Developmental

Psychology
A Textbook for College Students
In Psychology and Education

Adelaida C. Gines
Coordinator – Author
Priscila B. Dizon
Peter Howard R, Obias
Gabriel G. Uriarte
Fortunato G. Vendivel, Jr.
 Preface

This book, Developmental Psychology, is designed to help the learner/student gain a

comprehensive grasp of the facts, concepts, theories, and principles that underline human development
across the life span. Acquisition of this knowledge’s would help him as well in the future in his role as a
psychologist, teacher, parents, nurse, day-care worker, or as a practitioner directly or indirectly affecting
the lives of developing persons.

The teacher using this book for the first time would also find the materials presented here
practical and attuned to the needs of the beginning student in developmental psychology.

This book covers a thorough discussion of the different theories on human development and
methods of research (with emphases on indigenous research methods) and cuts across the different
aspects of human development – physical, cognitive, social, and emotional. This, therefore, used the
chronological age approach instead of the typical approach.

Several local researchers and studies conducted recently have been presented here to address
pertinent to dearth of local books, particularly in the area of developmental psychology. This is our
initial and modest contribution along this line.

The key ideas have been highlighted to summarize each chapter.

To follow up the knowledge’s gained by the student, various activities have been provided., e.g.,
important concepts in every chapter were identified for review; key persons identified on their
significant contributions, and guide questions asked needing critical thinking.

Further application of insights gained has been likewise provided, viz.: gathering data via
interview, observation, questionnaire or case study, and conduct of indigenous research related to human
development.

It is our hope, therefore, that through this book, the beginning student and/or teacher of
development psychological will better understand the complexities of human development.

The Authors
Table of Contents

Preface………………………………………………………………………………………..ii

Chapter I – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The Concept of Developmental Psychology……………………….……………….1

Types of Changes in development…………………………….……………2

Factors of Development…………………………………………………….2

Rate of Development………………………………………………………..3

Implication of the Rate of Development…………………………....………3

Factors Influencing Attitude toward

Developmental Changes……………………………………….……4

Significant Facts about Development…………………………………….…5

Life Span Development………………………………………………………..……7

The Meaning of Life Span…………………………………….…………….8

Stages in the Life Span……………………………………….……………..8

Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks during

The Life Span (Hurlock, 1982)……………………….……….……8

Key Ideas…………………………………………………………………...……………...11

Chapter II – THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Controversies about human Development……………………….….…………….17

Theories of Human Development………………………….……….……………..19

The Psychoanalytic Theory………………………………………………………..19

Instincts, Goal, and Motives…………………………….…………………………20

The Three Components of Personality……………………………………….…...21

Psychosexual stages of Development……………………………………………..21

 Erik Ericson’s Theory of Psychosocial Stages

Of Development……………………………………...………..….……….23

The Nature of Psychosocial Development………………………..……….23

The Psychosocial Stages……………………………………………....…..24

Behavioral Theory………………………………………...………………………..26

What is learning?............................................................................................26

Theories of Social Learning…………………………………..……………28

The Cognitive – Development Theory………………………..……………………30

Stages of Cognitive Development…………...……………………………..31

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral

Development…………………………..……………………………..…….33

Ethological Theory…………………………………………………………..…….37

Sociobiological Theory……………………………………..……………………...39

Key Ideas

Chapter III – RESEARCH METHOD

Data Collection techniques………………………………….……………………59

Time Variabe Designs……………………………………………………………60

Why Study Indigenous research Method?......................................................64

Suggestion for a Filipino-Oriented Research……………………………………66

Problem in Developmental Research……………………………….…….……..68

Key Ideas……………………………………………………………………………...…71

Chapter VII – Babyhood

Characteristics of Babyhood……………………………………………………121
 Developmental Tasks of Babyhood………………………………………….….123

Pattern of Filipino Physical Development

during Babyhood………………………………………………………..124

Motor Development in Babyhood……………………………………………...126

Sequence of Infancy Growth…………………………………………………...129

Babyhood Skills…………………………………………………………….…..129

Speech Development of Babyhood……………………………………….…….129

Prespeech Forms of Communication………………………………………...…131

Developmental of Understanding……………………………………………….132

Emotional Development in Babyhood…………………………………….……133

Development of Socialization…………………………………………………..134

Play Interests…………………………………………………………………....136

Functions and Virtues of Play……………………………………………..……137

Play Patterns of Babyhood…………………………..………………………….139

Moral Development in Babyhood……………………………..………..………139

Interests in Sexuality…………………………………………………………….139

Key Ideas…………………………………………………………………………….….140

Chapter VIII – Early Childhood

Characteristics of Early Childhood…………………………….………………..145

Developmental Tasks of Early Childhood……………………..………………..146

Physical Development during Early

Childhood……………………………………………..…………………146

Motor Development………………………………………..……………………149

Developmental of Motor Skills………………………………………….149

 Handedness……………………………………………..……………….149

Intellectual Development……………………………………..…………………150

The Preoperational Phase………………………………..………………150

The Preconceptual Period…………………………….………………….151

The Intuitive Period……………………………………….……………..151

Conservation Tasks on Volume……………………………………..…………..151

The Developmental Competencies of PNU

Pre-Schoolers…………………………………………..………………..152

Developmental Competencies by Components…………………………………153

Emotional Development…………………………………………………………154

Children’s Emotions………………………………………………..……154

Children’s Fear……………………………………………………….….154

Dealing with Children’s Fear…………………………………………….155

Social Development………………………………………………..…………….156

Development of the Child’s Self-Concept…………..………………...…156

Sex-Role Identification…………………………………………….……156

Father-Son Relationship with Masculine.

Identity…………………………………………………………..157

The Role of Early Childhood Education…………………………..……157

The Role of the Family…………………………………………………158

Key Ideas………………………………………………………………………..………160

Chapter IX – Late Childhood

Characteristics of Late Childhood………………………………………………165

Developmental Tasks of Late Childhood………………………………….……166

 Physical Development during Late Childhood………………………….………167

Motor Development during Late Childhood…………………….………………168

Intellectual Development during Late

Childhood……………………………………………………………….170

Key to Rearing Successful Children…………………………………………….174

Social Development during Late Childhood…………………………………….176

Emotional Development………………………………………………………….179

Moral Development…………………………………………………..…………180

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development…………………………..………….181

Key Ideas…………………………………………………………………………………183

Chapter X – Puberty

The Adolescents Growth Spurt………………………………………………….189

Puberty…………………………………..………………………………………190

Characteristics of Puberty…………………………………………….…………190

Body changes at puberty………………………………..…………..……191

Changes in body…………………………………………………….……191

Changes in body proportion……………………………………….…….192

Primary sex characteristics……………………….……………………..192

Secondary sex characteristics……………………………………………192

Concerns during puberty…………………………………………………193

Effects of deviant making…………………………..…………………………….194

The role of significant others…………………………………………………….195

Key Ideas………………………………………………………………………..……….196
Chapter XI – Adolescence

Adolescence years………………………………………………………………201

Development Tasks of Adolescence……………………………………201

Physical Development during Adolescence……………………………202

Cognitive Development……………………………………………….203

Emotionality during Adolescence………………………………………206

Social Changes during Adolescence……………………………………209

Some Adolescent Interests……………………………………………..210

Personality Development…………………………………………………210

Changes in Morality during Adolescence…………..........………………214

Enhancing Family Relationship……………………………………………214

Key Ideas…………………………………………………………………………….........217

Chapter XII – Adulthood

Psychosocial Development…………………………………………………….…223

Affiliation Needs……………………………………………………..…..225

Achievement Needs………………………………………………………228

Cognitive Development………………………………………………………..…230

Intelligence……………………………………………………………….230

A Fifth Stages…………………………………………………………….231

Decision Making…………………………………………………………232

Moral Development……………………………………………………………….233

Physical Development……………………………………………………………233

An Overview………………………………………………………………………233

Changes in the Sense Organs……………………………………………..……….234

 Sex and Reproduction……………………………………………………..……235

Health and Vitality………………………………………………………………237

Key Ideas……………………………………………………………………………….238

Chapter XIII – Late Adulthood

Physical Development……………………………………………………………247

Ageism…………………………………………………………………...247

The Aging Process……………………………………………………….248

Cognitive Development …………………………………………………………250

Measuring Intelligence………………………………………………..….250

The Information-Processing Approach………………….………………251

Learning in Old Age…………………………………………………….252

Dementia……………………………………………………….……….252

New Cognitive Development in Late Life……………………………..254

Psychosocial Development…………………………………………………….254

Theories……………………………………………………..…………254

Changes in Achievement Patterns………………………………………256

Affiliation Needs…………………………………………………….…256

The Special Elderly……………………………………………………257

Conclusion…………………………………………………………......257

Key Ideas………………………………………………………………………………258
 Chapter VII

Baby hood
Baby hood extends for the end of the second week of life to the end of the second year. It is often
referred to as infancy. However, Hurlock (1982) cites that infancy. Compared to baby-hood, is
characterized by extreme helplessness. The word baby my likewise suggest a helpless individual, hence
the word toddler has Benn increasingly used to denote a baby that has achieved enough control of his
body to permit relative independence, such as moving about, feeding himself, etc.

Characteristics of Babyhood
The most important characteristics of the babyhood are listed below:
1. It is the true foundation age – While childhood is generally regarded as the foundation age,
babyhood is the true foundation period since many behavior patterns, attitudes, and emotional
expressions are established at this time. Largely, these early established patterns persist
regardless of whether they are good or bad, beneficial or harmful.
2. It is an age of rapid growth and change – Growth, both physical and psychological, is rapid in
babyhood especially during the first year. Babies become less top- heavy in appearance than they
were at birth and their limbs develop in better proportion to the head. Accompanying changes in
body proportions are growth in height and weight, which likewise are paralleled by intellectual
growth and change.
3. It is an age of increasing independency – Rapid development of body control which enables the
baby to sit, stand, and walk and to manipulate objects result in increased independence. With this
come an attitude against being
Babyhood is generally considered and appealing age and babies are a source of delight
among adults.

“babied.” This protest, which takes the form of angry outburst and crying, soon develops
into negativism.
4. It is the age of heightened individuality – Through increased independence, babies are afforded
the chance to develop themselves along the line of their interest and abilities. The individualality
apparent at birth increase as the latter part of babyhood is approached. As individuality increases,
as shown in appearance techniques cannot be expected to work equally well for all babies.
5. It is the foundation period for socialization – Young babies are vey egocentric at first but this
attitude diminishes and they show a desire to become a part of a social group as evidenced by
their not wanting to be left alone and by demonstrating attention-seeking behavior. They
manifest attachment behavior by developing strong emotional ties with people they associate
with, especially their mothers, whom they can count on for attention and affection.
6. It is the foundation period for sex-role typing – Right after their being brought forth into this
world, babies are already subjected so sex-role typing by being dressed in clothes with colors
appropriation to their sex, or being given toys or told stories in with sex-indentifying traditions.
However, the press on boys be sex-appropriate are not as strong as they are on girls.
7. It is an appealing age –Babies’ bodies may be disproportionate but it is this characteristic that
makes them appealing—big heads. Protruding abdomens, small limbs, tiny hands and feet,
coupled with their apparent helplessness, clumsiness, and dependency, make them a source of
delight among adults. Gradually, as babies become capable of doing things for themselves and
 their appearance becomes less appealing, they start giving adults a have time since the former
become less easy to manage and more resistant to help form the latter.
8. It is the foundation period for creativity—While babies may be incapable of doing anything that
can be regarded as original or creative due to their lack of muscle coordination and lack of ability
to exercise control over their environment, they nonetheless learn to develop interests and the
attitudes that will lay the foundation for creative behavior and for conformity as well as
nonconformity to patterns set by others.
9. It is a hazardous age—Thee are hazards at every age or period in the life span and certain
hazards are more common during babyhood than at any other. Illnesses and accidents which
often lead to permanent disabilities or even death are the most common physical hazards.
Meanwhile, when poor foundation vis-a-vis behavior patterns, interest, and attitudes are
established, serious psychological hazards may be the result.

Developmental Tasks of Babyhood

• Learning to walk
• Learning to take solid foods
• Having organs of elimination under partial control
• Achieving reasonable physiological stability especially in hunger rhythm and sleep
• Relating emotionally to parents and siblings
• Learning the foundation of speech such as building up a useful vocabulary, pronouncing words
with reasonable correctness, comprehending the meaning of simples statements and commands,
and putting together several words into meaningful sentences
• Getting ready to read
• Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and developing a conscience
(See Table 5 – The “Sequence of Principal Behavior Manifestations of Development During the First
Two Years” on the next pages.)
Patterns of Filipino Physical Development During Babyhood

WEIGHT
At birth male infants are heavier by 0.11 kgs, that the females. The mean weight of males at birth
is 3.05 kgs. While that of females is 2.94 kgs. From birth up to the end of the first year of life, the males
are heavier than the females, gaining 6.07 kgs. And 5.33, respectively. The mean birth weight during the
second year of life is very much less, 35% and 45% of the average weight gain for males and females,
respectively. There is a trend of decelerating growth during the first year and this continues through the
second year.

HEIGHT
The mean length for males and females at birth is 48.85 cms. And 48.14 cms., respectively. Generally,
males are longer than females from birth to one year of age from 0.71 cms. At birth to 2.05 cms. At 11
months. The period of most rapid growth during the second year of life occurs during the first quarter
(12-15 months) for both males and females and the slowest during the third quarter (18-21 month ) for
the males and the
Table 5 sequence of Principal Behavior of Development During the first Two Years
Age Motor Social Speech intellectual Play
Range Gross fine Reaction Reaction Reaction
Reaction
0-2 Mass Activity Eyes focus focus on Cry from
On light face discomfort

2-4 chin up, prone look at watch

Object person

1-2 chest up, prone eyes follow smile at coos avert head listen
to
Moving object persons from light voice

2-3 head steady wave at toy prefer “Ash” Defense listen to

Mother “Naah” Movements music

3-4 feet push Reach for touch adult’s laugh hand to play
with
Erect rattle hand aloud mouth own hands

4-5 sit propped grasp, hold know babble scratch

Toy stranger to Y

5-6 squirms, prone get moving Enjoy person discovers put toy in
Toy mirror that toys mouth
Fall down

6-7 roll transfer stretch arms call for play with

Toy R-L to come attention
toes

7-8 sit alone pat toy pull hair practice knows

surge, sittings
Consonants associates’

8-9 stand if held pick up exploit scold, Name fre- lifts onto
Pull adults express joy Quently heard hands & toes
Own, siblings,
Pets, etc

9-10 creep, hitch point index wave uses a word peek-a-boo

Finger bye-bye meaning obeys “no”

10-11 walk if lead Notice fully “No” pat-a-cake

Babies

11-12 pull to stand exploit repeats recognize

 Toys words sounds

12-14 walk alone open boxes draw adult names object

Into play

14-16 climb steps mark with name of picture responds to pokes fingers
Pencil familiar in holes

16-18 run put a block adj-noun phrases

In a hole phrase
18-20 climb on uses verbs
Furniture seek help uses pronouns obeys exploit

20-22 jump in simple cupboards

22-24 trouble commands drawers
Build woth Simple furniture
Blocks sentences

Fourth quarter (21-24 months) for the females. The total growth for the second year of life is greater
than that of the third year of life both sexes indicating further a decelerating growth rate in length.
TEETH
In general the lower central incisors tend to precede the upper central incisors and the upper
lateral incisors to precede the lower lateral, the upper lateral incisors to precede the lower laterals.
The first tooth to erupt is the lower central incisor followed by the upper central, the upper lateral
and lower lateral incisors.
The lower and upper molars generally erupt during the first half of the second year of life; the
cuspids, in the second half.

Motor Development if Babyhood

Maturation and learning work in harmony in the development of muscle control. Babies are able
to use their bodies in a coordinated manner due to the maturation of their muscles, bones, and nerve
structures as well as the changes in boy proportions. They should, however, be afforded and opportunity
to learn how to do so since instruction or training would be o f little or no value if this state of readiness
is not present
Development of control over the muscles undeniably follows a definite and predictable pattern
governed by the law of developmental direction, which hold that development proceeds from head to
foot and from truck to extremities.
à One to Two (1-2) Months—The tonic-neck reflex (tnr) predominates when the baby is on supine
position, i.e., the head is turned far to the side, one arm in extension to the same side, the other flexed to
the shoulder; can roll partly to side.
è Three (3) Months—ON the verge of turning to prone portion.
è Four (4) Months—Can turn to prone form supping position.
è Eight (8) Months—Can also alternate from prone to sit ting position; can cruise by crawling.
è Nines (9) Months-Can pull himself to standing position by holding on to rail.
 è Ten to Eleven (10-11) Months-Has mastered seating position, i.e., can pivot around in a steady
manner. While holding on to rail or chair he can cruise and lower himself form standing to sitting
position; can creep with high speed; can walk when his two hands are held by an older person.
è Twelve (12) months-Can walk in a steady manner with only one hand held.
è Fifteen (15) Months-Can push a chair around, climb it, and get down from it as well.
è Eighteen (18) Months-Runs but fall now and then; can climb stairs by creeping.
At 18 months, the baby runs but my fall now and then, since his motor skills development is still at a
low level.
→ Twenty-one (21) Months-Can walk backward three or more steps; can walk on his toes and run
without falling; can nimbly with arms swinging at his side; can climb stairs with both feet on the
same tread before stepping.
1. Fetal posture (newborn)
2. Chin up (1 month)
3. Chest up (2 months)
4. Reach (3 months)
5. Sit with help (4 months)
6. Sit on lap, grasp object (5 months)
7. Sit in high chair, grasp dangling object (6 months)
8. Sit alone (7 months)
9. Stand with help (8 months)
10. Stand holding (9 months)
11. Crawl (10 months)
12. Walk with help (11 months)
13. Pull up (12 months)
14. 14 climb (13 months)
15. Stand along (14 months)
16. Walk alone (15 months)

Sequence of Infant Growth

Physical growth infancy is gradual series of maturational changes that had all better control of
action and perceptions. Although there are difference among babies from different ethnic origins in
terms of temperament, reaction, and rate of development, most infants follow this general sequence.
Babyhood Skills
1. Hand Skills-self-feeding, self-dressing. And play skills.
2. Leg Skills-jumping, climbing stairs, swimming by kicking legs, and splashing with arms.
On the aspect of whether exercise classes foe infants and toddlers are advisable, pediatricians
and child psychologists suggest that babies simply need touch face-to-face contact, and brightly
colored toys they can manipulate for optimal physical and motor development.
Studies on structured exercise classes for babies according to Papalia and Olds (1990)
revealed that there are more bone fractures and dislocations and more muscle strains in babies
now than in the past. It was pointed out that when adults are stretching and moving a baby’s
limbs, it is easy to go beyond his physical limits without their knowing it. Likewise, exercise for
babies is not aerobic benefits. Even swimming classes before early childhood have down side.
Children cannot cognitively Hence, it is common for four-year-olds who have had swimming
classes since infancy to become suddenly terrified of the water could drown.
Speech Development in Babyhood
Speech is one tool for communication. Babies, to be able to communicate with others, must be
able to comprehend what the others are trying to communicate to them and to communicate to others in
terms or ways they can comprehend. Often, communication in babies is not mastered quickly until
Babyhood come to a close, Among written, spoken, gesticulate, musical and artistic expressions, spoken
language is the most efficient since it is least likely to be misunderstood.
The foundations of both aspects of communication comprehension and ability to communicate—
are laid during the babyhood years though ability in the former is generally grater than that in the latter.
Table2—The Course of Language Development*
Age (in Months) Vocalization and Language
4 Coos and chuckles
6 to 9 Babbles; produces sounds such as “ma” or “da”; reduplication of sound
common.
12 to 18 A small number of “words”; follows simple commands, and responds to “no.”
18 to 21 Form about 20 words at 18 months to about 200 words at 21; points to many more
objects; comprehends simple questions; forms two-word phrases.
24 to 27 Vocabulary of 300 to 400 words; has two-to-three-word phrases; uses preposition
and pronouns.
30 to 33 Fastest increase in vocabulary; three-to four word sentences are common; word
order, phrase structure, grammatical agreement approximates language of
surroundings, but many utterances are unlike anything an adult would say
36 to 39 Vocabulary of 1, 000 words or more; well-formed sentences using complex
grammatical rules, although certain rules have not yet been fully mastered;
grammatical mistakes are much less frequent; about 90 percent comprehensibility.

*From Lenneberg, E. H. The Natural History of language in F. Smith & G. A. Miller (Eds.), The
Genesis of language; A Psycholinguistic Approach Cambridge, Mass,: 196, p.222

Prespeech Forms Communication

In learning to for prespeech forms of communication normally appear:
1. Crying-Hurlock (1982) consider it to be the very first piece of human behavior that has social
value. It gradually becomes differentiated as the newborn reaches the third for fourth week of life
so that one can tell what his cry signifies from its tone and intensity and the bodily movement
that accompany it. Likewise, crying serves that function of telling whether the baby is normal
and healthy or not.

2. Cooing and Babbling-As the baby’s vocal mechanisms develop, he becomes capable of
producing explosive sound which develop into babbling or lallation. Eventually, some of these
sounds form the basis of his speech.

Babbling begins during the second or third month of life, reaches its peak at around the
eighth month, and completely disappears as babyhood draws to a close.
 3. Gesturing-This develops and is used by the baby not to supplement, but to substitute for his
speech. In fact, even when he is able to utter a few words, he continues to use gestures and
combine them with words to make sentence.

4. Emotional Expressions-This is undeniably one of the most effective prespeech forms of

communication. Through his facial and bodily expressions, the baby is able to communicate his
emotional states to others. Also, the baby finds it easier to understand others by their facial
expressions than by their words.

The appearance of true language, i.e., the first word, normally takes place at the age of about 10-
15 months. During the second year of life there is an accumulation of single-word and two-word
utterances.
Between the first and second year, a toddler’s sentences are most often-single words.
“Ball,” for example, is likely to mean, “I want the ball” while “more” is use to express “I want
more.”

Adults can help at this point in developing babies’ babies’ speech development by
practicing “expansion.” When the toddler says “car,” meaning, “I want to go in the car,” the
parent can respond by repeating the word and developing the meaning into a full. Complete
sentence, “Yes, we are going to ride in the car.”

These expansions are made on the bases of deferent cues what is going on in the toddler’s
life at the moment. Adults must read the situation and provide the toddler with an appropriate
sentence form that would represent what he is not yet capable of expressing.

Remember that we should not assume that the toddler’s understanding is limited just
because he uses only single words His comprehension exceeds his production of words, and this
is generally true throughout his lifespan.
Does the baby understand all the words in the sentence? Definitely no. He depends on a
variety of cues, too.
If you say to him, “Would you like some juice?” he may go to the refrigerator where
there is a pitcher of juice. He might have done the same thing if you had said, “You don’t like
juice?
“Juice, “therefore, is the significant word. He knows “juice” and associates it with the
refrigerator. Separate words are, however, not attended to. In fact, a child up to the age of around
10, rarely tries to understand each word—he simply incorporates what he hears into th general
scheme of his perception called schemata at that time.
What other cues does a toddler use for purposes of understanding? They are the tone and
rhythm of adults’ voices, their body postures, facial expressions, and had gestures.
We may also find ourselves depending upon early types of learning in order to
understand a language we are not familiar with. In the same way, extra-linguistic cues help a
baby understand what we say or tell him.

Development of Understanding
Babies acquire through maturation and learning an understanding of what observe and this
depends largely on two factors: their intelligence and their pervious experiences.
 As they acquire new meanings, babies interpret new experiences on the basis of their memories
of previous ones. Concepts develop through association of meanings to objects, people, and situations.
Understand develops through sensory exploration and motor manipulation. Babies become
capable at around two years of age to make simple generalization based on similar experiences in which
they have noted relationships.
Among the important concepts that develop in babyhood are those related to:
1. Space
2. Weight
3. Time
4. Self
5. Sex-role
6. Social
7. Beauty
8. The comic

Emotional Development in Baby

According to Dr. Fernando Hofilena (1983), in his article “How Babies Learn to Love,” it is at
feeding time that the baby receives the earliest lesson in love, along with the earliest stimulation of his
intellect.
When a relaxed and happy mother creedless the baby in her arms and feeds him, she does not
just deliver calories into a growing organism but nourishes him with “the milk of human kindness.”
Stroking the baby gently and singing or speaking softly to him enhances his feelings of
satisfaction and well-being. The security that ensues in manifested in the depth and tranquility of his
sleep.
Cuddling or stroking the baby gently, singing or speaking to him enhances his feelings of satisfaction
and well-being.
This, feeding may be regarded as a love scene, the opening of a drama of life, It is this giving
and taking of love that is vital to the emotional life of both the mother and the baby.
Moreover, separation for a significant period from the mother especially at six months of age,
during which babies have already formed a strong bong with a mothering figuring, may lead to the
initial reaction of protest: crying, searching, almost panic behavior, and great deal of motor activity
involving both arms and legs, Likewise, babies may show profound disturbances in health and in motor,
social, and language development as was found in a study by Rene Spitz (1983).
Common emotional patterns shown in babyhood include anger, fear, curiosity, joy, and affection.
Development of Socialization
Just like among adults, for toddlers, friendship involves an element of choice. An important
indication of a first friendship in preference for one particular child over all other kids. Another sigh in
sharing happiness, even joy, when the toddlers greet each other. Same children may show pleasure at the
mere memory of a little buddy, whose name you would hear them say over and over, sometimes as they
fall asleep.
Other signs of these early friendships are more subtle, however, such as baby spoon on a table
simultaneously, using the same color to draw similar patterns of figures, or playing with similar, if not
identical toys. This my look like parallel play, but psychologists, like Kimberly Whaley (1990) of Ohio
State University, say otherwise She believes that the exact mimicking shows an awareness between the
children and acts to forge a connection that exclude other and creates a history for them. By imitating
each other, these children actually say, “I like to be with you” or “We have lots of things in common.” It
is this mimicking the helps toddlers create a sense of intimacy amidst a noisy classroom or home. An
activity as sucking from bottles side by side is enough to put two two-years-olds in their own little
world. They may just sit on a chair without saying a word, yet, even if another child comes up to one of
them and hit them both over the head, they would just ignore the intruder.
In a study using a videotape, by Whaley (1990) where participants were 24 children aged 16
months to three years, contrary to expectations, almost all the relationships sprang up between boys and
girls, rather than children of the same sex. All except two of the children had formed at least one
friendship over the course of a year. More significantly, the children paired off with other kids within six
months of their own age which signifies that they were able to recognize peers in the same stages
development.
Roopnarine and Honig (19985) suggested ways by which parents and other adults can help kids
who have trouble finding playmates or making friends:
1. Use positive disciplinary techniques. Give rewards, make rules and their reasons clear, and
encourage cooperation in nonpunitive ways.
2. Be models of warm, nurturing, attentive behavior, and work to build kids’ self-esteem.
3. Show prosocial behavior yourself, and praise signs of children’s budding empathy and
responsiveness.
4. Make a special effort to fine a play group for kids if they do not often have opportunity to be
with other children. Social skills grow through experiences.
5. Encourage “loners” to play with small groups of two or three girls at first, and give them ample
time to get acquainted before getting involved.
6. Teach friendships skills” indirectly though puppetry, books about animals, etc. and children who
have learned to make friends.

Play Interests
Toddlers show a presumably definite social interest in one another, they communicate somewhat
effectively, and attempt cooperative play.
According to highest and Noppe (1985), recent studies place socialization in babies in a different
perspective because they are conducted on a one-to-one interaction study. Earlier, misconceptions
portrayed the toddler as being anti-social due to conceptions portrayed the toddler as being anti-
social due to conduct of studies involving them in large group settings.
When we see babies building with blocks, pretending to be airplanes, or learning to sip, we are
apt to think that they are jus amusements, quite different form serious occupations. We become
mixed up because most of us in our own childhood were taught that school work was duty and a job
was grind. To babies, play is actually a serious business.
Babies generally begin to play around each other at 1 ½ or 2 ½ years of age and are likely to grab
things from each other without much fanfare. The one who has a possession never gives it up to be
nice. He either hangs onto the object, perhaps hitting the attacker, or he gives it up in bewilderment.
Experts like Dr. Benjamin Spock, author of baby and child Care say that if a baby at around the
age of two seems to be a grabber, it does not meant that he is going to be a bully. They add that he is
just too young to have much feeling for others. If he is doing it constantly, it may help to let him
play sometimes with slightly older children who stand up for their rights. If he always intimidates a
certain child, better keep them separated for a while, if the baby is hurting another of looks as though
he wants to of him ram aid of him. Pull him away matter-of-fact and shift and shift his attention or
get him interested in something else. It is better if you don’t heap shame him, lest he feels
abandoned and more aggressive.
 If the child at the age of two does not give up his possessions such as a car or any toy, he is
behaving normally at his age. He will eventually learn to become generous very gradually, as his
spirit grown up and as he learns to enjoy and love other children, if you make the child give up his
prized possession whenever another child want it, you gibe him the felling that the whole world is
out to get his things way form him. This makes him more possessive, instead of less. This same
principles holds true even among grown-ups.
When a child reaches the stage when he begins to enjoy playing with others, at around age three,
you can help to make a game of sharing.

Functions and Virtues of Play

Frank and Theresa Caplan (1995) in their book Power of Play consider it abnormal for a child
not to play, since playing is a valuable way for child to absorb information, learn skills, and aid his
personal development. They consider the following to be the merits of play:
1. It aids growth.
2. It is a voluntary activity.
3. It ives freedom of action a child.
4. It provides an imaginary world that a child can master.
5. It has elements of adventure in it.
6. Through it, language can be built up
7. It has unique power of building interpersonal relations.
8. It offers opportunities for mastery of the physical self.
9. If furthers interest and concentration.
10. It allows the child to investigate the material world.
11. It is a way of learning adult roles.
12. It is a dynamic way of learning.
13. It refines a child’s judgment.
14. Academics can be structured into it.
15. It is vitalizing, in that through it the child gets a relief from the sense of powerlessness.
Meanwhile Gracianus R. Reyes (1995)
In his article entitled, “Child’s Play A Potent Tool for Education gave out tips on choosing tools for tots:
1. Look for toy made of non-toxic materials.
2. Buy toys that are affordable but durable.
3. Select toys that are safe, those that toddlers will not coke on or get cut or scratches from
handling.
4. Choose toys that whet the imagination and creativity of toddlers.
5. Give the toddler construction toys which will develop his desire to construct rather than the urge
to destroy.
6. Never force a toy on a toddler just because the instructions in the accompanying brochure say the
toy is fit for his particular age. He may need to play with a toy of a higher intelligence level or of
a lower one.
Play Patterns of Babyhood
1. Sensorimotor play
2. Exploratory Play
3. Imitative Play
4. Make-Believe/Fantasy Play
5. Games
 6. Amusements
Moral Development in Babyhood
Babies are neither moral nor immoral but nonmoral since they have not yet formed a scale of
values and a conscience. Hence, their behavior is not bound by moral considerations or standards they
eventually learn moral codes form their parents, teachers and playmates or peers as they learn the value
of conforming to these codes.
How do babies judge the rightness or wrongness of an act? According to Hurlock (1982), it is in
terms of the pleasure or plain it brings them rather than on the basis of the effects it has on others.
Learning to behave in a manner considered morally appropriate is a long and slow process for
babies, However, they do manifest what Jean Piaget calls morality by constant automatic obedience to
rules without reasoning or judgment. This last until the age of seven or eight.

Interest in Sexuality
According to Barbara Rutter (1996), sensivity to sexual, simulation is present at birth, and that
erection are often noted in newborn males when exited, even while struggling for their first breath, just
as clitoral sensitivity can be noted in newborn females, Fondling of one’s genitals may appear at age 2-
4.
For all babies, she adds, sexual pleasure is quit secondary to the pleasure they derive form the
satisfaction of their needs for food, sleep, and tactile comfort.
Since Filipinos live in the modern world and are affected by mass media, parents can plan how to
discuss the sexual facts of life appropriately with their kids, They can anticipate what will happen to
their toddlers as they mature, and can give them the right answer to their questions when the latter’s time
comes to avoid misconceptions or fallacies about their own sexuality.

KEY IDEA
1. Babyhood begins from the end of the second week and ends on the send year of life. Unlike
infancy in which the child is helpless, babyhood is the time when he achieves enough body
control to become independent.
2. Babyhood is the true foundation age, age of rapid growth and change, age of increasing
independency, age of heightened individuality, foundation period for socialization and for sex-
role typing, and appealing age, the foundation period for creativity, and hazardous age.
3. There are tasks that arise during babyhood, just like in the other developmental periods in the life
span, which babies are expected to accomplish.
4. There are variations in the pattern of physical growth and development among boys and girls
during babyhood.
5. Maturation and learning work together in the development of muscle control, which is governed
by the laws of development direction: the cephalocaudal law and the proximodistal law.
6. Babyhood skills fall under two categories: hands skills and leg skills.
7. Prespeech from of communication include crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing, and emotional
expressions.
8. Common emotional patterns in babyhood involve anger, fear, curiosity, joy, and affection.
9. Toddlers are also capable of establishing or forming friendships.
10. Play is serious business among toddlers and their play patterns are of sensorimotor, exploratory,
imitative, make-believe/fantasy type and may involve games and amusement.
11. Understanding in babies develop through maturation and learning and depends on their level of
intelligence and their precious experiences Space, weight, time, self, sex-role, social, beauty, and
the comic concepts emerge during babyhood.
12. Babies are nonmoral duet to their lack of a scale of values and a conscience. They demonstrate
obedience to rules without question.
 Chapter VIII

Early Childhood
Early childhood (2 years to 6 years) is a critical period in the development of the human
potential. Foundations for all aspects of development are laid during this stage. It is the period of the
development of initiative. The child acts on his needs. If these attempts are supported and are quite
successful, he develops a sense of confidence in himself. It is also referred to as preschool age. The
child’s physical and motor development agents not only his succeeding physical growth and motor
development but also his sense of identity and sense of control. His acquisition of language and
understanding of concepts influence his intellectual development. His social interactions with his family
and significant others determine how he progress socially and emotionally.
The family and the preschool need to be aware of the characteristics and needs in this state so
they can facilitate maximum growth and development of the child.

Characteristics of Earl Childhood

Early childhood is characterized bye the things young children do and learn when they are about
three to six years old.
1. Activity Age—A healthy child engages in a all kinds of tasks.
2. Discovery Age—They young child starts to learn many things about himself and his
environment.
3. Exploration Age—The child manipulates hid body and his environment.
4. Socialization Age—The child begins to meet people in his neighborhood and community.
5. Imitation Age—The child copies just any model who gets his attention.
6. Play Age—The child engages different kinds of play activities.
7. Vocabulary Age—The child accumulates vocabulary form his interactions.
8. Curiosity Age—The child tries to understand his environment.
9. Inquisitive or Questioning Age—The preschool always asks about the varied things in his
environment.
10. Troublesome Age—If the child is not properly guided his exploration sometimes create trouble
for him and his family.

Development Tasks of Early Childhood

The preschool child is expected to develop the following developmental self-helps skills: (1)
control of elimination, (2) self-feeding, self-dressing and doing some things without much help. (3)
Development of motor skills that allow him to explore and do things to satisfy his curiosity, (4)
acquisition of adequate vocabulary to communicate his thoughts and feelings with those around him. His
greater self-identity and self-control help his management of a social relationship.
When he is supported, guided, praise, and accepted for what he attempts, or is able to don, he
develops the initiative to help himself with his needs and learn new things.

Physical Development during Early childhood

A. Growth Trends in Height and Weight
The data shows that children increase in weight and height with increase in chronological age. Males
generally have larger measurements than females.
Average Height and Weigh
Filipino Boys and Girls
 3-7 years old
Age Years Height (cms.) Weight (kgs.)
Boys Girls Boys Girls
3 80.5 82 11.24 11.07
4 90 90.5 13.02 12.97
5 98 98.5 15.07 15.39
6 107.5 106.5 17.82 17.39
7 117.5 115.5 21.41 20.21
Source: RNRI-PPS, 1992
B. Body Proportions
All parts of the body grown, but different rates. In the head, the forehead area develops
faster that the lower parts of the face. The reason this is the very rapid growth of the brain.

The trunk grows longer and broader. The arms grown much longer between babyhood
and age six. The legs grow at a slower rate than the arms. They are also thin and the muscles are
not well developed. The fee grow broader and longer and the toes are proportionately too short
for the rest of the foot
.
The bones are still soft and can easily be deformed. However, when they are broken due to
accidents they can be rehabilitated easily.
Adipose of fatty tissue develops faster than muscle tissue and children who eat too many
carbohydrates and too little protein will develop more fat cells. This may make them tend toe e
overweight for the rest of their lives.
The more muscle tissue a child develops, the stronger he becomes. The stronger he becomes. The
more energetic and active he is.
Changes in body proportions and the fact that a child’s body is not shaped like an adult’s body
affect body his appearance and behavior. These in turn. Affect peoples’ reaction to him. The way people
react has a strong effect on the way a child will feel about himself. If the adult shows acceptance and
affection, the child will feel good about his appearance. This will contribute to his self-esteem or self
worth. If he is teased or scolded about his behavior or clumsiness, he may develop negative feelings
about himself.
C. Children’s Illnesses
Illnesses are more common during the preschool year than when the child grown older. Even
healthy children experience some of these illnesses. Respiratory tract disorders and digestive upsets
are the most common problems. If they have been immunized, they will not or have only very mild
cases of chicken pox. Measles, poliomyelitis, and diphtheria.
Parents should attend to the child when symptoms of illnesses are observed in the child.
Professional help will check and lessen the negative effects of these diseases especially when they are
attended to immediately and comprehensively in their initial stages.
D. Physical Defects
Children with physical defects should be taught an early age to accept their conditions. They
should be treated as much as if he were normal. They should be given every chance to learn to do
thing like normal children. They should learn to do things for themselves. Then they, too, can lead
independent useful lives.
 Accidents, which sometimes are the reason for physical defects, can prevent by making the home
and school as accident-proof as possible. Parents and teachers should also watch over their children
carefully without unduly curtailing their freedom to explore and learn.
E. factors That Affect Growth and Development
Though there is a pattern of development, every child is a unique individual. The differences in
their physical development may be affected by the following factors:
1. Heredity—If the parents are tall, chances are the child will also be tall.
2. Body builds—Small-boned children usually grow more slowly.
3. Sex-Boys to be taller and heavier than girls.
4. Nutrition—Proper nutrition, especially protein intake affects growth and development.
5. Health—Healthy children grow and develop faster than those in poor health.
6. Emotional state—Children from happy homes grow faster than those who are suffering
stressful conditions.
7. Teething—Teething may affect appetite and slow down physical growth and development.
8. Physical and play activities—children who are encouraged to explore and engage in play
activity grow and develop faster.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Development of Motor Skills
Motor development depends to a great extent of the child’s physical condition. When a child is
health, he strengthens all his muscles, established his coordination, acquires balance, fine tunes the
movement of his small muscles, and learns to move foe specific purposes progressively.
Earl childhood is a critical period for learning to do things for specific purposes like eating,
dressing, making something, and writing. These hand skills arelearned during this stage, if not, the child
my find it difficult to learn them later. Walking, skipping, hopping, jumping, and riding a tricycle are
some of the leg skills to be developed during this stage.
Handedness
Handedness is established between ages 3-6 years. During this period child abandon the
tendency to shift for the us of one hand to the use of the other hand. They begin to concentrate on
learning skills with one hand as the dominant hand and the other auxiliary hand.
Parents and nursery school teachers are advised to train and encourage the child to use his right hand
because the is born into a right-handed world.
However there are cases in which the child persists in being ambidextrous or in using the left
hand. In this case the adult should allow the child to pursue his natural pattern of development. Forcing
the child to shift from the left to right may imprint some negative attitude that may persist in the child
later.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPOMENT
The Preoperational Phase
The child who is two to seven years old is in the preoperational phase o intellectual development.
The child’s behavior is pre representational. He is now becoming capable o f a kind of representation by
means of his own acts. His imitative behavior is symbolic in nature, in that it “signifies” (stands for or
represents) something else. The child goes through at least five behavior patterns which appear almost
simultaneously. They are listed below in the order of complexity, all these patterns of repetition are
completely “centered” in the child’s own behavior. The child uses his own acts or functions to represent
what is not at the moment perceptible.
1. Deferred imitation—The preoperational child can imitate what he has preciously observed but
which is now not present.

2. Symbolic play—children often play games of “pretending.” They reenact some experiences
common to them like being put to bed, scolded, or hugged using a doll to represent themselves.

3. Drawing serves as an imitative expression of what they have seen.

4. Mental image—This is an internalized kind of imitation.

5. Verbal evocation—children use a word or two to signify a past event in their experience.

Piaget divided the stage into two sub periods: the pre conceptual period (2-4 years old) and the
intuitive period (4-7 years old).

The Preconception Period (2-4 years)

During the perpetual sub period children begin to us language to direct behavior. Language
greatly enhances their ability to imitate the complex behavior of others. They can often be heard
conduction conversation with themselves as they play. It is easiest to communicate with them because of
the acquisition of language. However, adults should be aware of the child’s unique though pattern
characterized by ego centrism. animism, and transductive reasoning.
Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between how on experience events and how others
experience them. What he sees, he assumes others must see; how he feels, he assumes others must also
feel. Thus, egocentrism limits the child ability to take the viewpoint of others.
Another characteristic of preconceptual thought in animism or the attribution of lifelike
properties to inanimate objects; the “moon walks,” his toy needs food, and so on.
Another distinguishing characteristic of preconceptual thought is transductive reasoning or
reasoning from particular to particular. This takes the form of “If object or event X has properties A
and B, and object or event Y has property A, then it must also have property B.”

The Intuitive Period (4-7 years)

Piaget discovered several characteristics of preoperational all though during the intuitive period;
inattention to transformations, centration, and irreversibility, each of these characteristics, is an obstacle
to the development of truly logical thought. They are illustrated by the conservation tasks. Conservation
is the ability to recognize that properties of an object or set of object remain the same or invariant during
transformation.

Conservation Task on Volume

First, the experimenter present to the child two identical glasses, each contains the same amount of
liquid. She then asks if the amounts are the same. After the child agrees that the glasses have equal
amounts, the experimenter pours the glasses have equal amount, the experimenter pour the contents of
one glass into a tall, thin glass and then ask if the amount in the tall, then glass is the same as the amount
in the short, wide glass,
 The preoperational child using his intuition will answer that the tall, thin glass has more water
because she did not pay attention to the transformation but she pays attention only to the end states
(levels of water). The other conservation problems include those of number, length, and mass.
Another characteristic of preoperational though is connotation or the tendency concentrate one
aspect of a stimulus and ignore others. In the conservation problem of volume, the child concentrated
only on the height and ignored the width. If he had considered the height and the width he would be able
to acknowledge that the with had compensated for the difference in height.
Another characteristic of this stage is irreversibility. Children do not recognize that many actions
performed on objects can reversed. Once an act is done, it cannot be undone. He does not acknowledge
that functions or relationships can be reversed.
The child’s ability to comprehend transformation, to overcome centrations, to think in terms of
reversibility and of game power to use logical reasoning can be enhanced by giving them opportunities
for:
1. Language or vocabulary development
2. Concept development
3. Asking and answering questions
4. Observation and classification
5. Remembering and recalling
6. Working with numbers and space

The developmental Competences of PNU Preschoolers

An investigation of children’s competencies will help parents and preschool teachers to design
better programs to facilitate maximum development of young children’s competencies. One such
initiative was done by David (1994) in her study of the developmental competences of Philippine
normal University preschoolers. She confirmed Hurlock’s claim that develop whether physical or mental
is not a uniform process within any given population. As shown in the table the PNU five year olds
scored with the normal range of five months above their chronological age. However, in the motor and
person –social development tasks they scored below the Children and Youth Research council (CYRC)
norms. For the cognitive and language competencies the respondents were significantly above CYRC
norms.
Developmental Competencies by Components
Competencies 5-year olds 5-1/2 years 6-year olds F-test
/-/ CYRC /-/ CYRC /-/ CYRC
X Norm X Norm X Norm
Motor
(MDST) 61.43 63.12 72.43 69.28 79.52 74.44 6848.49

Cognitive
(CAST) 65.14 63.50 69.56 69.43 74.80 74.36 10031.40

Language
(LCT) 64.89 62.90 68.64 67.69 78.09 72.62 4135.13

Personal-
Social
(PSEI) 63.05 63.33 68.95 66.89 77.83 74.75 7737.38
 Z-test: p < .05
F-test: p < .01

Among the five and a half and six-year olds the mean for all the competencies shows faster
development of the PNU group than the CYRC group.
The F-tests further confirm the developmental trend of the acquisition of motor, cognitive,
language, and personal-social competencies. There are significant differences in the means among the
three age groups, with the se-year old getting the highest means. This affirm the orthogenetic principle
that as a child grows older, the acquires a better and more organized body system.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Children’s Emotions
Early childhood is characterized by heightened emotionality. Emotion like love, fear, joy, and
anger are experienced by the child just like the adult. However, young children’s emotion are usually
felt more strongly and expressed more openly than those of adults. Children’s emotions last only for a
few minutes unlike the adults’ which may drag on for hour or days. Another difference is the frequency
that emotions are field. Children are easily stimulated to experience love, joy, jealousy, fear, and anger.
Of these emotions, the parents should take particular care not to add to the development of
unnecessary fear in the child. Through the process of conditioning, stimuli not inherently frightening,
become fear-provo-king.

Children’s Fear
Among two-year olds, common sources of fear are noise, objects that make noise, and strange
objects, persons and situations, while four-year olds manifest fear of darkness, imaginary creatures, and
being along, and experience dreams that give rise to fear reaction.

Dealing with Children’s Fear

The method during with children fears are varied and depend of the parent type fear solution.
Among them are:
1. Setting up counter resources and skills that are helpful in meeting the fearful situation when it
occurs;
2. Promoting familiarity with the feared object by providing situation in which there is opportunity,
but not coercion. To become acquainted with it;
3. Arranging for the child to observe others who show no fear in the feared situation; and
4. Direct reconditioning.

The family plays a very important role in the child’s emotional development. The type of family
interaction affects the causes of emotion as well as the kinds of resulting behavior. The parents
should be aware that the attitudes the communicate towards the child have lasting effect of hid
emotionality. Love and acceptance need to be communicated not only through verbal expression but
also nonverbally through hugs, kisses, patient attention, and guidance. Villasor, (1996) pointed out
that children differ in their sensory access modes so that communication with them will have to be
differentiated to make them understand the situation. Some children are visual and they need to see
objects or expressions of concern for them. Some children are auditory and are responsive to
 stimulation through the ears. Some children need to be touched or need body movements to
understand. The parents should also be aware that over attentiveness, over expectation, and over
protectiveness result in more emotional outburst. Usually when he fell he is helpless or he gets
frustrated with what he is no ready to do, he could be very angry and this results into tantrums.
Giving him a chance to explore the environment, letting him do things by himself or playing
especially with his peers, lead to his gaining a sense of well-being. The parents should arrange the
child’s environment such that there will be less prohibitions and more encourage. The experience of
positive outcomes together with rewards facilitates the development of positive emotions.

Social Development
Development of the Child’s Self-concept
The family, playmates, teachers, classmates, and peer group exert a great influence in forming
the child’s self- concept during childhood. They constitute his or her primary group which forms part of
what is called significant others. These significant others becomes models for the child who usually
identifies with them and patterns his behavior after them. He interacts with them and shares the group’s
symbols, norms and values or culture. This process by which children become participating and
functioning members of society is called socialization. Children learn to conform to the norms of the
group, acquire a status, lay a role, and emerge with a personality that is entirely his.
By the time the child is four years old he has a fairly well-defined concept of who he is. Harry
Stack Sullivan (1947) once said that the self-concept is composed of “reflected appraisals of others”.
The child learns who he is by the opinions, attitudes, and exceptions that others have for him. If a child
believes them and acts in accordance with their view.
The parents should note that their remarks about the child usually reinforce that which the child
hears about himself. If he called makulit,matigas ang ulo,mahina, he baves as such.

Sex-Role Identification
Another aspect of the self-concept is sex-role identification. Knowledge and attitudes about sex
differences are both inborn and learned. An individual’s sex identity is born with him. His maleness or
her femaleness is determined by his/her sex. Sex-appropriate behavior is further reinforced by the
significant others. He/she is dressed according to his/her sex, treated differently encouraged to play and
to behave according to his/her sex, treated differently encourage to play and to behave accordingly.
He/she identifies with same sex parent and pattern behavior y imitating him/her.

Father-Son Relationship and Masculine Identity

The relationship with the father is critical to the boy’s development of maseunne identify. The
boy have derives his males self-concept from his father through the processes of identification. When
the father-son relationship is in adequate because of physical or psychological absence, then the boy is
likely to form and identification with the remaining available parent, the mother. However, boys have a
biological predisposition to masculinity. There are also individual differences in the potency of this
innate masculinity. In some it is strong and such boys will develop an adequately male self-concept
despite relatively little fathering.

The Role of Early Childhood Education

 Preschools- nursery, day care centers or kindergarten classes provide excellent socialization
experiences for young children. Studies have supported that enriched early childhood education is
beneficial to children. In addition to stimulating them intellectually, they are given opportunities to
interact with peer s and adults who are not members of their family. They learn to make adjustments to
get along with peers and teachers. They learn to obey simple rules, to take responsibility, to care for
other, and to cooperate in school activities. The trained teachers in the pre-schools promote enjoyable
contacts and try to see that children are given the environment that will promote positive attitudes and
behavior.

The Role of Family

The family plays a very crucial role in the growth and development of the child. In this age of
crisis and confusion it is more important that parents learn how to effectively perform their role and
responsibilities. They have to be aware of their children’s needs and provide them the following:
1. Support. The child needs support for his physiological and psychological needs. However,
parents should realize that child’s physical needs are simple and easy to provide contrary to
what they think. Having more time to reinforce, guide, and confidence in himself
2. Model. The easiest way to begin learning something new is to watch someone else do it.
Whenever practical, try to demonstrate the skill, provide practice and give encouragement.
Values, too, are better learned if they see the parents setting an example for them.
3. Identity. Who am I? What can I do? These questions are more honestly
answered by parents than anybody else in his environment. The parents should, however, be
careful about the feedback they give; verbally or nonverbally.
4. Love. What do children write about when asked to write Father’s Day or Mother’s Day
greeting?

All sorts of “Thank you for…” because that much impresses in their minds the little things
parents do for them. Parents sometimes do not realize that the routines they do come to the
child as caring and loving them. Even when they are loved and cared for as long as there is a
direct attention and involvement with them.
It would be very helpful if parents express their love and acceptance of their children by
hugging, patting, kissing, or stroking them.
5. Encouragement. Children need encouragement, especially from the parents often fail to
notice the positive things are able to do. They usually focus the toddler walk, because of your
encouragement, “you can do it””come, yes, you are walking!”
It will be helpful for adults to read these reminders about children.

CHILDREN LEARN WHAT THEY LIVE

If a child lives with criticism
He learns to condemn.
If a child lives with hostility,
He learns to fight
If a child lives with ridicule,
He learns to be shy.
If a child lives with shame,
He learns to be guilty.
If a child lives with encouragement,
 He learns confidence.
If a child lives with praise,
He learns to appreciate.
If a child lives with security,
He learns to have faith.
If a child lives with fairness,
He learns to have justice.
If a child lives with approval,
He learns to like himself.
If a child lives with acceptance and friendship,
He learns to find love in the world.
Anonymous
 Chapter IX

LATE CHILDHOOD
Late childhood is the stage of development in the life span of an individual that begins at
approximately 6 years old to the age of twelve years. It coincides with the child’s elementary
schools years, entering Grade 1 at six years and graduating from Grade 6 at age 12. Physical, motor,
social emotional, moral, and intellectual changes are sources of anxiety for the growing child. This is a
critical period for the development of his achievement motivation o the need to achieve. The child’s
sense of competence gives his the enthusiasm to learn skills, information, values. His success in these
efforts gives him a sense of control and sense of self-esteem. When properly guided and directed, he
develops a sense of maturity.
Parents and teachers are expected to give guidance and encouragement to make children feel
good about them. The quality of experience, stimulation, guidance, and encouragement also determines
their pattern of success.
Peers can also be greeting source of reinforcement for success. The parents have the
responsibility to provide home and schools environment that will nurture a healthy interaction which
will lead to the child’s happy life.

Characteristics of Late Childhood

Late childhood is the period is the period for learning the basic skills in life. The child receives
instruction from adults and older children. He also learns from his experiences. His peers and other
significant people in his environment can influence his learning.
The school-age child learns to win recognition by being able to do things. He can become very
eager and absorbed in what he is trying to learn and do. He takes pride and pleasure in being able to
accomplish a task.
The danger during this stage lies in a sense of inequity or inferiority. When child is not able to
approximate his peer’s performance, he considers himself doomed to inadequacy or mediocrity. The
family and other significant people can help by giving him more guidance and encouragement. The
school-age child benefits from systematic instruction, coaching and supervised practice. It will develop
his skill; build his self-esteem- a very important factor in the development of his personality.
Late childhood is also the stage of the child’s initiation to roles in society. He is made aware of
hid responsibility to roles is society. He is made aware of his responsibilities to himself and to others
have to do to complete a project. He meets and interact with significant others in his society.
Late childhood especially during the age of 9 to 13 is the period for the development of
periodical friendship. The child structure, engage in the same sports and hobbies tell stories and
exchange ideas. Peer influence is beginning to child values and friendship.

Developmental Tasks of Late Childhood

Children in their late childhood need opportunities, support, and guidance so that they can
develop and accomplish the following:
1. Learn physical skills necessary for group and organized games
2. Learn to get along with age-mates and members of his family and community
3. Learn fundamental skill in reading, writing, and numeracy
4. Develop appropriate masscults or feminine social roles
5. Learn concepts/skills necessary for everyday living
 6. Develop a healthy self concept
7. Develop a conscience, a sense of right and wrong, and values according to his culture.
8. As
9. Learn to perform different roles expected of him
10. Think rationally to adjust situations make decisions and solve problems.

Physical Development during Late Childhood

Average Height and Weight

Filipino Boys and Girls
6-14 years old

Height (cms.) Weight (kgs.)

Age Years Boys Girls Boys Girls
6 105 105 17.82 17.39
7 108.5 108.5 20.45 20.21
8 113 113.5 22.45 22.25
9 117 118 24.8 24.3
10 122 123 27.7 20.2
11 126.5 128.5 31.3 32.35
12 131.5 133.5 35.6 37
13 138.5 138.5 40 41.45
14 145 141.5 44.7 44.85
Source: FNRI-PPS, 1992

Growth trends in height o Filipino children and youth following the general type of growth curve
showing steady increase from early childhood to pre-puberty, following by period of accelerate growth
lasting through the early part of adolescence. The girl is telling the boys catch up with them at fourteen
years of age.
Growth trends in weight of female’s shows a slow gain in weight during early childhood up to
about eight years but by nine years the girls are just as heavy as the boys. By ten years the girls start to
gain weight faster than the males and keep up this increase until the age fourteen.
Good health and good nutrition re important factors in the child’s growth and development. The
better the health and nutrition, the taller children tend to be in comparison with those who are poorly
nourished. Filipino children were found to suffer from mild to severe malnourishment. Lack of
education and poverty are the two most common causes o these problem.
Children’s illness and accidents can be prevented by taking preventive measures so as to help
children progress in this stage. Children who were immunized against diseases during early childhood
grow larger than those who were not immunized.
Emotional stress or emotional tension also affects the physical development of the child. Parents
and teachers, by modeling stress management, can help children to express their feeling and thoughts
can help them maintain their physical activity and relaxation so as to promote their growth and
development.

Motor Development during Late Childhood

By the time a child has reached school age, he is master of a great variety of skills, both
locomotor or manipulative. Most of the games and activities during childhood involves combinations of
skills, built upon the coordination of both arms and legs.
Vigorous activities are more effective in providing release of the child’s abundant energy.
Running, climbing, swimming, bicycle riding, and “stunting” are some typical activities. Children are
challenged by the precision, agility, and endurance required of them in these activities.
Team games requiring a high degree of motor skills is an important activity during the late
childhood years. Competitive sports help them formulate ideas of the self. In these sports activities –
the sex-role identification becomes pronounced when the exclusion of the opposite sex from others’ play
groups is observed. Girls are excluded in the boys’ rough and fast ball-games while boys are teased for
joining all girls’ talk circle.
The development of the motor coordination is expected during the elementary years.
Handwriting is a finely coordinated skill, in what turational readiness and practice are important factors
in its achievement. Other activities like painting and drawing and using finer tools are engaged in
because of the proficiency acquired in school activities.
Pursuing particular interest in a variety of hobbies and leisure time activities are also helpful in
the child’s motor development. Sharing responsibilities in the home chores and school projects give
children opportunities to enhance not only their motor development but also the other aspects of their
development.
Parental guidance – modeling, teaching, facilitating, processing of thoughts and feelings will
help establish work attitudes, habits, and skills useful in the later years of the child’s development and
will be a crucial factor in his success and happiness.
The school curriculum has provisions for the motor development of the child and awareness and
commitment on the part of the teachers on the importance of this aspect of development can help very
much in the total development of the child.

Intellectual Development during Late Childhood

Intelligence is a complex accumulation of knowledge, abilities, and skills acquired as the
individual meets, copes, and interacts with his environment.
According to Cattell’s model of mentality, this is “crystalized” intelligence, which consists of
continuously acquired patterns of adaptation to one’s culture depending on one’s age and experience.
Arnold Gessell, a developmental psychologist who strongly expressed the importance of
biological maturation in development, characterized mental development as behavior or qualitative
patterning.
JeanPiaget viewed intelligence as a process, an assimilating activity brought about the
individual’s interaction is a dynamic process, an activity. Second, he indicated that the nature of that
process is organization and adaptation. Third, in this process, the operation of certain invariant
functional laws, assimilation and accommodation, result in many variable structure (schema or behavior
pattern, new acquisitions, abilities, and so on) which in turn become the tools and means for further
interaction with the environment.

A. The Period of Concrete Operation

 At the concrete level of operation, thinking can take place only in the presence of an objective
situation. The representation is “decentered” from action. “Decentering” is a development of the
thinking function where the child transfers what is now centered at the level of action to a mental level
of assimilation. The job of decentering from the use of his own acts as signifiers (representations) of the
not-present, and the achievement of the ability to use instead centrally based “operations” is one that
requires much additional maturing and experience with the objective and the social and interpersonal
aspects of reality.
The ability to achieve this level of operations permits the child in his thinking the process. He is
now able to perform reversible transformations and conservation. Initially these operations are concrete,
that is, they are used directly on objects. The child can classify concrete objects, order them, establish
correspondences between them or perform numerical operations or measure them from a spatin point of
view. As the child matures and have more experiences, his memory capacity increases and he
remembers the various connections necessary to make inferences.
Children in their elementary years need to develop the necessary thinking skills to enhance their
sense of competence. The range of knowledge, skills, and values they develop in this stage will
determine their sense of self-efficacy. If they are able to cope with the demands of academic work, they
will feel confident and take risks. If they always fail and feel they lack skills, they may develop
inferiority or resort to other negative behavior.

B. Characteristic Behavior of Children Who Have A Sense of Industry

People who have a sense of industry:

1. enjoy learning about new things and ideas;
2. reflect a healthy balance between doing what they have to do and what they like to do;
3. reflect strong curiosity about how and why things work the way they do;
4. enjoy experimenting with new combinations, new ideas, and arriving at new synthesis;
5. are excited by the ideas of being a producer;
6. like the recognition that producing things brings and it reinforces their sense of industry;
7. develop the habit f work and completion through steady attention and persevering diligence;
8. have a sense of pride in doing at least one thing well;
9. take criticism well and use it to improve their performance; and
10. tend to have a strong sense of persistence.

Just like the way the child begins to learn to do thing, (imitating a model), he should also
experience cognitive apprenticeship. The adults, parents, especially their teachers should “Think-
Aloud” and give specific instructions so the child will learn the thinking skills.

C. Dimension of Thinking
According to Marzano (1988), children should be guided to develop the following Dimensions of
thinking:

1. Self-regulated thinking or metacognition

2. Critical thinking and creative thinking
3. Thinking processes like concept formation, principle formation, and others
4. Core thinking skills like classification, etc.
5. Knowledge and skills related to subject areas
 Marzano (1992) further suggested that teachers should review their strategies of teaching and
consider the following Dimensions of Learning based on the Dimensions of Thinking.

1. The child’s attitude and perception of himself, his peers and the task and its value will affect his
learning.
2. Learning is a highly interactive process of constructing personal meaning from the information
available in a learning situation and their integrating that information with what is already known to
create new knowledge.
3. Extending and refining knowledge is hard work but it has to be done in order to make learning
meaningful and permanent.
4. Using knowledge meaningfully demands thinking that is extended over long periods of time, directed
by the student and focused on realistic, authentic issues.
5. Productive mental its like sensitivity to feedback, seeking accuracy, decision, persisting when
answers and solutions are not apparent, viewing situations in unconventional ways of avoiding
impulsivity have to be modeled and taught.

D. The Role of the School

Society has tasked the school to help parents promote the total development of the child.
However, the effectiveness of a school is evaluated on how much it has contributed to the child’s
intellectual development. The teachers become the major component of the school system in carrying
out its task of facilitating the maximum enhancement of the child’s intellectual growth (Sibolboro,
19923).
It is important for teachers to respect themselves for their won competency and personal
characteristics if their work with children is to have the element of success. The way they treat children
is often a reflection of or is affected by their own feelings towards themselves. Typically the more
teachers are able to respect themselves, the more they are able to help the pupils cope with problems and
be able to accept and understand their feelings about themselves, their families, and their lessons. The
teacher may not always be successful in the effort but at least the effort is made. Compassion for the
child’s attempts in learning difficult concepts is shown in the classroom. Patience and awareness of the
child’s need for support and encouragement are part of the teacher’s interaction style (tesorio, 1993).
Espiritu (1992) in her study noted and recommended some interaction styles to enhance
children’s effort to think critically and therefore become successful learners. She suggested that wait
time should be allowed to support children’s effort to think critically.

E. Parents as Partners of the School in the Development of the Child’s Intellectual Capacity
Parents need to realize their great influence on their children’s academic effort and achievement.
Without exerting effort; they transmit their values and beliefs to their children. They are looked up to as
models and children imitate and follow their examples because that is just how they are able to adjust to
new situations and tasks. Dizon (1981) conducted a correlational study of the locus of control of
reinforcement (LOC) and other personality variables. She found positive correlation in the following:
(1) parents, LOC and children’s LOC; (2) children’s LOC and the self-concept; (3) children’s LOC ad
academic achievement. These findings confirm the parent’s role in promoting beliefs and attitudes that
may promote or block intellectual growth and development.
Cline (1980) gives parents effective techniques for laying the groundwork of success for
developing children’s self-esteem and sense of responsibility.
Keys to Rearing Successful Children
1. Stimulate your child’s interest.
Psychologist J. McVicker Hunt estimates from his research that IQ’s can be increased by as
much as twenty five to thirty or more by proper environmental stimulation or it can drop as much as
fifty points in children who are reared to birth in extremely monotonous conditions.
2. Build your child’s esteem.
Accepting or loving the child is vitally important in developing a child’s self-esteem. However,
parents should make time to develop their child’s competence in the different areas of development to
support their confidence and opportunity to succeed.
3. Teach your child effective social skills.
Parents can facilitate the child’s ability to love, work with, or relate effectively with others by
demonstrating and giving instructions or reminders on social skills.
4. Control the use of television.
The TV serves as a good entertainment medium and an educational resource – but its viewing
must be controlled that it does not take time away from family conversations, homework, physical
exercise, or play as well as necessary chores.
5. Strengthen your child’s conscience.
Parents are advised to actively teach their children basic values: obedience, integrity, moral
courage, honestly, justice, and fairness
6. Teach your child to show love, express affection, and develop healthy attitudes towards sexuality.
A healthy family style will promote these love feelings and attitudes of children.
7. Live in a good neighborhood.
Neighborhoods and communities vary in their character, healthiness, and degree of pathology.
Parents should take care to choose where to live, which school to send their children, and which
activities to choose for their children.
8. Set reasonable work and behavior standards backed by appropriate discipline.
Research studies have shown that children possessing higher self-esteem, confidence and
personal competence come from homes where parents set high standards for their youngsters.
Positive reinforcement can work magic in motivating youngsters to perform and excel.
9. Teach your child skills and competencies.
Start providing experiences early in life where children can discover and develop his special
strengths and aptitude.
10. Foster autonomy and independence: Don’t do for your children what they can do for themselves.
Give children increasing responsibilities and challenges. Let them make decision and feel that
they have some control over their personal lives.
11. Foster a warm relationship with your child built on good communication
Every child needs private, uninterrupted time with one or both parents – frequently. Give the
child private moments when he/she alone is the center of your attention, concern, and love.
12. Make home conducive to studying – where a place to study and materials and equipment are
provided for, study period observed, and help is given when necessary.

Social Development during Late Childhood

According to Mead (1934) the self emerges in the process of socialization – a process of social
interaction and social activity mediated by language.
1. The Generalized Others
Children are able to respond to a number of individuals in the group and integrate the various
roles or set of norms of the group. This takes place in what Mead (1934) calls the period of generalized
others. Around the age of eight or nine, children engage in games where they are able to take the
attitudes and responses of other in social activity and now that these roles have a definite relationship
with each other. They visualize their own action as a part of a whole pattern of group activity. This is
similar to being engaged in a game like basketball where a player must see his/her relationship with the
roles played by others, that is, as captain, guards, and forward. To play the game of life, the individuals
must know his or her role in relation to others and be aware of their values. In the process, the
individual assumes the organized social attitudes and moral ideas of the social groups or communities to
which he or she belongs. These exert an influence on his or her attitudes toward different projects and
cooperative activities, as well as social problems which the group faces, and can direct his or her own
behavior accordingly (Mead 1934). This becomes the individual’s orientation toward the world and his
or her frame of reference.
Victorias (1981) investigation confirms the relationship of the perceived evaluation of significant
others and self-concept (SC academic achievement and personality traits of grade four children. She
strongly recommends the enhancement of peer interaction to maximize its beneficial effect on the
child’s total development.
Sibling relationship is one form of peer relationship that give an opportunity for the practice of
social skills of communication, cooperation, helping, empathy. And conflict resolution. Sibling rivalry
is normal but parents should take precautions so that it does not become so excessive as to impair the
emotional development of the siblings.
2. Friendship
Children begin to form friendships within the context of the peer group. The importance of
friends during childhood is summarized by a frequently quoted passage from Harry Stack Sullivan
(1953, p.245), a psychiatrist who focused on the importance of interpersonal relations.
“If you will look closely at one of your children when he finally finds a chum somewhere
between eight-and-a half and ten years – will discover something very different in the relationship
namely, that your child begins to develop a real sense to what matters to another person… (“What
should I do to contribute to the happiness or to support the prestige and worthwhileness of my chum.”)
Several descriptions of stages and phases of the meaning of friendship have been proposed.
This system is presented here in a series of stages described by Youniss (1980). In his first stage,
children between 6 and 8 years are said to base friendship on a simple principle of reciprocity, “When I
share with you, you will share back.” Sharing draws children together as friends; negative social
behavior (hitting) drives them apart.

About the age of 9, children begin to define friendship as a relationship that is sustained over
time through cooperation. At this age, they come to understand social behavior in terms of relationships
and expectation within them. For example, 6 to 8 years old think of unkindness in terms of negative acts
such as hitting and fighting. The 9-year old begins to think in terms of omissions or not doing something
expected of him.

As children move into early adolescence, they begin to talk about friends in terms of shared
identities and similar personalities. This is an outgrowth of the theme of cooperation in which mutual
understanding implies similarity. If individuals know and help each other at this age, they assume that
the other person is a lot like them. Themes of trust, loyalty, and self-revelation are now frequently
mentioned in discussions of friendship.

Emotional Development
Emotions are developed in the context of social groups. In the family, children learn what it (the
family) expects and what it rejects. Encouraging children to express themselves regarding these values
can be helpful for their relationship, mental health, and success.
Children of school age come in contact with wider circles of people in school and nonhome
environment. As people talk about each other, what they like or dislike, children retain some ideas
about labels for feelings affiliated with these expressions. They begin to apply these notions to their
inner reactions and soon have names for the internal arousal of joy, sadness, fear, anger, or
embarrassment.
The expression of emotions becomes a point of conflict between parents and children. Besides
modeling the appropriate expressions of emotions, parents and teachers can help children develop
healthy ways of expressing their emotions. Here are some suggestions from the expert (Karen
Biernman, in Barko, 1993).
1. Label emotions.
Give children the vocabulary to describe the basic emotions – happy, sad, mad, and scared seem
to be the basic emotions in most cultures.
2. Help the child interpret her emotions.
Talk about your own feelings about the times you were little and what makes you feel sad or
angry or scared.
3. Separate mixed emotions.
Get the child to talk about the feelings. After listening, ask her questions that will make her label
her emotions. Then suggest ways of with them.
4. Differentiate between and actions.
Explain to the child that feelings are natural, getting angry, sad… but not all are good. Parents
should help children express emotions in appropriate, constructive manner.
5. Describe some simple tactics.
Verbalize your feelings and how to talk one-self out of a mood.
6. Help children express their emotions.
Filipino culture discourages expressions of emotions so children are confused. When they were
young there were showered with hugs and kisses, with attention. As they grow older, they are given less
attention and scolded more often, at certain times for reasons they cannot comprehend.
Another confusing conditions is the tolerance for the emotional expressions of boys and girls.
Boys should be made aware that it is all right for them to cry or to have some fears. Girls can profit
from their anger by directing their anger to constructive projects.

Moral Development
Socialization theories which we have mentioned in the earlier chapters assumed that morality is a
set of values transmitted through rewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior.
Lawrence Kohlberg 91981), on the other hand assumes that moral reasoning parallels the child’s
cognitive development. Kohlberg assumes that as a person becomes cognitively more complex, he or
she reaches more complex higher levels of moral reasoning, he becomes more concerned with the
actor’s motives than with the consequences of the actor’s actions.
 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Levels Stages
I. Preconventional Stage 1 Punishment and obedience
Level orientation
Motivation to avoid
punishment
Stage 2 Instrumental relativist
orientation
Motivation to obtain
rewards
II. Conventional Level Stage 3 Good boy - nice girl
Motivated by orientation
Conventional Laws Motivation to gain
and Values approval and to
avoid disapproval
Stage 4 Society maintaining
orientation
Motivation to fulfill
one's duty and to
avoid feelings of
guilt
III. Postconventional Stage 5 Social-contract
Level orientation
Motivated by Motivation to follow
Abstract Moral rational, mutually
Principles agreed-upon principles
and maintain the
respect of others
Stage 6 Universal ethical
principle orientation
Motivation to uphold
one's own ethical
principles and aoid
self-condemnation

Children who are in their late childhood are expected to be at the conventional level or moral
reasoning. At Stage 3, they uphold conventional laws and values by favoring obedience to parents and
authority figures.
During childhood children begin to experience conflicts whose resolution will affect
development of their moral standards and sense of self-esteem. Te parents and teachers should be
sensitive, creative, and rational in guiding them so they can develop personal standards that will improve
the quality of their decisions.
The following are suggestions on how the common problems will be met and resolved.
1. Resolving conflicts Teach the child win-win solutions to-conflicts
Encourage cooperation.
2. Aggressiveness Discuss the consequences of aggression.
Human Rights.
3. Lying Ask for the reasons for lying and help to overcome the
difficulty that brought about their lying.
4. Handling money Discuss the reason for giving the allowance and be firm
about its value.
5. bad language Explain your opposition to his speech and help him
differentiate appropriateness of his language.
6. Meeting home 1. Start out doing chores with him.
responsibilities 2. Involve children in planning and making
decisions
whose results will directly affect them.
7. Meeting school Set learning goals.
responsibilities Provide a place for study.
Cooperate during study periods.
Be willing to help children in their studies.
8. Moral conflicts Teach values of respect for others.
Explain moral values.
Set an example or model.

KEY IDEAS

1. Late childhood is the stage for the development of the child’s sense of competence and industry.
2. The elementary school child develops a pattern of success or a pattern of failure in his life depending
on the quality of guidance and motivation he receives from significant others in his environment.
3. The child’s social development is enhanced by his interaction with his peers in work or in play.
4. Parents and teachers need to understand the child’s thinking to facilitate his intellectual growth and
development.
5. Helping the child to understand and to express his emotion can lead to healthy relationships with
himself and others.
 Chapter X

Puberty

The onset of adolescence is heralded by two significant changes in physical development – the
adolescent or pubertal growth spurt and puberty. The changes are brought about by the activation of the
endocrine glands. The process begins as the hypothalamus (a part of the brain) instructs the pituitary to
activate the adrenal glands and the gonads (ovaries or testes). Individuals in this stage need proper sex
education in order to cope with the anxieties during this stage.

The Adolescent Growth Spurt

The term growth spurt refers to the rapid acceleration in height and weight that marks the
beginning of adolescence. The timing of this event varies from child to child. Girls may begin as early
as age 9 or as late as 12 years old. The typical pattern is for a girl to start her period of rapid growth at
age 10 to reach a peak growth at age 12 years and to return to a slower rate of growth by age 13-15.
Many girls gain as much as 3 ½ inches in height and 20 pounds in weight.
Boys lag behind girls by two years, entering their period of rapid growth as early as age 12 or as
late as age 16. The typical pattern for males is to begin their growth spurt at age 13 to a peak growth at
14 and to return to a more gradual rate by age 15 or 16. Many boys gain as much as 4 inches and 26
pounds.
In addition to growing taller and heavier, the body assumes an adult-like appearance during the
adolescent growth spurt. In females, the first change is in a slight “budding” followed by a gradual
enlargement of the breasts over a period of several years. There is also a growing of the hips resulting in
a broadening that further gives the appearance of the adult female body shape.

Puberty
Puberty is the point in the development of man at which the individual becomes physically
capable of sexual reproduction. It covers the time during which the primary and secondary sex
characteristics of the body emerge. Sexual maturation follows a predictable sequence for members of
both sexes. It begins with the production of sex hormones by the ovaries in females and testes in males.
These hormones trigger a series of physiological changes that lead to ovulation and menstruation in
females and the production of sperm cells in males. These are the primary sex characteristics.
Menarche or the first menstrual period signifies this new stage of maturation for girls. The secondary
sex characteristics like the development of the breast and hips begin before menarche and continue until
the individual has reached full maturity.
There is no one particular experience that establishes manhood in the same way that menarche
signals womanhood. However, the pubescent male experiences growth in both primary and secondary
characteristics. Growth usually occurs first in the testes in their sac-like container, the scrotum. About a
year later the developmental acceleration encompasses the penis, which becomes larger. Internal glands
in the reproductive system enlarge and begin to form and secrete a variety of substances including
mature spermatozoa.
The secondary sex characteristics that accompany sexual maturation include broadening of the
shoulders, lowering of the voice and the appearance of pubic and facial hair.

Characteristics of Puberty
1. Puberty is an overlapping period.
 Puberty happens during the last years of childhood and the starting years of adolescence. It is
about 10 ½ years to 13 years for girls and about two years later for boys.
2. Puberty is a short period.
Puberty lasts from two to four years. Rapid maturers take two years while slow maturers take 3
to 4 years.
3. Puberty is manifested in both internal and external changes in the body. Primary and secondary sex
characteristics are manifested in the changes.
4. Puberty is a time of rapid growth and change. The rapid growth is called pubertal growth spurt.
5. Puberty is divided into three stages:
a. Prepubescent – Secondary sex characteristics begin their development but the reproductive
organs are not yet fully developed.
b. Pubescent - Characterized by menarche for girls and nocturnal emissions (wet dreams) in boys.
c. Postpubescent – Secondary sex characteristics become well developed and the sex organs begin
to function in a mature manner.

Body Changes at Puberty

Four important physical changes occur during puberty, namely: changes in the body size,
changes in body proportions, the development of the primary sex characteristics, and the development of
the secondary sex characteristics.
Changes is Body
The first major physical change at puberty is change in body size in terms of height and weight.
The timing of this event varies from child to child. Girls gain an average annual increase of 3 inches
during menarche. After menarche, the rate of growth slows down to about one inch a year, coming to a
standstill at around eighteen for early maturers, and early twenties in later maturers.
Boys grow rapidly between thirteen to fifteen years, with the peak occurring at fourteen years.
After that growth decelerates and continues at a slower rate until the age of twenty-one.
Weight gain during puberty comes not only from an increase in fat but also from an increase in
bone and muscle tissues. Thus, even though they are gaining weight the pubescent child looks thin.
Girls experience the greatest weight gain just before and just after menarche. Boys experience
maximum weight gain a year or two later than girls and continue to gain even up to age sixteen.
Because of the longer growth periods, boys gain more in height and weight than do girls.

Changes in Body Proportion

The second major physical change is change in body proportions. Certain areas of the body
become proportionally too big because they reach their mature size sooner than other areas. The whole
body attains adult proportions in all areas during the latter part of adolescence.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The third major physical change is the growth and development of the primary sex
characteristics. The gonads or testes, which are located in the scrotum, or sac, are only 10 percent of
their mature size at the age of fourteen years. There is rapid growth for a year or two, then growth slows
down. The testes are fully developed by the age of twenty or twenty one.
Menarche or the first menstrual flow signifies this new stage of maturation for girls. This is the
beginning of a series of periodic discharges of blood, mucus, and broken cell tissues from the uterus. It
occurs approximately every twenty eight days until the girl reaches menopause usually in the late forties
or early fifties.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

The fourth major physical change at puberty is the development of the secondary sex
characteristics. These are the physical features which distinguish males from females and which may be
the source of appeal among members of the opposite sex.
Boys develop muscles that give shape to their arms, legs, and shoulders. Their voice becomes
husky and later increases in volume.
Girls develop wider and rounder hips as a result of the enlargement of the pelvic bone and the
development of subcutaneous fat. Shortly after the hips have started to enlarge, the breasts begin to
develop. The nipples enlarge and protrude.

Concerns during Puberty

The rapid change in height and weight during the pubertal growth spurt can be a source of
concern for the adolescents.
Some aspects of physical development that upset adolescents are:

1. Sex differences in growth rates.

While males and females grow at about the same rates during childhood, females experience
puberty and the adolescent growth spurt 2 years earlier than males.
2. Different growth rates of body parts.
Hands and feet grow before arms and legs, and arms and legs grow before the torso. Noses, ears,
and jaws can outpace the growth of the rest of the face. The disproportionate growth lead to
awkwardness, lack of poise, and embarrassment.
3. Irregular changes in weight and physique.
The rapid gains in height, and shifts in body fat, and the late development of muscle tissue can
cause the adolescent’s physiques to change dramatically.
4. Troublesome skin changes.
Sweat and odor glands step up their activity, producing body odor and the need for frequent
bathing. The oil glands become active and may cause skin problems like acne.
5. Personality/Appearance.
His physical growth and development makes the adolescent develops self-consciousness. He
begins to worry about his personal appearance – clothes, grooming, and acceptability to peers.
6. Relationships.
The adolescent’s sense of self, his new self, his new role, and his view of the future usually
overwhelms the young adolescent, affecting his interaction with significant others.
7. Variation in age of maturity.
Sexual maturation can begin anytime within a six-year range for both sexes. These difference in
the timing of puberty can be of significant concern for the individual.

Effects of Deviant Maturing

Children who are most affected by the physical changes that normally occur at puberty are the
deviant maturers. A deviant mature is one whose sexual maturation occurs a year or more from the
norm for the sex. Children who mature sexually earlier than their sex group are called early maturers
while those who mature sexually later than their sex group are called late maturers. When children
require less than the normal time for their sex group to complete the maturational process they are called
rapid maturers while those who need more than the normal time are called slow maturers.

Early growth in height and muscle is generally advantageous to boys. They usually gain
leadership status because of their physical prowess. The boy who lags behind in size, strength, and
mature appearance is at a disadvantage until he catches up in the growth spurt.
The consequences of early pubescence are more complex for girls. Changes in the height and
shape of the body sometimes interfere with early social adjustment. They are sometimes embarrassed
by the attention given to them by older boys. They sometimes are separated from their slow maturing
peers. They can be very self-conscious and shy away from group activities. Some girls can be very
particular with their physical appearance and begin to join mature groups, engaging in the mature
group’s activities. This could facilitate early maturation when other aspects of growth and development
are not neglected. If she is properly guided, the early maturing female may benefit from the attention
and guidance given to her and she could be a source of guidance and leadership for her other peers.
The Role of Significant Others
Based on many researches and studies, the concerns and problems of the growing individual in
this stage are varied. They range from physical, social, emotional, academic, and moral. Growing up
towards the healthy direction depends largely on the individual’s interactions with the significant others
– parents, peer group, teachers, and authorities. The individual’s sense of self – his/her capacity and
worth will develop based on how the significant other influence and guide him/her towards his/her sense
of independence, self reliance, and sense of responsibility. His/Her sense of responsibility will
determine how he/she will solve hi/her problems, decide for himself/herself, and act on his/her
environment.
Parents can do a lot to help their teeners cope with their “growing up pains.” The key is to
prepare them adequately for the expected physical changes. It is important to explain to the what all
these mean. Maintaining open communication between parents and children give the young adolescent
opportunity to ask questions about their experiences. Parents who are sensitive to their adolescents’
anxieties can help by giving adequate information, and lots of support and encouragement. Parents who
make adjustments in their parenting styles promote mature and responsible behavior in their teenagers.

KEY IDEAS

1. The onset of adolescence is marked by

a. the adolescent growth marked by
b. puberty
2. Puberty is the period in the developmental span when the individual grows up to manhood and
becomes sexually mature, able to produce offsprings.
3. Physical changes during puberty is manifested in
a. changes in body size
b. changes in body proportion
c. development of primary sex characteristics
d. the enhancement of the body through the secondary sex characteristics
4. The onset of puberty has an important implication on the personality development of a individual.
5. Puberty is a critical period for the development of positive attitudes towards one’s body and oneself
in general. The home and the family can initiate programs and activities that promote the healthy
transition from childhood to adolescence.
 Chapter XI

Adolescence
The term adolescence comes from the Latin word adolescere meaning to grow to maturity –
mentally, emotionally, socially, and physically. This point of view was expressed by Piaget as quoted in
Hurlock (1982) when he said:
“Psychologically, adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into the society
of adults, the age when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but equal, at least
in rights… This integration into adult society has many affective aspects, more or less linked with
puberty… It also includes very profound intellectual changes… These intellectual transformations
typical of the adolescent’s thinking enable him to achieve his integration into social relationship of
adults, which is, in fact the most general characteristic of this period of development.”

ADOLESCENT YEARS
It is customary to regard adolescence as beginning when children become sexually mature and
ending when they reach the age of level maturity. Studies of changes in behaviors, attitudes, and values
throughout adolescence show marked difference during the early part of the period. As a result, it is
divided into two subdivisions, early and late adolescence. The division is placed at around 17 years, at
about the same time they pursue collegiate courses or begin to be apprentices in the world of work.
Early adolescence extends roughly from thirteen to sixteen or seventeen years while late adolescence is
a short period from the age of 16 to 18 up to twenty one for those who would like to continue to depend
on others for financial support until they are through with college course.

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence

The developmental tasks of adolescence are focused on developing independence in preparation
for adulthood and in establishing a sense of identity.
Achieving independence is facilitated by developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary
for the development of socially responsible adults. School and colleges try to build values that are in
harmony with those held by adults. Parents also contribute to this development. Sometimes the adult-
fostered values clash with peer values. Adolescents find themselves caught between adult and peer
values. Adolescents find themselves caught between adult and peer standards of socially responsible
behavior and a expected, they have to make choices.
Establishing one’s identity continues during the period of adolescence. The adolescent
establishes his personality along three dimensions: gender identity, occupational identity, and moral
identity. Being able to play his sex role is an important task for him. Choosing and developing his field
of work gives directions to his efforts and activities. The values he holds determine his beliefs and
commitment to the society.

Physical Development During Adolescence

Growth is far from complete when puberty ends, nor is it entirely complete at the end of early
adolescence. There is a slackening of the pace of growth, and there is more marked internal than
external development during later adolescence.
As is true at all ages, there are individual differences in physical changes. Sex differences are
especially apparent. Even though boys have their growth spurt later than girls, their growth continues
longer, with the result that, at maturity, they are usually taller than girls. Because boys’ muscles grow
larger than those of girls’ at all ages after puberty, boys surpass girls in strength and this superiority
increases with age.
Satisfaction with the physical changes that take place as children’s bodies are transformed into
adult bodies is so important. A person’s physical appearance, along with his sexual identity, is the
characteristic that concerns most adolescents and affects their self confidence.
Concern about normality will persist until the physical changes on the surface of the body have
been completed and adolescents can be sure that their bodies conform to the norms of their sex groups.
Anxiety on the sex-appropriateness of their bodies continues until the growth and development of the
primary and secondary sex characteristics have been completed. Adolescents also have to be watched
because they usually exert effort to develop endomorphic bodies since social reactions to body build
usually favor endomorphy.
For many girls, menstruation is a serious concern. They suffer physical discomforts like cramps,
headaches, backaches, swollen ankles, and breast tenderness, as well as weight gain.
It is unusual for adolescent boys or girls not to be concerned about their physical attractiveness.
They realize that people treat those who attractive more favorably than those who are less attractive.
They are also aware of the role of attractiveness in their being liked as friends, leaders, group members,
and object of admiration of the members of the opposite sex. Consequently, they spend proportionally
more time and thought on how they can improve their looks.

Cognitive Development
Just as there is a spurt in physical and sexual development, there is also a “cognitive spurt.” The
changes that take place in the adolescent’s intellectual growth are both quantitative and qualitative.
During middle childhood, mental growth tends to be fairly even. During adolescence, however, some
abilities and skills appear to develop more than the others. It appears that intellectual skills tend to
become more specialized during adolescence, and the individual may demonstrate what appears to be
emerging special interests, such as an aptitude for science or verbal skills.
This differentiation and specialization of abilities is sometimes heavily weighted by social-
cultural factors. Although mental skills of childhood tend to remain the same throughout childhood until
adolescence, some adolescent’s life circumstance may result in dramatic changes in intellectual
performance. An example would be an who, because of his association with a peer group that does not
value schooling, may show a decline in his school performance.
According to Piaget, adolescent cog native development is now at the formal operation stage.
The following chart shows a comparison/transition from concrete operations to formal operations
stage:

Concrete Operations Formal Operations

Stage Stage
The Separation of Focus on relation between objects Can think about the possi-
Possibility and that they can classify, categorize ble as well as the
real, can
Reality and order; dependent on concrete now deal with things one
objects for successful problem might be able to think
solving about and with symbols
and words that transform
concrete experiences
The Use of Symbols Can solve equations only if all Solve algebraic equations/
To Represent Other elements are represented in terms use a second-order sym-
Symbols of concrete, first order symbols; bolic system (symbols that
needs visual clues to deal with represent other symbols
complex symbolic relationship. Ex. Algebraic x and y) and
metaphors
The ability to Coor- May not proceed systematically in Is able to raise and to test
dinate Multiple Factors solving a problem and may not be a hypothesis about a given
in Problem Solving able to perceive the interaction of problem in a systematic
several factors in a situation fashion; marked ability to
deal with many facts
simultaneously

Although not all adolescents attain formal operations during early adolescence, there is evidence
that some older adolescents may go beyond formal operations or to a second phase of formal operations.
This phase has been called problem finding, in contrast to the problem solving that characterizes formal
operations. This, the thinking of some older adolescents ages 15 to 20 years old might be considered
“divergent” (moving toward new or creative solutions or the identification of alternatives) rather than
“convergent” (moving toward known or accepted solutions to problems). This type of thinking
characterizes older adolescents. Intelligence is identified by the quality of questions asked rather than
the arrival at known conclusions.
Thinking about the meaning of words leads the adolescent to the creation of ideals. Thinking
about “what could be” makes him question “what is,” and is sometimes the basis for conflicts between
him and adults. He begins to criticize the conditions of his own environmental or the persons in his
family and school. “My teach is not good, she does not know how to teach and yet she scolds us very
often.”
Although most adolescents have reached the level of formal operational reasoning, their
cognition at times often retains an immature quality. This is not really surprising; they have recently
developed the ability to reason abstractly, but have little experience upon which to base their abstractly,
but have little experience upon which to base their abstract thoughts. In particular, David Elkind (1967,
1981; Elkind and Bowen, 1979) has pointed out that adolescents often possess a form of egocentrism of
young children and similarly distorts their perception of reality. There are four primary features of
adolescent ego-centrism. As you will readily notice, the thinking of fully mature adults is not always
free of these characteristics. However, the four reality-distorting qualities described by Elkind are more
characteristic of the adolescent stage than any other – and help explain why conversations between
adolescents and adults are sometimes so frustrating to both parties.

1. The primary characteristic adolescent egocentrism has been termed the imaginary audience by
Elkind. The adolescent often feels that he or she is the focus of every one’s attention. If he stumbles
or stammers, everyone will notice, talk about, and never forget the event. Of course, the crowd is no
more interested in his minor tragedies than in their own. The audience that the adolescent believes
detects his every flaw does not really exist – it’s imaginary.
2. Adolescent egocentrism also manifests itself in what Elkind calls the personal fable. The adolescent
often feels that her problems – over school, complexion, friends – are totally unique, having never
been experienced by anyone else in a remotely similar way. Understandably, this form of egocentric
 thinking can heighten the adjustments that are a normal part of adolescence, and can lead to a sense of
isolation in some adolescents.
3. Adolescent egocentrism is typified by an unusual degree of hypocrisy. Adolescents are even more
likely than adults to condemn in others the same actions and traits that they find acceptable in
themselves. The adolescent is outraged when she learns that her friend had luncheon with a friend.
She is jealous, but excuses herself for talking with her neighbor because it was just plain courtesy.
4. Finally, adolescent egocentrism is characterized by what Elkind (1981) colorfully calles
pseudostupidity. This often involves an overreliance on the power of logic. The adolescent might
say, “If alcoholics know they’re going to die from cirrhosis of the liver, why don’t they just stop
drinking.” The cold logic of their argument makes it difficult for them to consider that it’s difficult
for alcoholics to stop their consciousness-numbing addiction for many psychological
and physical reasons. At other times, however, this pseudostupidity takes form of using unnecessary
convoluted and complex logic when simpler thinking will suffice. These unusual patterns of logic
also tend to make reasoning with adolescents a notable challenge.

An important product of thinking about ideals is the adolescents’ future orientation. The future
orientation of the adolescent is a way of developing goals and organizing immediate activities
meaningfully in terms of a future is an important skill of adulthood. : I have to study harder in
mathematics. I’ll need this when I take up Engineering in college.”

Emotionally during Adolescence

Adolescence has been thought of as a period of “storm and stress” – a time of heightened emotional
tension resulting from the physical and grandular changes that are taking place.
While adolescent emotions are often intense, uncontrolled, and seemingly irrational, there is
generally an improvement in emotional behavior with each passing year. Emotional maturity is said to
have been achieved if the individual does not “explode,” have temper tantrums, or sulk when
disappointed. Another important indication of maturity is when the individual assesses a situation. He
is able to think about the circumstances, to make decisions, to act accordingly, and solve problems rather
than engage in unhealthy emotional outburst. He should be encouraged to discuss his problems with the
“significant others.”
As he matures, he gets involved in different interpersonal relations. It is but normal to have conflicts
in any relationship. How an adolescent manages and resolves conflicts is an important factor in
maintaining healthy relationships. In a study of conflict management styles (Buenaventura, 1995),
Filipino dating, i.e., they show low assertiveness and high cooperativeness which are important in the
preservation of a relationship. As junior and senior students mature, they begin to use a problem-solving
style characterized by high assertiveness and high cooperativeness. Parties in conflict seek to find a
mutually acceptable solution that will satisfy their interests. They try to study an issue in an attempt to
find innovative possibilities (Thomas Kilmar).
This capacity to use different styles of conflict management is an important developmental task as
evidenced by the accompanying characteristics and possible outcomes of each conflict management
style (CMS).
Characteristics and Possible Outcome of Each Conflict
Management Style (CMS)

CMS Characteristics Possible Outcome/Results

Competing ~ passive or active ~ hurt and humiliation
~ aggressive ~ anger and defensiveness
~ assertive ~ may force other(s) to retaliate
~ uses force to win ~ nurture "bad feelings" for
~ dominant others and for himself

Avoiding ~ unable or unwilling to ~ maintains good

express one's thoughts and relationship
feelings ~ has low self-growth
~ dependent on others ~ develops doubts in one's
~ keeps quiet and simply capacity
acccepts the situation ~ may develop dependency
~ manifest false obedience in making decisions
~ fears failure
~ avoids responsibility

Accommodating ~ sensitive to others' needs ~ others may take advantage of the

~ avoids tension and quarrel relationship
~ stresses things which they
both agree on ~ maintains harmonious
~ not assertive relationships
~ cooperates with others
~ tolerates other's wishes ~ feels dissatisfied
~ is emotional ~ non-committal

Problem-
Solving ~ is open-minded ~ self-respect
~ uses critical thinking ~ satisfies both parties
~ is responsible and
cooperative ~ develops trust, openness, respect,
~ willing to explore new acceptance
avenues for compromise ~ feels "better" after the conflict
~ encourages participation ~ increased mutuality
~ is just and fair
~ respects others' opinion
~ practices humility, is prudent

The negative feeling brought about by the competing and avoiding conflict management styles have
to be dealt with or it may impair the healthy resolution of relationship conflicts.
Accommodating conflict management styles used especially with persons in authority like parents
gives a chance for authority to assert what might be right or lawful in a situation while giving the
younger one a chance to understand another’s point of view. The youth’s impatience, or lack of
experience, is cushioned by obeying the older persons and/or persons in authority.
 Adolescents must also learn how to use emotional catharsis to clear their system of pent-up
emotional energy. They can engage in strenuous physical exercise, at play or at work. Crying and
laughing are considered unfavorable, but are allowed since they provide an outlet for pent-up emotions.
Sharing one’s emotional problem with a friend, writing a letter or praying hard can also facilitate
better understanding of the problem and lead to an insight.
Though peers are the first ones to be solicited for advice, the adolescents should be encouraged to
share their worries and anxieties with the appropriate members of their family.

Social Changes during Adolescence

One of the most difficult developmental tasks adolescents relates to social adjustments. These
adjustments must be made to achieve the goal of preparing themselves for adult patterns of socialization.
During early adolescence, peer-group acceptance is very important to an adolescent. He wears the
same type of clothes, engages in the same activities and does the same things to be accepted by his peer
group.
As adolescence progresses, peer-group influences begin to wane. The reasons for this are: first, most
adolescents want to become individuals in their own right; hence, they begin to establish their identity;
and second, in the adolescents’ choice of their companions. They have a tendency to narrow down their
friends to a smaller number.
Adolescents want as friends those whose interests and values are similar to theirs, who understand
them and make them feel secure, and in whom they can confide problems and discuss matters they feel
they cannot share with their parents or teachers.

Some Adolescent Interests

The interests of adolescents are varied. They depend upon their sex, their intelligence, the
environment in which they live, the opportunities they have had for developing their interests, what their
peers are interested in, their status in the social group, their innate abilities, the interests of their families,
and many other similar factors.

Personality Development
Throughout the years of childhood, the self is defined largely by the child’s experiences in the
family, in the elementary school, and to some extent, in peer activities. The adolescent integrates new
skills in logical thinking, moral development, and sexual identity with the possibilities for a more
independent social life.
According to Erikson, the primary task that confronts the adolescent is the establishment of an
identity. He views the establishment of ego identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence.
Rather, it is a lifelong process. It is during adolescence that the major features of this identity are
sketched out. It is a socially recognized time for experimentation and testing of lifestyles and roles. It is
a search for what to believe in, what to live for, and what to be loyal to, as Erikson puts it.

1. Occupational Identity
An important element of the adolescent’s self-concept is his occupational identity. Ginzberg as
cited in Schiamberg (1982) suggested that the individual continually makes adjustments in
aspirations and motivations that limit and refine his vocational choices.
2. Ginzbergs’ Stage Theory
 Ginzberg suggests that individuals move through four major psychological periods as part of the
process of making vocational choices: Fantasy, Tentative, Realistic, and Specification Periods.
Each stage represents a comprimis between what is wished for and what is possible.
a. The Fantasy Period – (Ages 4-12)
These are simply wishes that are usually based on a limited relationship with the working world.
For example, when asked what they would like to be when they grow up, children may offer such
responses as “I want to be a policeman.”
b. The Tentative Period – (Ages 12-18)
The individual begins to take into account his own interests and capabilities when considering
a vocation.

There are 4 substages during this period:

1. The Interest Stage – (Ages 11-12)

The child identifies activities that are liked or disliked. These activities are generally
similar to vocational activities.
2. The Capacity Stage – (Ages 12-14)
This coincides with the onset of formal operation stage. The adolescent begins to assess
and to understand the prerequisite aptitudes, training, and education necessary for given
professions.
3. The Values Stage – (Ages 15-16)
The adolescent involves personal values, orientations, and goals in his vocational choice.
4. The Transition Stage – (Ages 17-19)
The individual consolidates aptitude, interests, and values in making a realistic vocational
decision.
c. The Realistic Period - (18 to the Early Twenties)
The realistic period is composed of two substages. In the exploration stage, the individual tests
his tentative vocation and personal values, aptitudes and interests.
During the crystallization stage, the individual develops a clear picture of a vocational goal,
including specific occupations.
d. The Specification Period
The individual makes a commitment to a particular vocation. He trains for a vocation or enters
the vocation.
3. Personality Changes during Adolescence
Many conditions in the adolescent’s life are responsible for molding his self-concept, which
affects his attitude, and effort in the things he does.
a. Age of maturing – Individuals who mature at an earlier age usually develop a more positive
self-concept than late maturers.
b. Appearance – Individuals who are more attractive have a more pleasant feelings about
themselves and have a more positive self-concept.
c. Sex appropriateness – Individuals who develop sex-appropriate features and behavior receive
more positive remarks and develop a more positive self-concept.
d. Names and nicknames – Names and nicknames elicit positive meanings that tend to make a
person think and feel better about himself.
e. Family relationships – Prolonged treatment as children and prolonged dependency are
correlates of helplessness of a sense of inadequacy or lack of confidence.
 f. Peers – Individuals who are accepted by their peers tend to be happier.
g. Creativity – Individuals who are creative or are able to make things faster, better, or more
effectively are usually praised and liked by others.
h. Academic competence – Individuals who are able to perform well in academic tasks are
sought by teachers and peers and praised by their parents.
4. Sex Interest and Sex Behavior during Adolescence
Adolescence are primarily curious about sex. They seek more and more information about it.
Some adolescents ask their parents but the majority take advantage of whatever sources of
information are available to them – health education classes in school, discussion with friends,
reading books or experimentation with masturbation, sexual intercourse, and others.
Heterosexuality – development of interest in members of the opposite sex – follows a predictable
pattern.

Changes in Morality during Adolescence

Adolescents are expected to replace the specific moral concepts of childhood with general moral
principles and to formulate those into a moral code which will act as a guide to their behavior. Equally
important, they must now exercise control over their behavior.
During adolescence, boys and girls have reached what Piaget has called the stage of formal
operations in cognitive development. They are now capable of considering all possible ways of solving
a particular problem and can reason on the bases of hypotheses or propositions. Thus, they can look at
their problems from several points of view and can take many factors into account when solving them.
According to Kohlberg, the third’ level of moral development, postconventional morality ,
should be reached during adolescence. This is the level of self-accepted principles and it consists of two
stages. In the first stage, the individual believes that there should be flexibility in moral beliefs to make
it possible to modify and change moral standards if this will be advantageous to group members as a
whole. In the second stage, he conforms to both social standards and internalized ideals to avoid self-
condemnation rather than to avoid social censure. In this stage, morality is based on respect for self and
others rather than on personal desire.
Studies of moral development have indicated that the only effective way people of any age can
control their own behavior is through the development of conscience, an inner force that makes external
controls unnecessary. When adolescents learn to associate pleasant emotions with group-approved
behavior, and unpleasant emotions with group disapproved behavior, they will have the necessary
motivation to behave in accordance with group standards.

Enhancing Family relationships

As adolescence progresses, the frictional relationship is gradually replaced by a more pleasant
and affectionate relationship.
Parent-adolescent relationship improves when parents begin to realize and accept that their sons
and daughters are no longer children and when they try to understand the new cultural values of their
adolescents. They begin to relax in their discipline and try to understand their children’s standards of
behavior. The adolescent, on the other hand, begins to share anxieties and experiences with their
parents. Thus, both parties enjoy a more pleasant and affectionate relationship.
Relationship with siblings, grandparents, and other relatives improves as adolescence progresses.
With their newly acquired poise and self-confidence, adolescents begin to appreciate older siblings and
accept younger siblings’ behavior. They begin to treat grandparents and other relatives more graciously
and heed their criticisms more gratefully.
1. Parent and Adolescent Conflict

It is in the family where an individual should experience the most stable relationship an
individual should experience. Parents and adolescents usually develop conflicts even if they are
most familiar with each other, living in the same unit, which is the home. They are also attached to
each other by greatest interpersonal emotion which is love. Yet, a survey of adolescent problems
show that family relations is one of the highest sources of an adolescent’s problems.
One of the most common complaints of adolescents about their parents is that the latter treat
them as unthinking. They are reminded of the same things so they sound like a “broken record.”
“They seem not to realize that I have grown and am not a kinder pupil anymore.” On the other hand,
parents complain of their youngsters’ stubbornness (not heeding the former’s reminders and advise)
and their lack of cooperation with them when peer and parent conflict.
Joseph R. Thomas (1980) cites seven ways to effectively manage conflicts in the family:
a. Be willing to discuss matters and to give consideration to the views of others.
b. Stick to the point and don’t inject irrelevancies and recall instances when the other person goes
wrong.
c. Don’t argue at mealtime, or in front of others, or bring others into dispute.
d. Don’t abuse anyone physically, verbally or psychologically, or resort to unfair tactics to win your
point.
e. Look at areas of agreement and the possibility of compromise.
f. Be willing to admit it when you are wrong.
g. be willing to forget the disagreement once it’s behind you and to forgive or apologize if either is
called for.
In addition, the following suggestions by McGinnis (1982) can be considered in dealing with
most parent-child conflicts. Some conflicts can be reduced and mutual enjoyment increased by
modifying the environment. Enriching the environment encourages creativity and reduces boredom
and conflicts. Modification in the environment as implemented by the parents should be by mutual
decisions of both parties.

2. Expanding the possibilities of nonviolent conflict resolution by changing oneself is a very real
possibility for all. Parents should be positive and open to their children. If they want their children
to be good then they should also be good. Without this critical link, the whole chain of parenting for
peace and justice comes apart.

3. Mutual problem solving with children can absolutely minimize conflicts. Although most parents
short-cut the process, McGinnis suggested a systematic way of problem solving process.

Step 1. Name the problem or conflict clearly. Expressing feelings as well as wants, and active
listening are important aspects of this step. Each participant in the conflict needs to feel
head and understood.
Step 2. Brainstorm alternatives. Everyone’s idea must be listened to.
Step 3. Evaluate the alternatives. Here is where shortcuts are often taken. Children do not have the
capacity to stay in a process for a long time. Suggestions could be made to modify it so that
it can meet the needs of the children.
Step 4. Pool the group to see if the alternative is acceptable to everybody.
 Step 5. Decide how to implement the solution.

Monsigǹor Escriba (1974) likewise said, “Parents should exercise patience when talking to their
child. They should show that they believe in what their child says. In this way, the parents become their
child’s friends, willing to share his anxieties, ready to listen to his problems, and capable of extending
effective support when he needs it most.” He also said that during “difficulties in family life, one should
learn how to keep quiet, to wait and to say things in a positive, optimistic manner. It is important to ask
God for the strength and to overcome the whims and to practice self-control.”
More than being taught, children must witness these values and virtues among the family members,
especially the parents. Parents have the duty and right to educate their own children by developing the
right sense of values and inculcating virtues like justice, love, trust, patience, understanding, and respect.
This will enable the family to live in peace and love.
It is clear from the above suggestions that the virtues of prudence, fortitude, respect, humility, and
trust are necessary in solving problem to effectively manage conflicts in the family.

KEY IDEAS
1. Adolescence is a critical period for social adjustment into the adult world.
2. Family relationships, peers, and school are important socializing agents for the individual.
3. An individual’s perceptions of the environment affect everything and everyone around him.
4. An adolescent has to establish his identity to give direction to his activities.
5. A life goal and philosophy gives meaning to an adolescent’s choice of activities and companions.
6. An adolescent’s quality of thinking gives him a chance to be more reflective, logical, and rational.
 Chapter XII

Adulthood
The period of adulthood is studied as a series of stages that starts with the 20’s. Commitments
are made and the individuals have a well-defined sense of who they are. It is in this stage that they have
moved from a period of exploration to one of stabilization. They are refining or improving the patterns
of their lives which is done by accepting and accommodating social norms.
The argument about the possible growth of intelligence versus the slowing down or decline of
intelligence in adulthood has contrasted fluid with crystallized intelligence. It has drawn some
conclusions about the intelligence argument. It has drawn some conclusions about the intelligence
argument. It has raised the possibility of a fifth stage of cognitive development. It has described the
decision-making processes of adulthood and has highlighted the importance of certain career decisions
and other decisions.
This also depicts the slowing down of the primary senses and the organ reserve. A conclusion is
made with a detailed look at the influence of health habits on physical development in the stage of
adulthood.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
This section presents two basic psychological needs of adulthood which are affiliation and
achievement. When it comes to the affiliation needs of an adult, it is filled primarily by the institution of
marriage and by the individual’s social convoy. The achievement need of an adult is attained through
careers and of course through parenthood.
As the young adults approach the 30, a number of them often question their commitments. The
common problem that most women face is to resolve the conflict between parenthood and career. This
is observed among professional women but not so among the nonprofessionals. When these kinds of
problems are resolved, young adults spend the rest of their 30’s following through on the work they have
started, and continue up the career ladder. It is in this period that they bear their last children and
become as hardworking family people as they will ever be.
The early adulthood stage is followed by the midlife transition. At this point in life, a number of
people evaluate what they have done, asking questions as to whether they have reached their aspirations
and re-examining their plans for the rest of their lives. For a few, discontentment with self, profession
or career, and family develop into a midlife crisis.
As commonly noticed, middle-aged adults are playing many roles simultaneously to various
family members and various roles can lead to ambiguity and role strain. Due to the fact the they are
pressed on one side by their adolescent children and on the other by their aging parents, middle-aged
adults have been called the sandwich generation.
After the middle transition comes middle adulthood. Life during this adult stage of development
seems to settle down again – at least until around age 60. As experienced by many, when the first child
has gotten married and left home to establish his or her residence, mothers, particularly, feel a sense of
accomplishment and relief. It is a fact that marriage can, and often does, improve when the couples
have more time and money to devote to themselves, rather than to their children.
Through experience, men become more tender, and women more assertive during this adult stage
of development. Such changes may probably be the result of the altered circumstances that age might
bring.
 Throughout adulthood, people tend to measure their accomplishments and adjust their behavior
to some kind of social clock. This is described as a culture’ sense of appropriate social time. Social
time varies by subculture. For example, individuals of lower socio-economic status generally see the
aging process as occurring more quickly than individuals of higher status do.
Trends in history also affect the social clock, sometimes dramatically. This can be observed in
the lives of Filipino women, who once spent nearly all their adulthood just for bearing and caring for
children. Today with smaller families and a longer span of life, child-bearing happens during only a
fraction of adulthood.
In general, it is the social clock that determines whatever stages of adulthood there may be.

Affiliation Needs
It is in adult life that the need for love and intimacy are met. Most of these adults seek these
needs primarily through a commitment to a partner by marriage.
It is observed that the institution of marriage has provided stability for individuals and for society
as a whole. That is why, through religious rituals, legal sanctions, and social customs, people are
ensured to get married and stay married and sexual experiences outside marriage are not acceptable,
although some are doing it. It is still a norm in the Filipino family that the father, mother, and children
live together under one roof.
It is now observed that few people have been living alone and few families have been headed by a single
parent.

Choosing a partner. Marriage to the Filipinos is still the outcome of falling in love; although
some brides and grooms have been in and out of love with a few individuals, and may have been
involved in one or two intense relationships, before going into marriage.
Using Murstein’s synthesis of various mate-selection theories (1976), mate selection filtering
process. This filtering process occurs in three stages, namely: (1.) The original stimulus which makes
two parties notice each other; (2.) Comparison of values; and (3.) The development of roles vis-à-vis
each other.
Living-in before Marriage. This is the living together of the two adults (male and female) who
would like to spend more time in sorting out their values and roles before they finally decide to apply for
marriage license. This may be so because they would like to strengthen their future marriage and
prevent their future separation. In general, Filipinos still believe that marriage is more fulfilling than
living together because it involves commitment.
Marriage over the Years. It seems very noticeable to many Filipino marriages that the
interaction between husband and wife changes over time. Psychologists generally agree that there are
two kinds of love between woman and man, one stronger early in marriage and the other later. The first
is passionate love, the intense feeling of romance and excitement. The second is compassionate love,
the feeling of close relationship. For a number of couples, both types of love remain constant over the
years, although, in general, both forms go down slightly.
Separation over the Years. There are more married adults who are now separating than before or
10 to 15 years ago. Spouses today expect more from each other than spouses in the past did. Husbands
and wives before assumed that masculinity and feminity were opposite and the husband is the protector
and provider of the family, while the wife is the inspirer who takes care of the household chores. In
contrast, marriage partners now are likely to share the financial and parental responsibilities and to
expect each other to be a lover, confidante, and friend as well as a wage-earner and parent. This is due
to the mode of the time.
 In general, marriage separation affects the individual’s well being. It may be true that younger
people are less affected or disturbed by marriage separation than older people are. To ease the negative
feeling produced by separation, a number of these adults have entered into a live-in relationship because
divorce is not legalized in the Philippines.
In an individual, a social network is embedded which includes relatives, friends, and
acquaintances. This is best described by some psychologists as social convoy. This is the network
highlighting the truism that individuals travel their life course in the company of others, giving and
receiving support. This social convoy becomes valuable when individuals are beset with problems such
as marriage separation, death, and others. Considered as the most important members of the social
convoy are those who have been with the individuals for years, particularly family members and close
friends.
Family Ties. In the Philippines, family ties constitutes the number one social convoy. The
Filipino social organization, in general, is family-oriented. The family is the central unit of concern (F.
Landa Jocano, 1990). This is the nuclear family which consists solely of the husband and wife and
dependent children. Family ties have resulted in the many sources of financial as well as moral support
for all family members. It is recognized by social scientists that family relationship is really an
important social convoy.
Friendship. Friends are an important part of the social convoy for individuals without strong
family ties. It is noticed that people who have a reliable set of close friends, and an extensive network of
acquaintances, are usually emotionally and physically healthier than those with no close friends at all.
Among the Filipino adults, once they get married, their close friends of the opposite sex may be
perceived by the spouse as the object of jealousy. This usually happens among wives. Friendship
between men is based more on shared activities and interests, while that between women tends to be
more intimate, and based on shared confidence and assistance.

Achievement Needs
Achievement is a very important need for the adults. They feel the need to accomplish
something with their lives. According to Erikson, this is the need for generativity. This is so, because
without a sense of achievement, adult life would seem to be empty and purposeless. The need for
achievement among adults is satisfied in two main ways, through their career and through their children.
In the Philippines, most adults engage in exactly the same work at the end of their career as they
were at the beginning, perhaps because of the limited job opportunities. Careers, their work lives with a
period of career exploration. A period of establishment and advancement occurs once a person starts on
a career path. The more experienced worker or the older will become a mentor, or advisor, to the new
worker as the career changes.
Generally, people advance to the highest level they can master. Because of the scarcity of jobs,
the possibilities for advancement are limited, so many workers cannot shift from one occupation to
another during the advancement period of their career. Only a few who have strong backers from the
top management are fortunate during this period. Because of the very few available jobs for
advancement, the workers make their work suitable for them. Of course, older workers may not want to
change their work for they have been adjusted to it already.

Vocational success. It cannot be denied that background and situational factors do influence the
success of the individuals in their jobs. But according to some psychologists, the most interesting of all
are the personality characteristics people bring to their work. One trait, which is termed achievement,
tends to distinguish those who become successful from those who do not. Both men and women if they
want to can have a high need for achievement, but differences do exist.
Problems with Work. Problems occur in any type of work. One problem that is often
experiences, particularly in the helping profession is called burn out. This is described as a stage in
which one feels depleted of energy or enthusiasm. Another problem that occurs among workers in
factories or corporations is called alienation. This happens when the workers feel that their work has
become uninteresting or unimportant. They are no longer recognized as persons but are simply regarded
as means of performing some tasks.
For most Filipino adults, their significant achievement is raising their children. A very clear
expression of generativity and an attempt to meet the need for achievement is parenthood.
Parenthood usually develops through several stages called the family life cycle. This cycle
occurs in eight periods as described by Berger (1983):
1. The honeymoon period. This lasts from the marriage day until the birth of the first child.
2. The nurturing period. This lasts until the first child is already 2.
3. The authority period. This is the span between 2 and 5 years.
4. The interpretive period. This is the span between 5 and 12 years.
5. The interdependent period. This occurs when children are already adolescents.
6. The departure period. This lasts from the home-leaving of the first child to the home-leaving of the
last.
7. The empty nest period. This begins when the last child leaves home.
8. The retirement period. This lasts from the retirement of the first spouse to the death of the spouse.

Problems with parenthood. The culture in the Philippines is decidedly pronatalist, that is, in
favor of birth. The problem comes when couples are infertile and childbearing is not possible. A
number of these couples who have the means will go for child adoption. Quite a few of these parents
encounter problems on misbehavior of adopted children due to faulty training like too much nurturing.
Most adults who decide to have children encounter problems of parenting especially for couples
who are burdened financially. Off and on conflicts occur due to misunderstanding or marital roles of
husband and wife. Some of these conflicts worsen because of intervention by in-laws.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Intelligence

A debate or argument was made by two teams of researchers on the growth or decline of
intelligence in adulthood as cited by Fry (1983). The first team composed of K. Warner Schaie and Paul
Baltes argued that throughout life intelligence is moldable by experience, health, education, and other
factors. The second team of John Horn and Gary Honaldson explained that intellectual decline with age
is inevitable.
Early in the twentieth century, psychologists believed that intelligence reaches a peak in
adolescence, and gradually slows down during adulthood. At present, many developmental
psychologists emphasize the plasticity of adult intellectual abilities. They view that education, social
status, occupation, health, and life experiences possibly affect intellectual development far more than
either cohort or age, at least until about age 70.
It is now accepted that individuals who are most likely to show a longitudinal increase in IQ
scores are those who use the intellectual abilities measured by the tests on IQ. Individuals who do not
use intellectual abilities in their everyday lives are more likely to show a decrease in IQ in adulthood. It
is the motivation to learn and meaningfulness of material that are the two key factors that tend to affect
the learning and test performance of adults.
Another point presented by John Horns as his optimistic view of adult intellectual maintenance
or growth is wishful thinking. He affirms that the most important part of intelligence is “fluid”
intelligence, and that it slows down or declines throughout adulthood.
We know that intelligence is not one simple trait. It is composed of many abilities and
accomplishments that can be quantified or tested. According to Horn, all types of mental ability can be
grouped into two types, fluid and crystallized.
Fluid intelligence can be described as those basic mental abilities that go into learning and
understanding any subject matter. It can move in any direction, as its name implies. The elements of
fluid intelligence include short-term memory, abstract thought, speed of thinking, and creative ability.
Crystallized intelligence pertains to the accumulation of facts that comes about with training or
education and experience. It is more solid than fluid intelligence.
To explain further, fluid intelligence helps develop crystallized intelligence. For example, one’s
present understanding of mathematical problems depends partly on how quickly and thoroughly he
grasped or understood such things when he was first exposed to them. Training or education and culture
can influence both the two categories of intelligence, fluid and crystallized.
As is accepted generally, measures of vocabulary, information, and reasoning ability are likely to
increase with age, whereas measures of memory, speed, and of spatial processing tend to decrease in
adulthood. It can be safely stated that fluid intelligence likely declines in adulthood, whereas
crystallized intelligence appears to increase or continue.
Based on the number of researches reviewed by Fry (1983), he states that individuals do not
reach an intellectual peak in adolescence and then decline. Surely a number of these individuals
continue to grow wiser and smarter on some abilities. However, it is not confirmed by researches yet,
whether intellectual decline begins in old age or long before, and, it is begins earlier, how widespread
and irreversible it is.

A Fifth Stage
Developmental psychologists explain that cognitive development at any part of life is not simply
a matter of intellectual abilities and skills. It is a fact that thinking processes and the topics about what
one thinks are also part of cognition.
A new concept that concerns the structure of the adult thought is not under study. As mentioned
by several theorists, according to Fry (1983), there may well be a fifth stage of cognitive development
that summarizes the four earlier stages explained by Piaget (1972).
To explain the final stage of cognitive development, Kalus Riegal (1973) thinks that what
characterizes this is the understanding of the contradictions inherent in all forms of thinking. He calls
this dialectical thinking because each new thought brings forth an awareness of opposite thought. He
believes that development itself is dialectical. Further he says an individual need not even reach the
fourth stage of development itself is dialectical. Further he says an individual need not even reach the
fourth stage of development in order to reach this dialectical stage. He describes Piaget’s thinking as
passive, in contrast to the active, in the development of thinking in the adult.

Decision Making
 In this period of adulthood, it is the time for making decisions which are crucial. Each of these
decisions necessitates further decisions and can have long-term consequences such as marriage, career,
education, rearing of children, etc.
An adult is expected to make decisions by obtaining various pieces of information, evaluate
them, and then draw a conclusion as shown by information-processing theory. In general, human beings
do not use this model because of “limited computational power.” And so, they are oftentimes not very
rational and mostly make decisions that are not gathered from all the relevant facts and without
calculating seriously the advantages and disadvantages of each.
As commonly noticed, the most common faults in adult decision making is the tendency to
overgeneralize due to limited experiences. Another unacceptable idea is based on the assumption that
once one has invested a certain amount of time, money or emotion in something, one must continue to
do so, even when it is clear that the investment is a bad one.
It is very unfortunate that decisions usually made in early adulthood are haphazardly done,
There is a great indication that decision-making skills improve with age. It appears that the older adults
are, the more likely they are more serious and thoughtful in their decision making. This may hold true
between younger and older leaders of any institution.
Moral Development

As already stated earlier, Kohlberg (1969) has categorized six stages of moral reasoning. The
fifth and sixth stages, which are the highest, the individual either believes that the social order depends
on the sense of commitment and the responsibility of each member of society (stage 5), or that certain
ethical principles govern our lives (stage 6). As Kohlberg further explains, individuals must not only
reach formal operational processes (Piaget’s stage 4) and have the time to analyze about moral issues
and to question values; they should possess the experience of sustained responsibility for the welfare of
others and the experience of irreversible moral decision or choice which are the marks of adult personal
experience. Furthermore, Kohlberg said, thinking that is “truly ethical” does not develop until at least
young adulthood or even middle age.
From the viewpoints given by Kohlberg, the role of experience cannot be underestimated. Just
as experience can affect the way one thinks, the way one thinks can affect the way one experienced
evens in ones life.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

An Overview

It is observed that this society of ours emphasizes the attractiveness and desirability of youth.
Getting older, particularly physical aging, is not welcomed by anyone of us. The decline in the physical
aspect that occurs between ages 20 and 60 seem not to be a problem to many. This may be so, because
these declines can be minimized by maintaining a healthy life style.
It is discernible that the first signs of aging appear during young adulthood. This is the period
that the very important parts of the body reach their maximum strength. This happens in late
adolescence and then grows weaker with each decade of adult life. This holds true of the cardiovascular
and respiratory systems as well as the sexual-reproductive systems and the sense organs such as the eyes
and ears. Whether we like it or not, youthful appearance fades rapidly, and changes in physical
appearance are visible in almost everyone by age 40.
 Observing the adult stage, one perceives that the aging process is less drastic. This may be so,
because older adults are likely to associate the decrements of aging with those who are truly aged, that is
older than 80. In day-to-day life, a number of adults feel that their bodies are still capable or stable. In
fact, most individuals whose bodies are properly or adequately maintained are capable of functioning
very well until at least age 70.
In everyday activities, human beings use only a portion of the capacity of their hearts, lungs,
stomachs, and so forth. Each organ has an extra capacity, called organ reserve, for usually stressful
conditions or events. It is in the reserve that the slowing down takes place as an 18-year-old; yet that 55
year-old can move very easily in normal activity.
In our body functions there is what we call the homeostasis in which our body functions adjust
automatically to keep physiological functioning in a stage of equilibrium or balance. This means that
when we are at rest, our breathing and heart rate become slow and steady; when we are active, both
increase to provide more oxygen. The homeostatic function of the older bodies takes longer to adjust,
making it harder for them to adapt to, and recover from stress.

Changes in the Sense Organs

All of the five sense organs show signs of aging throughout adulthood. However, the two higher
sense organs, the sense of hearing and seeing, tend to be noticeable for they are used most often in
understanding and relating with the physical and social environment.
Hearing. The ability to hear declines for everyone between ages 20 and 60. However, there
seems to be a consensus that many adults who lose some hearing between 35 to 60 can still hear quite
well. Fry (1983) wrote that at age 50, one man in every three and one woman in every four has trouble
understanding a whisper, but most can still hear soft normal conversations (40 decibels). Ability to
distinguish pure tones (such as bells) slows down faster than ability to comprehend conversation. The
minor problem in hearing loss can be remedied through the use of a hearing aid.
Vision. The sense organ which is quite visible in its slowing down in function because of aging
is sight or vision. The ability to focus on objects at various distances shows great variation or differences
from individual to individual. This is due mainly to heredity, which affects visual acuity or the focusing
ability of the individual.
This problem in vision can be corrected by wearing eye-glasses with corrective lenses. Using
corrective eyeglasses is no longer a stigma related to aging. People nowadays tend to purchase
corrective lens for their vision problem then buy a hearing aid which they regard as a symbol of aging.
As early as late adolescence, other aspects of vision such as depth perception, muscle resilience,
and adaptation to darkness decline steadily in almost everyone.

Sex and Reproduction

The changes in the sexual-reproductive system are more dramatic, more observable, and
potentially more troublesome than in any other body system. The impact of these changes is very much
dependent on the individual and some other related factors.
For the female reproductive organs, these function at their peak during the age of 20, and then
start to become less efficient. Fry (1983) stated that on the average the weight of the uterus is greatest at
age 30, and then declines to about 53 percent weight loss by age 50. It is reported that in general, both
ovulation and menstruation are less regular in the 30’s than in the 20’s.
In the late 40’s or early 50’s the ovulation and menstruation of a woman stop naturally due to
the decrease in estrogen manufactured by the body. The absence of menstruation is called the
menopause. It is generally noticed that women today tend to reach menopause a year or two later than
their mothers and grandmothers did.
Menopause is the period where the women’s body adjusts to a much lower level of estrogen for
about three years. These years of adjustment are also referred to in all the various biological and
psychological changes that accompany menopause.
The woman in the menopause period shows hot flushes or cold sweats. These signs are all
caused by vasomotor instability. This is a temporary disruption in the body mechanism that constrict or
dilate the blood vessels to maintain body temperature.
The menopausal problem or climacteric that most women experience can be prevented or
reduced by the physician’s prescription of synthetic estrogen. But research findings show that this
estrogen treatment is associated with an increased risk of uterine cancer. Perhaps estrogen can be used
as a temporary relief for women who are seriously disturbed by the climacteric.
Male sexual organs also manifest signs of aging throughout adulthood.
The downward shift in male sexual or reproductive capacity is not abrupt. As early as age 25,
reproductive potential declines gradually as the sperm start to decrease in number and mobility. This is
also true with men’s sexual activity. A number of men remain active in their 80’s while the others stop
virtually all sexual behavior by age 50.
The psychological changes in the sexual-reproductive systems of adults vary greatly from person
to person in the procreational or recreational function of their sexual relations.’
As to procreational sexual function, few people nowadays believe that a couple should have as
many children as possible, due to rising costs and overpopulation. The idea of having less children is
now determined more by personal reasons, such as the number of children a couple already has, or their
financial resources.
People with Type A behavior, characterized by self-drive and stress, are more prone to develop
heart failure.
When it comes to health awareness, the older an individual is, the more likely he or she is to
practice better health habits than when younger. And the improved health of the adult depends very
much on the changes in sexual interest and drive during adulthood which tend not to decline. Their
highest level of eroticism seems to be between 25 to 30 years of age, remaining on a plateau for about
20 years before beginning a decline sometime after the end of the reproductive period.
In general, individuals who have active sex lines in early adulthood are most prone to have active
sex lives in middle and late adulthood. A number of couples find that their sex lives continue to
progress throughout their relationship, even into old age.

Health and Vitality

Generally, our bodies are capable of being active and healthy until old age. From 20 to 60 years
most morbidity (illness) and mortality are controllable.
People who are active have much smaller rates of serious illness and death than people who are
inactive. Engaging in strenuous exercise – three of more times a week for at least one half per workout
is even better than having an active job. Such exercise helps directly in reducing the risk of heart failure
and stroke.
Adulthood is beset by many serious diseases due to smoking of cigarettes. These include cancer
(particularly lung cancer, but also several other cancers such as cancers of the bladder, kidney, mouth,
and stomach), heart disease and stroke, and emphysema.
Another health problem in adulthood is obesity. It is considered a health risk related to heart
disease, diabetes, and stroke and it is a contributing factor to arthritis. Because of the problem of obesity,
physicians generally believe that thinner is better, and that even individuals who are a little bit
overweight should be encouraged to diet. But longitudinal studies suggest that, at least in middle
adulthood, it is healthier to be somewhat overweight than underweight.
Drinking of alcohol could be another problem in adulthood. People who drink more liquor on a
regular basis are prone to develop cirrhosis of the liver. Too much drinking of alcohol also affects the
utmost functioning of the heart, stomach, and brain, thus depleting the organ reserve at an unnaturally
fast rate.
It is also noted that people who have Type A Behavior, characterized by self-drive and stress,
puts them at risk for heart disease. The idea as to whether Type A Behavior is a major cause of heart
disease or simply a contributing factor is still under argument.
There is enough evidence that the older a person is, the more likely he or she is to practice better
health habits than when younger. Because of the changes in health attitudes and habits among adult,
health is very much improved.

KEY IDEAS

1. The common problem most women face is the conflict between parenthood and career.
2. Discontentment with midlife transition develops into a midlife crisis.
3. More time and money can improve the marriage of couples, rather than care of their children.
4. The social clock determines the stages of adulthood.
5. The need for love and intimacy are met in adult life and becomes more fulfilling in marriage, with the
involvement of commitment.
6. Marriage goes down slowly over the years.
7. Marriage partners today expect too much of the wage-earner, parents, friends, and lover.
8. The nuclear family is really an important social convoy.
9. The need for generativity is through achievement.
10. Burn out and alienation become a problem with work.
11. Adult intellectual abilities are emphasized as “plasticity.”
12. The most important part of intelligent in adult is “fluid” intelligence.
13. Dialectical thinking is considered as the “fifth stage.”
14. Moral development possesses sustained responsibility for the welfare of others.
15. Changes in the primary senses and the organ reserve decline upon growing older.
16. Menopause for women and climacteric for men signify the decline of sex and reproduction.
 Chapter XIII

Late Adulthood

This chapter focuses on the three major aspects of development, namely: physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial.
The first section starts with an examination of some theories of psychosocial development in old
age. Also explained are the changes in achievement patterns, affiliation, needs and some special
problems facing the frail elderly.
The second section examines the use of tests that are standardized and the artificial situations in
the study of cognition of the late adulthood. It also presents the information-processing approach as a
useful way to view thinking in older adults. Further, it summarizes learning in old age.
The last section presents the unfavorable effects of the prejudices against aging, the role of
professionals in making the stereotypes of ageism, and the reasons for attempting to improve these
negative attitudes is described in both general and specific terms. Finally, this section ends with a look
at some of the positive prospects for the elderly in the future.

PHYSCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Ageism

In the Philippine culture, the negative stereotype about the elderly is not noticeable, although
very few Filipino families influenced by the Western culture seems to show negative attitudes towards
late adulthood. This may be so because of their emphasis on growth, strength, and progress. In general,
the Filipinos view their late adults with respect. And so, ageism which is a prejudice against an age
group does not prevent the Filipino elderly from living lives as actively and happily as they might; it
does not also preclude much day-to-day contact between those over 65 and those younger.
Ageism may be the most destructive social prejudice of all. Professionals who specialize in old
age, particularly those trained in geriatrics (the field of medicine concerned with care of the aged) who
spend most of their time with people who are sick and infirm, should show utmost attention to the many
healthy aspects of an older person’s life. Gerontologists, researchers specializing in gerontology (the
study of old age) should lead in preventing and remedying cultural biases concerning late adulthood.
Aging should be seen as a normal and natural continuation of our development, rather than as something
to be feared. If this is so, we will become much more content with the unfolding of our lives.

The Aging Process

Growing older cannot be prevented; enescence, or the weakening and decline of the body, begins
almost as soon as growth stops. From that time on, the decline is gradual throughout adulthood.
The two higher sense of organs which are vision and hearing continue to become poorer as
aging goes on. It is impaired vision more than impaired hearing that is common along late adults. The
lower sense organs such as taste, touch, smell, and the senses of pain and balance are also impaired in
many of the very late adults.
Because of aging, osteoporosis occurs. This is described as a loss of bone calcium that causes
bones to become more porous and fragile. This problem starts in middle age and is the main cause of
older people’s being much more likely to break a bone, particularly the hip bone, than the younger
individuals.
 It is very much noticeable that the gradual slowdown of functioning of the cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, and genital-urinary systems really affects the movements of the late adults. It
comes to a point where severe disability or even death may occur when an injury to the body is sudden.
The elderly are more likely to experience many illnesses due to their body’s impaired resistance
to them. Due to the advance learning in health care and medicine, many of the problems faced by
today’s cohort of elderly may be significantly reduced in future cohorts. This may be so, because
modern medicine and good knowledge in human behavior allow more and more individuals to live the
full length of the human life span and make all the years of the life span good ones. It is hoped that a
great number of people will survive until age 85 or so and then die quickly and easily with a natural
death.
The aging process is caused by a number of things. These are:
1. Wear and Tear. The wear and tear theory of aging states that the human body is like a machine. The
parts of a machine deteriorate and so with the human body. The parts of the human body deteriorate
as the years of exposure to radiation, pollution, disease, inadequate nutrition, and various other
stresses accumulate.
2. Aging DNA. In the wear and tear theory of aging, deterioration may take place molecule by
molecule, as well as organ by organ. Throughout the life span, radiation bombards the DNA in the
replicating cells of the human body, gradually creating mutations in structure in more and more cells.
This means that their instructions for performing their functions, including the production of new
cells, become inadequate. In due time, there develops an error catastrophe, a constellation of errors
that is so extensive that the body can no longer control or segregate the error. Disease or infirmity
takes place and death occurs.
3. Molecular Aging. The biochemical process through which certain kinds of molecules become linked
with other kinds is called cross-linkage. This is so, because certain proteins of the body, notably
collagen and elastin, form connective tissues which bind the cells of the body together. In due time,
the molecules of these proteins become cross-linked or attached to the other molecules. When this
happens, the proteins become less elastic and more brittle. And so, cross-linkage could be the
underlying cause of major changes in the cardio vascular system, such as hardening of the arteries.
Because of aging that disposes the human body to the continuing increase in cross-linkage, each cell
of the body becomes less flexible and adaptable.
4. Decline of the Immune System. It is a fact that the immune system protects the human body against
disease by recognizing foreign substances in the circulatory system, and then segregating and
destroying them. When the human body gets sick, its immune system marshalls its forces to fight and
destroy the invader. There are two types of cells that the immune system can work with. These are
the B-cells which is manufactured in the bone marrow, and the T-cells which are made by the
thymus. It is true that the thymus starts to shrink during adolescence. Researchers in this area
believe that a reduction of T-cells may explain why the immune system becomes less efficient with
aging. Furthermore, the mechanisms that regulate B- and T-cells also become less well adapted with
age. Because of aging, autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks normal body
tissues rather than the harmful invaders become more common in late adulthood.
5. Limit in Cell reproduction. It was Leonard Hayflick who discovered that cells cultured from human
embryos do not multiply infinitely. Cells that are cultured from adults showed a lesser number of
doublings before they stopped dividing, with the total number of time a cell divides being generally
related to the age of the human donor. It is now concluded, based on a number of researchers, that
there is a limited number of times the cells of living creatures, even in ideal conditions, will
reproduce.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Measuring Intelligence

Cross-sectional researchers abroad discovered that on almost any measure of cognitive

development, individuals older than 60 do less well than individual younger than 60, and individuals in
their late 70’s and 80’s perform even less well. Longitudinal researches abroad confirm that there is a
general decline in some cognitive abilities after age 60, and in most cognitive abilities after age 70. The
finding above is confirmed by a generalized observation among the Filipino elderly that there is really a
decline on intellectual sharpness among the 70’s and more among the 80’s.
However, these researchers abroad have been questioned by several critics who noted that the
tests commonly used may overestimate the amount of normal decline. These comments are:
1. The tests measuring cognitive abilities are generally designed to test younger adults on school-related
skills. The older adults of course have had fewer years of school than younger adults and whatever
the formal education of older adults, it is many more years behind them than is that of younger
adults.
2. The speed of response is often factored into the score; but speed may indicate little about the quality
of thought among the elderly.
The declines found in the research are the mean scores or averages based on the scores of many
individuals. It cannot be ignored that some older individuals are intellectually superior to the average
younger adults, and some do not show any decline at all between ages 70 and 80.

The Information-Processing Approach

Another very helpful approach in measuring the cognitive abilities of older adults is the
information-processing approach. This model compares the human brain to a computer. This means
that to understand thinking, you must consider the information is organized (programmed) and stored (in
memory) within the brain, and the ability of the brain to communicate (output) information when
necessary.
Definite differences exist between the younger person and the older one in the way information
comes into the brain. For the late adults, the receptors of information, usually the eyes and the ears, are
less adept at picking up sensory input than the younger individuals. It is very noticeable that perceptual
processes including body movements, reaction time, and the speed at which the brain registers new
information slow down with age.
The ability to remember which is called memory declines with age, although to some elderly,
memory loss is a minor problem and it may occur only in some types of memory. There are four types
of memory that are affected by age, each lasting longer than the other. The first type is sensory register,
which is the momentary afterimage that occurs in the brain after a person perceives something. The
second one is primary memory, which is memory over a short period of time. The third type is the
secondary memory, which is stored for several minutes or hours. This memory shows the greatest loss
with age. And the fourth one is tertiary memory, which is memory for information stored in the mind
relatively long ago.
As general observed older adults are less efficient than younger adults at organizing new
information, particularly when presented with test problems requiring logical analysis. And the least
apparent is in the ability to express information. Since vocabulary and language skills are built as earlier
skills, many older people continue to improve in self-expression.
Learning in Old Age

It is a fact that older adults can and do learn many new skills and behaviors. But, it cannot be
denied that older adults learn less well than younger adults do.

Dementia

A person does not become senile simply because he becomes old. Symptoms of senility which
include severe memory loss, rambling conversation, disorientation, and personality change occur
because of a disease. A disease called dementia, which refers to a pathological loss of intellectual
functioning, does occur more often with age. When it happens before 60, it is called presenile dementia:
after age 60 it is called senile dementia. The chronological cut-off point is arbitrary, for the symptoms
are the same for senile and presenile dementia. A general estimate is that one individual in ten over age
60 suffers from some form of dementia.
There are three identifiable phases of dementia. The first is with a general forgetfulness,
particularly of name. The second is of more general confusion, with notable deficits in concentration
and recent memory. The third phase begins when people are no longer able to take care of their basic
needs because they are so forgetful.
Alzheimer’s disease is the first major cause of dementia which is no longer considered the
disorder for people with dementia under age 60. This is due to the new techniques used for analyzing
brain tissue with certain abnormalities called plaques and tangles, which destroy the same parts of the
cortex no matter what the age of the victim.
The causes of Alzheimer’s disease are still unknown. It may be a slow virus, or a genetic
predisposition; or errors in DNA and RNA replication; or an autoimmune disease; or poisons
accumulated from the diet or the environment; or, most likely, a combination of several of these factors.
The second major cause of dementia is called multi-infarct dementia (MID). In MID, there is the
destruction of some of the brain tissue which occurs because an infarct, or temporary obstruction of the
blood vessels, prevents a sufficient supply of blood from reaching that part of the brain. The result of
this is a stroke or ministroke; which is often so small the person is unaware that it has occurred. The
underlying factor of such obstructions is general asteriosclerosis or the hardening of the arteries.
There are also other organic causes of dementia. Parkinson’s disease, often produces dementia
as well as the distinctive rigidity and/or tremor of the muscles. Down’s syndrome and brain tumors can
cause dementia, as so can head injuries that result in an excess of fluid pressing on the brain.
A small group of olderly are demented because of psychological factors. In some cases, the
person is unusually anxious and under pressure. And of course, depression may make an older person
seem to be irreversibly demented. Drug and alcohol abuse can effect the intellectual functioning of the
person.

New Cognitive Development in Late Life

It is true that there is a decline in some aspects of cognition, but there are positive changes in
other aspects of their life.
When people get older, they seem to see art and nature in a deeper, more appreciative way. For
many older people, this heightened appreciation leads to more active interests. Some of them begin
gardening, bird-watching, pottery, painting, or playing a musical instrument.
A number of older individuals become more philosophical and reflective than they once were,
showing a rise in inferiority. It is observed that those individuals who are considered especially wise,
philosophical, and spiritual have usually become aged.
 Very much related to the idea that the old are more philosophical than the young is the idea that
the elderly are more spiritual. In many societies, the very old have been the spiritual leaders.
Observations show that the older the individual is, in our society, the more likely he or she is to consider
religion to be very vital or important.
To view cognitive development in an adaptive perspective, there is what is called as the
charming magical thinking of the pre-schooler, the idealistic logic of the adolescent, the pragmatic,
acquisitive learning of the adult, and the wisdom and spirituality of the old which are adapted to the
needs of each particular age. For a society to be complete, we need the modes of thinking that
characterize each age group.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Theories
Some of the theories presented here attempt to characterize or describe psychosocial
development in late adulthood. However, no one of these theories is really applicable to all people.
The disengagement theory is the most controversial theory of development in old age. This
particular thing explains that in old age the individual and society mutually withdraw from each other.
Disengagement happens through a combination of four processes:
1. As early as in late middle age, an individual’s social sphere becomes increasingly narrow.
2. Individuals anticipate these changes and accept their participation in this “narrowing.”
3. As individuals become less role-centered, their style of interaction changes from being active or
dynamic to a less dynamic or a passive one.
4. Due to the change in their style of interaction, older people are less likely to be taken for new roles.

Another theory is the activity theory which is the opposite of the disengagement theory. It is true
that disengagement does occur for some elderly individuals in some areas of life. It is also observed that
disengagement in one area can lead to reengagement in other areas. The more activities older people
engage in, and the more roles they participate in or play, the greater or better their life satisfaction.
The other theory is that of continuity and discontinuity. In the continuity theory, old age makes
people neither more nor less engaged in life than they were; rather, older people are essentially the same
in their approach to living as they were when they were younger. According to this theory, basic
personality characteristics, whether genetic or the result of experiences, remain stable with time.
Opposite to this theory explains that in late adulthood, life events such as retirement, change of
residence, failing health, and death of a spouse may cause substantial discontinuity in personality and
behavior.
The last is the diversity theory. This theory explains that the patterns of psychosocial
development in late adulthood are at least as varied as in earlier periods. It is believed by gerontologists
that variability and diversity increase with age; so, by late adulthood, the multiplicity of patterns and
personalities is greater than at any other age.

Changes in Achievement Patterns

It is a fact that at every age, self-esteem derives partly from knowing that one is involved in the
performance of something meaningful. The elderly can manage to keep themselves busy and also try to
derive a sense of achievement and satisfaction from their work or activities. It is also observed that a
number of late adults are still working for economic reasons. Even those who have the retirement
benefits still continue to work to keep themselves busy. Retirement for them is not the end of
employment, but may signify the beginning of self-chosen activities. And most retirees are able to carve
out a new center for their lives.
There are other achievements in late adulthood. Retirement for them can be seen as an
opportunity to develop old interests and discover new ones. Many of these late adults find ways in
which to express their cultural interest and the interest in practical arts and become more active church
members.

Affiliation Needs
In late adulthood, affiliation needs are more important than achievement needs. For a number of
elderly, family bonds and friendship are important to their well-being.
To generalize, older husbands and wives tend to be happier with each other, and with their
marriages, than they have been since they were newlyweds. It is true that marriage tends to improve
with age because some of the usual sources of conflicts in marriage, such as money, sex, and in-laws,
raising children, and others already have been settled.
It is also noticed that when the married late adults compare their lives to the lives of their
unmarried contemporaries, they are likely to consider themselves fortunate, and that it is usually far
better to be married than unmarried. Not only are the married generally satisfied and happier than the
widowed and separated; they are likely to be healthier.
Also, interaction with friend is an important variable for well-being in late adulthood as an
addition to their interaction with family members. This does not mean that family members play an
unimportant role, the overall relationship between parents and their grown children is usually strong and
close.
Having grandchildren is an important source of pride and gratification for many grandparents. A
number of them develop a close meaningful relationship with their grandchildren. And some of them
are central to the lives of their grandchildren, and are treated with respect, affection, or fear with
authority.

The Special Elderly

In the final years of life, at some point the old persons are so ill or disabled that they no longer
can bathe, dress, or prepare a meal. Almost all of the infirm elderly are cared for by close relatives at
home. Very rarely nursing homes are looked upon as a last resort.

Conclusion

Gerontophilia, or reverence for the old, is still the norm in the Philippines. It is hoped that the
Philippines will not go into the period of gerontophobia, or fear of the aging.

KEY IDEAS

1. Generally, Filipinos view their late adults with respect that ageism does not prevent the Filipino
elderly from living as actively and happily. A few, however, has the negative stereotype about
elderly.
2. The aging process is caused by a number of factors such as wear and tear, aging DNA, molecular
aging, decline of the immune system, and limit in cell reproduction.
3. Observations among the Filipino elderly show that there is really a decline on intellectual sharpness
among the 70’s and more so among the 80’s.
4. Symptoms of sensibity which include severe memory loss, rambling conversation, disorientation, and
personality change occur because of dementia, a pathological loss of intellectual functioning.
5. While there is a gradual decline of cognition in older life, older people see art and nature in a deeper,
more appreciative way.
6. there are several theories to characterize the psychosocial development in late adulthood. Some of
these are the disengagement theory, activity theory, continuity and discontinuity theories and the
diversity theory.
7. In late adulthood, affiliation needs are more important than achievement needs.