write each of the given sets.

a. The set of natural numbers less than 5

b. The solution set of
c. The set of negative integers greater than –4

Solution:
a. The set of natural numbers is given by
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ...}. The natural numbers less than 5
are 1, 2, 3, and 4. Using the roster method, we write this
set as {1, 2, 3, 4}.

13
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

b. Adding –5 to each side of the equation produces x = –6.

The solution set of

c. The set of negative integers greater than –4 is

{–3, –2, –1}.

14
Definitions Regarding Sets

15
Definitions Regarding Sets
A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether
any given item is an element of the set. For instance, the
set of letters of the English alphabet is well defined. The set
of great songs is not a well-defined set.

It is not possible to determine whether any given song is an

element of the set or is not an element of the set because
there is no standard method for making such a judgment.

16
Definitions Regarding Sets
The statement “4 is an element of the set of natural
numbers” can be written using mathematical notation
as 4  N. The symbol  is read “is an element of.”

To state that “–3 is not an element of the set of natural

numbers,” we use the “is not an element of” symbol, , and
write –3  N.

17
Example 4 – Apply Definitions Regarding Sets

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

Solution:
a. Since 4 is an element of the given set, the statement is
true.

b. There are no negative natural numbers, so the

statement is false.
18
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

c. Since is not an integer, the statement is true.

d. The word nice is not precise, so the statement is false.

19
Definitions Regarding Sets
The empty set, or null set, is the set that contains no
elements. The symbol  or { } is used to represent the
empty set. As an example of the empty set, consider the
set of natural numbers that are negative integers.

Another method of representing a set is set-builder

notation. Set-builder notation is especially useful when
describing infinite sets.

20
Definitions Regarding Sets
For instance, in set-builder notation, the set of natural
numbers greater than 7 is written as follows:

The preceding set-builder notation is read as “the set of all

elements x such that x is an element of the set of natural
numbers and x is greater than 7.” It is impossible to list all
the elements of the set, but set-builder notation defines the
set by describing its elements.
21
Example 5 – Use Set-Builder Notation to Represent a Set

Use set-builder notation to write the following sets.

a. The set of integers greater than –3

b. The set of whole numbers less than 1000

Solution:

22
Definitions Regarding Sets
A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a
whole number.

The cardinal number of a finite set is the number of

elements in the set. The cardinal number of a finite set A is
denoted by the notation n(A).

For instance, if A = {1, 4, 6, 9}, then n(A) = 4. In this case,

A has a cardinal number of 4, which is sometimes stated as
“A has a cardinality of 4.”

23
Example 6 – The Cardinality of a Finite Set

Find the cardinality of each of the following sets.

Solution:
a. Set J contains exactly two elements, so J has a
cardinality of 2. Using mathematical notation, we state
this as n(J) = 2.

b. Only a few elements are actually listed. The number of

natural numbers from 1 to 31 is 31. If we omit the
numbers 1 and 2, then the number of natural numbers
from 3 to 31 must be 31 – 2 = 29. Thus n(S) = 29.
24
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

c. Elements that are listed more than once are counted

only once. Thus n(T) = 3.

25
Definitions Regarding Sets
The following definitions play an important role in our work
with sets.

For instance {d, e, f } = {e, f, d }.

26
Example 7 – Equal Sets and Equivalent Sets

State whether each of the following pairs of sets are equal,

equivalent, both, or neither.

Solution:
a. The sets are not equal. However, each set has exactly
five elements, so the sets are equivalent.

b. The first set has three elements and the second set has
four elements, so the sets are not equal and are not
equivalent.
27
 CHAPTER

2
Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

28
 2.2
Section Complements, Subsets,
and Venn Diagrams

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

29
The Universal Set and the
Complement of a Set

30
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

The set of all elements that are being considered is called

the universal set.

We will use the letter U to denote the universal set.

31
Example 1 – Find the Complement of a Set

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, S = {2, 4, 6, 7}, and

T = {x | x < 10 and x  the odd counting numbers}. Find
a. S b. T

Solution:
a. The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, and 10. From these elements we wish to exclude
the elements of S, which are 2, 4, 6, and 7.

Therefore

32
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. T = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Excluding the elements of T from U

gives us

33
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

There are two fundamental results concerning the universal

set and the empty set.

Because the universal set contains all elements under

consideration, the complement of the universal set is the
empty set.

Conversely, the complement of the empty set is the

universal set, because the empty set has no elements and
the universal set contains all the elements under
consideration.

34
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

Using mathematical notation, we state these fundamental

results as follows:

35
Subsets

36
Subsets
Consider the set of letters in the alphabet and the set of
vowels {a, e, i, o, u}. Every element of the set of vowels is
an element of the set of letters in the alphabet.

The set of vowels is said to be a subset of the set of letters

in the alphabet. We will often find it useful to examine
subsets of a given set.

37
Subsets
Here are two fundamental subset relationships.

The notation A B is used to denote that A is not a subset

of B. To show that A is not a subset of B, it is necessary to
find at least one element of A that is not an element of B.

38
Example 2 – Apply the Definition of a Subset

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. {5, 10, 15, 20}  {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
b. W  N
c. {2, 4, 6}  {2, 4, 6}
d. ∅  {1, 2, 3}

Solution:
a. True; every element of the first set is an element of the
second set.
b. False; 0 is a whole number, but 0 is not a natural
number.

39
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

c. True; every set is a subset of itself.

d. True; the empty set is a subset of every set.

40
Subsets
The English logician John Venn (1834–1923) developed
diagrams, which we now refer to as Venn diagrams, that
can be used to illustrate sets and relationships between
sets.

A Venn diagram

In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a

rectangular region and subsets of the universal set are
generally represented by oval or circular regions drawn
inside the rectangle.
41
Subsets
The Venn diagram below shows a universal set and one of
its subsets, labeled as set A.

A Venn diagram

The size of the circle is not a concern.

The region outside of the circle, but inside of the rectangle,

represents the set A.
42
Proper Subsets of a Set

43
Proper Subsets of a Set

44
Example 3 – Proper Subsets
For each of the following, determine whether the first set is
a proper subset of the second set.
a. {a, e, i, o, u}, {e, i, o, u, a} b. N, I

Solution:
a. Because the sets are equal, the first set is not a proper
subset of the second set.

b. Every natural number is an integer, so the set of natural

numbers is a subset of the set of integers. The set of
integers contains elements that are not natural numbers,
such as –3. Thus the set of natural numbers is a proper
subset of the set of integers.
45
Example 4 – List All the Subsets of a Set

Set C shows the four condiments that a hot dog stand

offers on its hot dogs.
C = {mustard, ketchup, onions, relish}
List all the subsets of C.

Solution:
An organized list shows the following subsets.

{}

{mustard}, {ketchup}, {onions}, {relish}

46
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

{mustard, ketchup}, {mustard, onions},

{mustard, relish}, {ketchup, onions},
{ketchup, relish}, {onions, relish}

{mustard, ketchup, onions},

{mustard, ketchup, relish},
{mustard, onions, relish},
{ketchup, onions, relish}

{mustard, ketchup, onion, relish}

47
Number of Subsets of a Set

48
Number of Subsets of a Set
In some applications we need to determine the number of
subsets of a set without making an actual list of all the
subsets. We know that the empty set has 0 elements and
the only subset of the empty set is the empty set. A set with
1 element has 2 subsets, namely, itself and the empty set.
It is easy to show that a set with 2 elements has 4 subsets
and a set with 3 elements has 8 subsets.

In Example 4 we found that a set with 4 elements has 16

subsets. The following diagram summarizes the above
results.

49
Number of Subsets of a Set
It appears that if the number of elements in a set is
increased by 1, then the number of subsets of the set is
doubled. Thus we suspect that a set with 5 elements will
have 2  16 = 32 subsets and a set with 6 elements will
have 2  32 = 64 subsets.

Also note that each of the numbers in the bottom row of the
diagram is equal to 2n.

50
Number of Subsets of a Set
These observations lend support for the following theorem.

Consider set A with n elements. All of the 2n subsets of A

are proper subsets of A, except for A itself. Thus the
number of proper subsets of A is 2n – 1.

51
Number of Subsets of a Set
In Example 5, we apply the formula for the number of
subsets of a set to determine the number of different
variations of pizzas that a restaurant can serve.

52
Example 5 – Pizza Variations
A restaurant sells pizzas for which you can choose from
seven toppings.
a. How many different variations of pizzas can the
restaurant serve?

b. What is the minimum number of toppings the restaurant

must provide if it wishes to advertise that it offers over
1000 variations of its pizzas?

Solution:
a. The restaurant can serve a pizza with no topping, one
topping, two toppings, three toppings, and so forth, up to
all seven toppings.
53
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Let T be the set consisting of the seven toppings.

The elements in each subset of T describe exactly one of

the variations of toppings that the restaurant can serve.

Consequently, the number of different variations of pizzas

that the restaurant can serve is the same as the number of
subsets of T.

Thus the restaurant can serve 27 = 128 different variations

of its pizzas.

54
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

b. Use the method of guessing and checking to find the

smallest natural number n for which 2n > 1000.

The restaurant must provide a minimum of 10 toppings if

it wishes to offer over 1000 variations of its pizzas.

55
 CHAPTER

2
Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

56
 2.3
Section Set Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

57
Intersection and Union of Sets

58
Intersection and Union of Sets
In this section we define the set operations intersection and
union. In everyday usage, the word “intersection” refers to
the common region where two streets cross. The
intersection of two sets is defined in a similar manner.

59
Intersection and Union of Sets
In the below figure, the region shown in blue represents the
intersection of sets A and B.

60
Example 1 – Find Intersections
Let , , and .
Find a. b.

Solution:
a. The elements common to A and B are 4 and 5.

b. Sets A and C have no common elements.

Thus .
61
Intersection and Union of Sets
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
The sets A and C in Example 1b are disjoint. The Venn
diagram below illustrates two disjoint sets.

62
Intersection and Union of Sets
In everyday usage, the word “union” refers to the act of
uniting or joining together. The union of two sets has a
similar meaning.

63
Intersection and Union of Sets
In the figure below, the region shown in blue represents the
union of sets A and B.

64
Example 2 – Find Unions
Let , , and . Find

a. b.

Solution:
a. List all the elements of set A, which are 1, 4, 5, and 7.
Then add to your list the elements of set B that have not
already been listed—in this case 2, 3, and 6. Enclose all
elements with a pair of braces. Thus

65
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b.

66
Intersection and Union of Sets
In mathematical problems that involve sets, the word “and”
is interpreted to mean intersection. For instance, the
phrase “the elements of A and B” means the elements of
. Similarly, the word “or” is interpreted to mean
union. The phrase “the elements of A or B” means the
elements of .

67
Example 3 – Describe Sets
Write a sentence that describes the set.

a. b.

Solution:
a. The set can be described as “the set of all
elements that are in A, or are in B and C.”

b. The set can be described as “the set of all

elements that are in J and are not in K.”

68
Venn Diagrams and Equality
of Sets

69
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.1 shows the four regions
formed by two intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the four possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and two sets A
and B.

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
70
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
An element of U:

• may be an element of both A and B. Region i

• may be an element of A, but not B. Region ii
• may be an element of B, but not A. Region iii
• may not be an element of either A or B. Region iv

We can use Figure 2.1 to determine whether two

expressions that involve two sets are equal. For instance,
to determine whether and are equal for all
sets A and B, we find what region or regions each of the
expressions represents in Figure 2.1.

71
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
• If both expressions are represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are equal for all sets A
and B.
• If both expressions are not represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are not equal for all
sets A and B.

72
Example 4 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets A and B.
Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1, represented by
, first determine the region(s) that are represented
by .

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
73
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1 that are

represented by .

74
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

75
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are both represented

by region iv in Figure 2.1.

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1

Thus for all sets A and B.

76
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The properties that were verified in Example 4 are known
as De Morgan’s laws.

De Morgan’s law can be stated as “the

complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of
the complements of the sets.” De Morgan’s law
can be stated as “the complement of the
intersection of two sets is the union of the complements of
the sets.”
77
Venn Diagrams Involving
Three Sets

78
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the eight regions
formed by three intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the eight possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and three sets A,
B, and C.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
79
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets

An element of U:
• may be an element of A, B, and C. Region i
• may be an element of A and B, but not C. Region ii
• may be an element of B and C, but not A. Region iii
• may be an element of A and C, but not B. Region iv
• may be an element of A, but not B or C. Region v
• may be an element of B, but not A or C. Region vi
• may be an element of C, but not A or B. Region vii
• may not be an element of A, B, or C. Region viii

80
Example 5 – Determine Regions that Represent Sets

Use Figure 2.2 to answer each of the following.

a. Which regions represent ?
b. Which regions represent ?
c. Which regions represent ?

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
81
Example 5 – Solution
a. is represented by all the regions
common to circles A and C. Thus
is represented by regions i
and iv.

b. is represented by all the regions

obtained by joining the regions in circle
A (i, ii, iv, v) and the regions in circle
C (i, iii, iv, vii). Thus is represented
by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.

82
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

c. is represented by all the regions

common to circle A and the regions that
are not in circle B. Thus is
represented by regions iv and v.

83
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
In Example 6, we use Figure 2.2 to determine whether two
expressions that involve three sets are equal.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

84
Example 6 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets
A, B, and C.

Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 represented by
, we join the regions in A and the regions in
.

85
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

86
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 that are

represented by .

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

87
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

88
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are not

represented by the same regions.

Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

89
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
Venn diagrams can be used to verify each of the following
properties.
Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

90
Application: Blood Groups and
Blood Types

91
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Karl Landsteiner won a Nobel Prize in 1930 for his

discovery of the four different human blood groups.
He discovered that the blood of each individual contains
exactly one of the following combinations of antigens.
• Only A antigens (blood group A)
• Only B antigens (blood group B)
• Both A and B antigens (blood group AB)
• No A antigens and no B antigens (blood group O)

92
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

These four blood groups are represented by the following

Venn diagram.

The four blood groups

In 1941, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered that

human blood may or may not contain an Rh, or rhesus,
factor. Blood with this factor is called Rh-positive and is
denoted by Rh+.
93
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Blood without this factor is called Rh-negative and is

denoted by Rh–.

The Venn diagram in Figure 2.3 illustrates the eight blood

types (A+, B+, AB+, O+, A–, B–, AB–, O–) that are possible
if we consider antigens and the Rh factor.

The eight blood types

Figure 2.3
94
Example 7 – Venn Diagrams and Blood Type

Use the Venn diagrams in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 to determine

the blood type of each of the following people.
a. Sue b. Lisa

Solution:
a. Because Sue is in blood group A,
not in blood group B, and not Rh+,
her blood type is A–.
Figure 2.4

b. Lisa is in blood group O and she is

Rh+, so her blood type is O+.

95
 CHAPTER

2
Sets

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96
 2.4
Section Applications of Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

97
Surveys: An Application of Sets

98
Surveys: An Application of Sets
Counting problems occur in many areas of applied
mathematics. To solve these counting problems, we often
make use of a Venn diagram and the inclusion-exclusion
principle, which will be presented in this section.

In the next example we consider a complicated survey that

involves three types of music.

99
Example 2 – A Music Survey
A music teacher has surveyed 495 students. The results of
the survey are listed below.
320 students like rap music.
395 students like rock music.
295 students like heavy metal music.
280 students like both rap music and rock music.
190 students like both rap music and heavy metal music.
245 students like both rock music and heavy metal music.
160 students like all three.

100
Example 2 – A Music Survey
How many students
a. like exactly two of the three types of music?
b. like only rock music?
c. like only one of the three types of music?

101
Example 2 – Solution

The Venn diagram below shows three overlapping circles.

Region i represents the set of students who like all three

types of music. Each of the regions v, vi, and vii represent
the students who like only one type of music.
102
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

a. The survey shows that 245 students like rock and heavy
metal music, so the numbers we place in regions i and iv
must have a sum of 245.

Since region i has 160 students, we see that region iv

must have 245 – 160 = 85 students. In a similar manner,
we can determine that region ii has 120 students and
region iii has 30 students.

Thus 85 + 120 + 30 = 235 students like exactly two of

the three types of music.

103
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b. The sum of the students represented by regions i, ii, iv,

and v must be 395. The number of students in region v
must be the difference between this total and the sum of
the numbers of students in region i, ii, and iv.
Thus the number of student who like only rock music is
395 – (160 + 120 + 85 ) = 30.
See the Venn diagram below.

104
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

c. Using the same reasoning as in part b, we find that

region vi has 10 students and region vii has 20 students.

To find the number of students who like only one type of

music, find the sum of the numbers of students in
regions v, vi, and vii, which is 30 + 10 + 20 = 60.
Refer the earlier Venn diagram.

105
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

106
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
A music director wishes to take the band and the choir on a
field trip. There are 65 students in the band and 30 students
in the choir. The number of students in both the band and the
choir is 16. How many students should the music director
plan on taking on the field trip?

Using the process developed in the previous example, we

find that the number of students that are in only the band is
65 – 16 = 49. The number of students that are in only the
choir is 30 – 16 = 14.

107
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
See the Venn diagram below. Adding the numbers of
students in regions i, ii, and iii gives us a total of
49 + 16 + 14 = 79 students that might go on the field trip.

108
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Although we can use Venn diagrams to solve counting
problems, it is more convenient to make use of the following
technique.

First add the number of students in the band to the number

of students in the choir. Then subtract the number of students
who are in both the band and the choir.

This technique gives us a total of (65 + 30) – 16 = 79

students, the same result as before.

109
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The reason we subtract the 16 students is that we have
counted each of them twice. Note that first we include the
students that are in both the band and the choir twice, and
then we exclude them once.

This procedure leads us to the following result.

110
Example 3 – An Application of the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

A school finds that 430 of its students are registered in

chemistry, 560 are registered in mathematics, and 225 are
registered in both chemistry and mathematics. How many
students are registered in chemistry or mathematics?

Solution:

and let

111
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Using the inclusion-exclusion principle, we see that 765

students are registered in chemistry or mathematics.

112
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The inclusion-exclusion formula can be adjusted and
applied to problems that involve percents. In the following
formula we denote “the percent in set A” by the notation
p(A).

113
Example 5 – An Application of the Percent Inclusion-Exclusion Formula

A blood donation organization reports that about

44% of the U.S. population has the
A antigen.

15% of the U.S. population has the

B antigen.

4% of the U.S. population has both

the A and the B antigen.

Use the percent inclusion-exclusion

formula to estimate the percent of
the U.S. population that has the
A antigen or the B antigen. 114
Example 5 – Solution
We are given p(A) = 44%, p(B) = 15%, and p(AB) = 4%.
Substituting in the percent inclusion-exclusion formula gives

Thus about 55% of the U.S. population has the A antigen or

the B antigen.

115
 CHAPTER

2
Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

116
 2.5
Section Infinite Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

117
One-to-One Correspondences

118
One-to-One Correspondences
Much of Georg Cantor’s work with sets concerned infinite
sets. Cantor’s set theory is based on the simple concept of
a one-to-one correspondence.

Many practical problems can be solved by applying the

concept of a one-to-one correspondence. For instance,
consider a concert hall that has 890 seats.
119
One-to-One Correspondences
During a performance the manager of the concert hall
observes that every person occupies exactly one seat and
that every seat is occupied. Thus, without doing any
counting, the manager knows that there are 890 people in
attendance.

During a different performance the manager notes that all

but six seats are filled, and thus there are 890 – 6 = 884
people in attendance.

120
One-to-One Correspondences
We have known that two sets are equivalent if and only if
they have the same number of elements. One method of
showing that two sets are equivalent is to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the
sets.

121
Example 1 – Establish a One-to-One Correspondence

Establish a one-to-one correspondence between the set of

natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... , n, ...} and the set of
even natural numbers E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... , 2n, ....}.

Solution:
Write the sets so that one is aligned below the other. Draw
arrows to show how you wish to pair the elements of each
set.
One possible method is shown in the following figure.

122
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Each natural number n  N is paired with the even number

(2n)  E. The general correspondence n (2n) enables
us to determine exactly which element of E will be paired
with any given element of N, and vice versa.

For instance, under this correspondence, 19  N is paired

with the even number , and 100  E is
paired with the natural number

The general correspondence establishes a

one-to-one correspondence between the sets.

123
Infinite Sets

124
Infinite Sets

We know that the set of natural numbers N is an infinite set

because in previous Example, we were able to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of N
and the elements of one of its proper subsets, E.

125
Example 2 – Verify That a Set Is an Infinite Set

Verify that S = {5, 10, 15, 20, ... , 5n, ...} is an infinite set.

Solution:
One proper subset of S is T = {10, 20, 30, 40, ... , 10n, ...},
which was produced by deleting the odd numbers in S.
To establish a one-to-one correspondence between set S
and set T, consider the following diagram.

In the above correspondence, each (5n)  S is paired with

(10n)  T. 126
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The general correspondence establishes a

one-to-one correspondence between S and one of its
proper subsets, namely T. Thus S is an infinite set.

127
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets

128
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The symbol is used to represent the cardinal number for
the set N of natural numbers. is the first letter of the
Hebrew alphabet and is pronounced aleph. is read as
“alephnull.”

Using mathematical notation, we write this concept as

n(N) = . Since represents a cardinality larger than any
finite number, it is called a transfinite number. Many
infinite sets have a cardinality of .

In the next Example, for instance, we show that the

cardinality of the set of integers is by establishing a one
to-one correspondence between the elements of the set of
integers and the elements of the set of natural numbers.
129
Example 3 – Establish the Cardinality of the Set of Integers

Show that the set of integers I = {... , –5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...} has a cardinality of .
Solution:
First we try to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between I and N, with the elements in each set arranged as
shown below.

No general method of pairing the elements of N with the

elements of I seems to emerge from this figure.
130
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

If we arrange the elements of I as shown in the figure

below, then two general correspondences, shown by the
blue arrows and the red arrows, can be identified.

• Each even natural number 2n of N is paired with the

integer n of I. This correspondence is shown by the blue
arrows.
131
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

• Each odd natural number 2n – 1 of N is paired with the

integer –n + 1 of I. This correspondence is shown by the
red arrows.

Together the two general correspondences and

establish a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of I and the elements of N.

Thus the cardinality of the set of integers must be the same

as the cardinality of the set of natural numbers, which is .

132
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets

Every infinite set that is countable has a cardinality of .

Every infinite set that we have considered up to this point is
countable.

You might think that all infinite sets are countable; however,
Cantor was able to show that this is not the case. Consider,
for example,

A is not a countable set. 133

The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
An infinite set that is not countable is said to be
uncountable. Because the set
is uncountable, the cardinality of A is not . Cantor used
the letter c, which is the first letter of the word continuum, to
represent the cardinality of A.

Cantor was also able to show that set A is equivalent to the

set of all real numbers R. Thus the cardinality of R is also c.
Cantor was able to prove that c > .

134
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The following table lists several infinite sets and the
transfinite cardinal number that is associated with each set.

The Cardinality of Some Infinite Sets

135
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
Your intuition may suggest that and c are the only two
cardinal numbers associated with infinite sets; however,
this is not the case.

In fact, Cantor was able to show that no matter how large

the cardinal number of a set, we can find a set that has a
larger cardinal number. Thus there are infinitely many
transfinite numbers. Cantor’s proof of this concept is now
known as Cantor’s theorem.

136
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The set of all subsets of S is called the power set of S and
is denoted by P(S).

We can see that Cantor’s theorem is true for the finite set
S = {a, b, c} because the cardinality of S is 3 and S has
23 = 8 subsets.

The interesting part of Cantor’s theorem is that it also

applies to infinite sets.

137
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The following are some important theorems:

138
 2.2
Section Complements, Subsets,
and Venn Diagrams

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

139
The Universal Set and the
Complement of a Set

140
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

The set of all elements that are being considered is called

the universal set.

We will use the letter U to denote the universal set.

141
Example 1 – Find the Complement of a Set

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, S = {2, 4, 6, 7}, and

T = {x | x < 10 and x  the odd counting numbers}. Find
a. S b. T

Solution:
a. The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, and 10. From these elements we wish to exclude
the elements of S, which are 2, 4, 6, and 7.

Therefore

142
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. T = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Excluding the elements of T from U

gives us

143
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

There are two fundamental results concerning the universal

set and the empty set.

Because the universal set contains all elements under

consideration, the complement of the universal set is the
empty set.

Conversely, the complement of the empty set is the

universal set, because the empty set has no elements and
the universal set contains all the elements under
consideration.

144
The Universal Set and the Complement of a Set

Using mathematical notation, we state these fundamental

results as follows:

145
Subsets

146
Subsets
Consider the set of letters in the alphabet and the set of
vowels {a, e, i, o, u}. Every element of the set of vowels is
an element of the set of letters in the alphabet.

The set of vowels is said to be a subset of the set of letters

in the alphabet. We will often find it useful to examine
subsets of a given set.

147
Subsets
Here are two fundamental subset relationships.

The notation A B is used to denote that A is not a subset

of B. To show that A is not a subset of B, it is necessary to
find at least one element of A that is not an element of B.

148
Example 2 – Apply the Definition of a Subset

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. {5, 10, 15, 20}  {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
b. W  N
c. {2, 4, 6}  {2, 4, 6}
d. ∅  {1, 2, 3}

Solution:
a. True; every element of the first set is an element of the
second set.
b. False; 0 is a whole number, but 0 is not a natural
number.

149
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

c. True; every set is a subset of itself.

d. True; the empty set is a subset of every set.

150
Subsets
The English logician John Venn (1834–1923) developed
diagrams, which we now refer to as Venn diagrams, that
can be used to illustrate sets and relationships between
sets.

A Venn diagram

In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a

rectangular region and subsets of the universal set are
generally represented by oval or circular regions drawn
inside the rectangle.
151
Subsets
The Venn diagram below shows a universal set and one of
its subsets, labeled as set A.

A Venn diagram

The size of the circle is not a concern.

The region outside of the circle, but inside of the rectangle,

represents the set A.
152
Proper Subsets of a Set

153
Proper Subsets of a Set

154
Example 3 – Proper Subsets
For each of the following, determine whether the first set is
a proper subset of the second set.
a. {a, e, i, o, u}, {e, i, o, u, a} b. N, I

Solution:
a. Because the sets are equal, the first set is not a proper
subset of the second set.

b. Every natural number is an integer, so the set of natural

numbers is a subset of the set of integers. The set of
integers contains elements that are not natural numbers,
such as –3. Thus the set of natural numbers is a proper
subset of the set of integers.
155
Example 4 – List All the Subsets of a Set

Set C shows the four condiments that a hot dog stand

offers on its hot dogs.
C = {mustard, ketchup, onions, relish}
List all the subsets of C.

Solution:
An organized list shows the following subsets.

{}

{mustard}, {ketchup}, {onions}, {relish}

156
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

{mustard, ketchup}, {mustard, onions},

{mustard, relish}, {ketchup, onions},
{ketchup, relish}, {onions, relish}

{mustard, ketchup, onions},

{mustard, ketchup, relish},
{mustard, onions, relish},
{ketchup, onions, relish}

{mustard, ketchup, onion, relish}

157
Number of Subsets of a Set

158
Number of Subsets of a Set
In some applications we need to determine the number of
subsets of a set without making an actual list of all the
subsets. We know that the empty set has 0 elements and
the only subset of the empty set is the empty set. A set with
1 element has 2 subsets, namely, itself and the empty set.
It is easy to show that a set with 2 elements has 4 subsets
and a set with 3 elements has 8 subsets.

In Example 4 we found that a set with 4 elements has 16

subsets. The following diagram summarizes the above
results.

159
Number of Subsets of a Set
It appears that if the number of elements in a set is
increased by 1, then the number of subsets of the set is
doubled. Thus we suspect that a set with 5 elements will
have 2  16 = 32 subsets and a set with 6 elements will
have 2  32 = 64 subsets.

Also note that each of the numbers in the bottom row of the
diagram is equal to 2n.

160
Number of Subsets of a Set
These observations lend support for the following theorem.

Consider set A with n elements. All of the 2n subsets of A

are proper subsets of A, except for A itself. Thus the
number of proper subsets of A is 2n – 1.

161
Number of Subsets of a Set
In Example 5, we apply the formula for the number of
subsets of a set to determine the number of different
variations of pizzas that a restaurant can serve.

162
Example 5 – Pizza Variations
A restaurant sells pizzas for which you can choose from
seven toppings.
a. How many different variations of pizzas can the
restaurant serve?

b. What is the minimum number of toppings the restaurant

must provide if it wishes to advertise that it offers over
1000 variations of its pizzas?

Solution:
a. The restaurant can serve a pizza with no topping, one
topping, two toppings, three toppings, and so forth, up to
all seven toppings.
163
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Let T be the set consisting of the seven toppings.

The elements in each subset of T describe exactly one of

the variations of toppings that the restaurant can serve.

Consequently, the number of different variations of pizzas

that the restaurant can serve is the same as the number of
subsets of T.

Thus the restaurant can serve 27 = 128 different variations

of its pizzas.

164
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

b. Use the method of guessing and checking to find the

smallest natural number n for which 2n > 1000.

The restaurant must provide a minimum of 10 toppings if

it wishes to offer over 1000 variations of its pizzas.

165
 2.3
Section Set Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

166
Intersection and Union of Sets

167
Intersection and Union of Sets
In this section we define the set operations intersection and
union. In everyday usage, the word “intersection” refers to
the common region where two streets cross. The
intersection of two sets is defined in a similar manner.

168
Intersection and Union of Sets
In the below figure, the region shown in blue represents the
intersection of sets A and B.

169
Example 1 – Find Intersections
Let , , and .
Find a. b.

Solution:
a. The elements common to A and B are 4 and 5.

b. Sets A and C have no common elements.

Thus .
170
Intersection and Union of Sets
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
The sets A and C in Example 1b are disjoint. The Venn
diagram below illustrates two disjoint sets.

171
Intersection and Union of Sets
In everyday usage, the word “union” refers to the act of
uniting or joining together. The union of two sets has a
similar meaning.

172
Intersection and Union of Sets
In the figure below, the region shown in blue represents the
union of sets A and B.

173
Example 2 – Find Unions
Let , , and . Find

a. b.

Solution:
a. List all the elements of set A, which are 1, 4, 5, and 7.
Then add to your list the elements of set B that have not
already been listed—in this case 2, 3, and 6. Enclose all
elements with a pair of braces. Thus

174
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b.

175
Intersection and Union of Sets
In mathematical problems that involve sets, the word “and”
is interpreted to mean intersection. For instance, the
phrase “the elements of A and B” means the elements of
. Similarly, the word “or” is interpreted to mean
union. The phrase “the elements of A or B” means the
elements of .

176
Example 3 – Describe Sets
Write a sentence that describes the set.

a. b.

Solution:
a. The set can be described as “the set of all
elements that are in A, or are in B and C.”

b. The set can be described as “the set of all

elements that are in J and are not in K.”

177
Venn Diagrams and Equality
of Sets

178
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.1 shows the four regions
formed by two intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the four possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and two sets A
and B.

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
179
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
An element of U:

• may be an element of both A and B. Region i

• may be an element of A, but not B. Region ii
• may be an element of B, but not A. Region iii
• may not be an element of either A or B. Region iv

We can use Figure 2.1 to determine whether two

expressions that involve two sets are equal. For instance,
to determine whether and are equal for all
sets A and B, we find what region or regions each of the
expressions represents in Figure 2.1.

180
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
• If both expressions are represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are equal for all sets A
and B.
• If both expressions are not represented by the same
region(s), then the expressions are not equal for all
sets A and B.

181
Example 4 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets A and B.
Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1, represented by
, first determine the region(s) that are represented
by .

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1
182
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.1 that are

represented by .

183
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

184
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are both represented

by region iv in Figure 2.1.

Venn diagram for two intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.1

Thus for all sets A and B.

185
Venn Diagrams and Equality of Sets
The properties that were verified in Example 4 are known
as De Morgan’s laws.

De Morgan’s law can be stated as “the

complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of
the complements of the sets.” De Morgan’s law
can be stated as “the complement of the
intersection of two sets is the union of the complements of
the sets.”
186
Venn Diagrams Involving
Three Sets

187
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
The Venn diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the eight regions
formed by three intersecting sets in a universal set U. It
shows the eight possible relationships that can exist
between an element of a universal set U and three sets A,
B, and C.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
188
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets

An element of U:
• may be an element of A, B, and C. Region i
• may be an element of A and B, but not C. Region ii
• may be an element of B and C, but not A. Region iii
• may be an element of A and C, but not B. Region iv
• may be an element of A, but not B or C. Region v
• may be an element of B, but not A or C. Region vi
• may be an element of C, but not A or B. Region vii
• may not be an element of A, B, or C. Region viii

189
Example 5 – Determine Regions that Represent Sets

Use Figure 2.2 to answer each of the following.

a. Which regions represent ?
b. Which regions represent ?
c. Which regions represent ?

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2
190
Example 5 – Solution
a. is represented by all the regions
common to circles A and C. Thus
is represented by regions i
and iv.

b. is represented by all the regions

obtained by joining the regions in circle
A (i, ii, iv, v) and the regions in circle
C (i, iii, iv, vii). Thus is represented
by regions i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vii.

191
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

c. is represented by all the regions

common to circle A and the regions that
are not in circle B. Thus is
represented by regions iv and v.

192
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
In Example 6, we use Figure 2.2 to determine whether two
expressions that involve three sets are equal.

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

193
Example 6 – Equality of Sets
Determine whether for all sets
A, B, and C.

Solution:
To determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 represented by
, we join the regions in A and the regions in
.

194
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

195
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Now determine the region(s) in Figure 2.2 that are

represented by .

Venn diagram for three intersecting

sets, in a universal set U.
Figure 2.2

196
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

197
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

The expressions and are not

represented by the same regions.

Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

198
Venn Diagrams Involving Three Sets
Venn diagrams can be used to verify each of the following
properties.
Thus for all sets A, B, and C.

199
Application: Blood Groups and
Blood Types

200
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Karl Landsteiner won a Nobel Prize in 1930 for his

discovery of the four different human blood groups.
He discovered that the blood of each individual contains
exactly one of the following combinations of antigens.
• Only A antigens (blood group A)
• Only B antigens (blood group B)
• Both A and B antigens (blood group AB)
• No A antigens and no B antigens (blood group O)

201
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

These four blood groups are represented by the following

Venn diagram.

The four blood groups

In 1941, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered that

human blood may or may not contain an Rh, or rhesus,
factor. Blood with this factor is called Rh-positive and is
denoted by Rh+.
202
Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Blood without this factor is called Rh-negative and is

denoted by Rh–.

The Venn diagram in Figure 2.3 illustrates the eight blood

types (A+, B+, AB+, O+, A–, B–, AB–, O–) that are possible
if we consider antigens and the Rh factor.

The eight blood types

Figure 2.3
203
Example 7 – Venn Diagrams and Blood Type

Use the Venn diagrams in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 to determine

the blood type of each of the following people.
a. Sue b. Lisa

Solution:
a. Because Sue is in blood group A,
not in blood group B, and not Rh+,
her blood type is A–.
Figure 2.4

b. Lisa is in blood group O and she is

Rh+, so her blood type is O+.

204
 2.4
Section Applications of Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

205
Surveys: An Application of Sets

206
Surveys: An Application of Sets
Counting problems occur in many areas of applied
mathematics. To solve these counting problems, we often
make use of a Venn diagram and the inclusion-exclusion
principle, which will be presented in this section.

In the next example we consider a complicated survey that

involves three types of music.

207
Example 2 – A Music Survey
A music teacher has surveyed 495 students. The results of
the survey are listed below.
320 students like rap music.
395 students like rock music.
295 students like heavy metal music.
280 students like both rap music and rock music.
190 students like both rap music and heavy metal music.
245 students like both rock music and heavy metal music.
160 students like all three.

208
Example 2 – A Music Survey
How many students
a. like exactly two of the three types of music?
b. like only rock music?
c. like only one of the three types of music?

209
Example 2 – Solution

The Venn diagram below shows three overlapping circles.

Region i represents the set of students who like all three

types of music. Each of the regions v, vi, and vii represent
the students who like only one type of music.
210
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

a. The survey shows that 245 students like rock and heavy
metal music, so the numbers we place in regions i and iv
must have a sum of 245.

Since region i has 160 students, we see that region iv

must have 245 – 160 = 85 students. In a similar manner,
we can determine that region ii has 120 students and
region iii has 30 students.

Thus 85 + 120 + 30 = 235 students like exactly two of

the three types of music.

211
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

b. The sum of the students represented by regions i, ii, iv,

and v must be 395. The number of students in region v
must be the difference between this total and the sum of
the numbers of students in region i, ii, and iv.
Thus the number of student who like only rock music is
395 – (160 + 120 + 85 ) = 30.
See the Venn diagram below.

212
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

c. Using the same reasoning as in part b, we find that

region vi has 10 students and region vii has 20 students.

To find the number of students who like only one type of

music, find the sum of the numbers of students in
regions v, vi, and vii, which is 30 + 10 + 20 = 60.
Refer the earlier Venn diagram.

213
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

214
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
A music director wishes to take the band and the choir on a
field trip. There are 65 students in the band and 30 students
in the choir. The number of students in both the band and the
choir is 16. How many students should the music director
plan on taking on the field trip?

Using the process developed in the previous example, we

find that the number of students that are in only the band is
65 – 16 = 49. The number of students that are in only the
choir is 30 – 16 = 14.

215
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
See the Venn diagram below. Adding the numbers of
students in regions i, ii, and iii gives us a total of
49 + 16 + 14 = 79 students that might go on the field trip.

216
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Although we can use Venn diagrams to solve counting
problems, it is more convenient to make use of the following
technique.

First add the number of students in the band to the number

of students in the choir. Then subtract the number of students
who are in both the band and the choir.

This technique gives us a total of (65 + 30) – 16 = 79

students, the same result as before.

217
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The reason we subtract the 16 students is that we have
counted each of them twice. Note that first we include the
students that are in both the band and the choir twice, and
then we exclude them once.

This procedure leads us to the following result.

218
Example 3 – An Application of the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

A school finds that 430 of its students are registered in

chemistry, 560 are registered in mathematics, and 225 are
registered in both chemistry and mathematics. How many
students are registered in chemistry or mathematics?

Solution:

and let

219
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Using the inclusion-exclusion principle, we see that 765

students are registered in chemistry or mathematics.

220
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
The inclusion-exclusion formula can be adjusted and
applied to problems that involve percents. In the following
formula we denote “the percent in set A” by the notation
p(A).

221
Example 5 – An Application of the Percent Inclusion-Exclusion Formula

A blood donation organization reports that about

44% of the U.S. population has the
A antigen.

15% of the U.S. population has the

B antigen.

4% of the U.S. population has both

the A and the B antigen.

Use the percent inclusion-exclusion

formula to estimate the percent of
the U.S. population that has the
A antigen or the B antigen. 222
Example 5 – Solution
We are given p(A) = 44%, p(B) = 15%, and p(AB) = 4%.
Substituting in the percent inclusion-exclusion formula gives

Thus about 55% of the U.S. population has the A antigen or

the B antigen.

223
 2.5
Section Infinite Sets

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

224
One-to-One Correspondences

225
One-to-One Correspondences
Much of Georg Cantor’s work with sets concerned infinite
sets. Cantor’s set theory is based on the simple concept of
a one-to-one correspondence.

Many practical problems can be solved by applying the

concept of a one-to-one correspondence. For instance,
consider a concert hall that has 890 seats.
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One-to-One Correspondences
During a performance the manager of the concert hall
observes that every person occupies exactly one seat and
that every seat is occupied. Thus, without doing any
counting, the manager knows that there are 890 people in
attendance.

During a different performance the manager notes that all

but six seats are filled, and thus there are 890 – 6 = 884
people in attendance.

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One-to-One Correspondences
We have known that two sets are equivalent if and only if
they have the same number of elements. One method of
showing that two sets are equivalent is to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the
sets.

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Example 1 – Establish a One-to-One Correspondence

Establish a one-to-one correspondence between the set of

natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... , n, ...} and the set of
even natural numbers E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... , 2n, ....}.

Solution:
Write the sets so that one is aligned below the other. Draw
arrows to show how you wish to pair the elements of each
set.
One possible method is shown in the following figure.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Each natural number n  N is paired with the even number

(2n)  E. The general correspondence n (2n) enables
us to determine exactly which element of E will be paired
with any given element of N, and vice versa.

For instance, under this correspondence, 19  N is paired

with the even number , and 100  E is
paired with the natural number

The general correspondence establishes a

one-to-one correspondence between the sets.

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Infinite Sets

231
Infinite Sets

We know that the set of natural numbers N is an infinite set

because in previous Example, we were able to establish a
one-to-one correspondence between the elements of N
and the elements of one of its proper subsets, E.

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Example 2 – Verify That a Set Is an Infinite Set

Verify that S = {5, 10, 15, 20, ... , 5n, ...} is an infinite set.

Solution:
One proper subset of S is T = {10, 20, 30, 40, ... , 10n, ...},
which was produced by deleting the odd numbers in S.
To establish a one-to-one correspondence between set S
and set T, consider the following diagram.

In the above correspondence, each (5n)  S is paired with

(10n)  T. 233
Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The general correspondence establishes a

one-to-one correspondence between S and one of its
proper subsets, namely T. Thus S is an infinite set.

234
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets

235
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The symbol is used to represent the cardinal number for
the set N of natural numbers. is the first letter of the
Hebrew alphabet and is pronounced aleph. is read as
“alephnull.”

Using mathematical notation, we write this concept as

n(N) = . Since represents a cardinality larger than any
finite number, it is called a transfinite number. Many
infinite sets have a cardinality of .

In the next Example, for instance, we show that the

cardinality of the set of integers is by establishing a one
to-one correspondence between the elements of the set of
integers and the elements of the set of natural numbers.
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Example 3 – Establish the Cardinality of the Set of Integers

Show that the set of integers I = {... , –5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...} has a cardinality of .
Solution:
First we try to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between I and N, with the elements in each set arranged as
shown below.

No general method of pairing the elements of N with the

elements of I seems to emerge from this figure.
237
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

If we arrange the elements of I as shown in the figure

below, then two general correspondences, shown by the
blue arrows and the red arrows, can be identified.

• Each even natural number 2n of N is paired with the

integer n of I. This correspondence is shown by the blue
arrows.
238
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

• Each odd natural number 2n – 1 of N is paired with the

integer –n + 1 of I. This correspondence is shown by the
red arrows.

Together the two general correspondences and

establish a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of I and the elements of N.

Thus the cardinality of the set of integers must be the same

as the cardinality of the set of natural numbers, which is .

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The Cardinality of Infinite Sets

Every infinite set that is countable has a cardinality of .

Every infinite set that we have considered up to this point is
countable.

You might think that all infinite sets are countable; however,
Cantor was able to show that this is not the case. Consider,
for example,

A is not a countable set. 240

The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
An infinite set that is not countable is said to be
uncountable. Because the set
is uncountable, the cardinality of A is not . Cantor used
the letter c, which is the first letter of the word continuum, to
represent the cardinality of A.

Cantor was also able to show that set A is equivalent to the

set of all real numbers R. Thus the cardinality of R is also c.
Cantor was able to prove that c > .

241
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The following table lists several infinite sets and the
transfinite cardinal number that is associated with each set.

The Cardinality of Some Infinite Sets

242
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
Your intuition may suggest that and c are the only two
cardinal numbers associated with infinite sets; however,
this is not the case.

In fact, Cantor was able to show that no matter how large

the cardinal number of a set, we can find a set that has a
larger cardinal number. Thus there are infinitely many
transfinite numbers. Cantor’s proof of this concept is now
known as Cantor’s theorem.

243
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The set of all subsets of S is called the power set of S and
is denoted by P(S).

We can see that Cantor’s theorem is true for the finite set
S = {a, b, c} because the cardinality of S is 3 and S has
23 = 8 subsets.

The interesting part of Cantor’s theorem is that it also

applies to infinite sets.

244
The Cardinality of Infinite Sets
The following are some important theorems:

245