What is Media Psychology?

And Why You Should Care

Dr. Pamela Rutledge

Media Psychology Research Center
June 2010

What is media psychology? It’s a field with no Media psychology is using #7 to answer #6 because of
consensus definition, no clearly-defined career paths, #1 through #5
and no easy answers. In spite of that, it can add value
Psychology is key to understanding the implications of
anywhere human behavior intersects media
technology. Consequently, it seems like it should be
technologies. Here’s why:
pretty straightforward to define media psychology. For
1. Media technologies are everywhere some reason, though, it’s not. I have had discussions
with colleagues for hours (or at least it seems like it)
2. People of all ages use media technologies a lot
about what constitutes media, mediated
3. Young people use them most communication, and technology and what we mean by
4. Older people worry about younger people psychology in the context of media—and we’re not
even philosophers. In this and the following two posts,
5. Technology is not going away I will discuss my definition of media psychology and
6. We all worry if this is good or bad or somewhere why I think media psychology is so important.
in-between Both media and psychology have made major
7. Psychology is the study of people of all ages contributions to western culture throughout the 20th

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century. Can you imagine The New Yorker without just concerned with content. Media psychology looks
Freudian references or Jason Bourne without operant at the whole system. There is no beginning and no end.
conditioning? The term “media,” however, used to be It is a continual loop including the technology
confinable to a bucket labeled “mass media.” Our developer, content producer, content perceptions, and
awareness of media, however, has reached the user response. Just as Bandera describes social
collective consciousness, as if we all woke up cognitive theory as the reciprocal action between
yesterday, awakened by our programmable alarm with environment, behavior, and cognition, so does media
the iPod attachment, and over our coffee made psychology evaluate the interactive process of the
automatically by our coffeemaker, checked our system. There is no chicken, no egg to this system.
blackberry for emails and headline news and then They all coexist and coevolve with each other.
looked up shocked to see that our kids are doing much
There is no consensus among academicians and
the same. This awareness is leaving people clamoring
practitioners as to the definition or scope of media
for a new level of understanding. There is an
psychology. This is because the field must be
infiltration of media applications and information
representative of not only the work currently being
technologies into nearly every aspect of our lives. What
done, but also the work that needs to be done. This is a
does it all MEAN? Just like Mighty Mouse (or maybe
field that changes every time iTunes releases a new
Underdog), media psychology emerged in a time of
mobile app.
need.
The interests of the person doing the defining often
The goal of media psychologists is to try to answer
drive definitions of a field. However the fact that both
those questions by combining an understanding of
‘media’ and ‘psychology’ are themselves broad and
human behavior, cognition, and emotions with an
prone to misconception contributes to the definitional
equal understanding of media technologies. Unlike
confusion. In spite of our awareness of media
some types of media studies, media psychology is not
everywhere, when someone mentions media the
metaphor we fall back on is often mass media. It’s a
field where you must continually define your terms.
Does ‘media’ mean television or does ‘media’ include
computer interfaces that facilitate information
management and distribution?
The same heuristics impact the popular perception of
the field of psychology. There is a wide world of
psychology beyond the narrow view of clinical
applications that evoke images of Freud and talk
therapy. So it isn’t surprising when media psychology
is perceived as a psychologist appearing in the media,
such as the radio shrink for many years Dr. Toni Grant
or the infamous Dr. Phil. This view of media
psychology also has links to the origins of first division
(46) for Media Psychology of the American
Psychological Association (APA). Due to the
Media psychology looks at the
prevalence of mass media relative to other media
whole system. There is no technologies, it was home for several psychologists
beginning and no end. It is a with media venues. The initial emphasis in Division 46
continual loop including the on training psychologists to effectively appear in the
technology developer, content media, how to deliver psychological information over
the media, the ethical limitations of doing therapy
producer, content perceptions,
using media, and as a watchdog for the accurate
and user response.
WHAT IS MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY?
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portrayal of psychologists in the media far outweighed lives, we are forced to change how we view the world.
the emphasis on research looking at media use and Human beings are not really very good at that.
development.
Media psychology is the response to this dilemma. It is
Part of the confusion also comes from the cross- a relatively new field and hard to define. [See “Media
disciplinary aspects of media psychology. Not all Psychology: Why You Should Care (Part 1)."] Media
people doing what I would call ‘media psychology’ are
psychologists. In fact, much of the early work came
from marketing and advertising and the bulk of the
research in media psychology has been published in
academic and applied disciplines beyond psychology,
such as sociology, communications and media studies,
education, computer and information sciences, as well
as business management and marketing. What has
often been challenging is the lack of intellectual cross-
pollination. Media psychology seeks to address that by
bringing together all these approaches and
vocabularies with the recognition that communication,
cognition, and emotions are pretty fundamental to Media psychology uses the lens
human experience and therefore have, by definition, of psychology to understand
foundations in psychological thought. human interaction with
We need media psychology because media technology.
technologies are proliferating at the speed of light with
new toys and gadgets on the market every day. These In spite of all the worries about
technologies are introducing capabilities that are the negative impact of
redefining the way we work, play, and communicate. technology on society, don't
As I see it, a media psychologist can add value in five
believe Chicken Little. The sky is
ways:
not falling.
1. Helping people adjust to the rapid pace of
technological progress
psychology seeks to understand the interaction among
2. Holding authors and journalists accountable to individuals, groups, society, and technology and make
professional standards when new research reports sense out of it so we can make decisions and go about
make headlines by actually reading the ports our lives in the most positive and productive way
possible.
3. Explain the difference between correlation and
causality Media psychology only recently become an “official”
academic discipline. Yet, the last 50 years have
4. Remind everyone that the experience of media
produced valuable and interesting work in media
technologies varies by person, culture, context, and
psychology-related research and study, much of it
what you are trying to achieve
from outside of psychology. Our collective anxiety over
5. Helping people understand that the sky is not the impact of media on individuals and society, such as
falling the portrayals of violence, consumer manipulation, or
The rapid introduction of technology is unsettling and information overload has fueled a good bit of the
has triggered a spectrum of reactions, from research. In contrast, relatively-speaking, very little
enthusiasm to distrust. We all come to grips in our research exists on the positive uses of technologies. My
own ways with change. As technology changes our grandmother used to say “you find what you’re looking
for.”

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Fear of change is a normal human reaction. As far back days" and use memories of prior times as a baseline
as Ancient Greece, Socrates feared that writing relied model for how things should work and how the world
on external things and neglecting the mind and that it should be.
lacked flexibility, the written word being literally “cast
Media psychology bridges this gap by helping us better
in stone.” Kenyon College’s President, S. Georgia
understand some of the implications of technological
Nugent (2005) draws an apt analogy from a narrative
change. Researchers hypothesize, operationalize, and
pattern: “Kill the bearer of the message” saying that
quantify the impact of media. Research in media
the earliest references to the ‘technology’ that enabled
psychology, however, is difficult; complicated by the
writing in Western tradition are of profound distrust.
fact that it’s hard to realistically measure things that
Where Socrates worried about fixity, we worry about
are so integrated in the fabric of everyday life. It’s
the fluidity of electronic media and the fuzzy
extraordinarily tricky to separate out confounding
boundaries between author and reader, consistent
variables in our complex world. Today, we are media
with St. Augustine’s reflections that language links our
consumers, producers and distributors and our choices
interior with our exterior creating permeable
have direct impact on what others produce for us to
boundaries between self and body. Nugent notes that
see.
that those who do not understand new technology
often want to control the “facile exchange between the
inside and the outside made possible by this particular
information technology.” She says:

“Confronted with a new technology for

communication, we find, in both Homer
and Plato, the fear that it will introduce
dangerous secrecy, an undesirable
development of privacy. Today, we worry
In spite arguments for
that IT will usher in an untoward
reciprocity between individuals
openness of communication, a lack of the
privacy we have come to value.” (Nugent, and our cultural environment,
2005, para. 23) few psychological or media
theories actually focus on media
From a biological perspective, we know that human
brains are hardwired to notice change because the a as part of a dynamic interactive
change in the environment increases the probability of system
danger. On the Savannah, it was important to notice
things that moved: tigers moved and were dangerous Nevertheless, as order-seeking creatures, we are
and trees were immobile and harmless. Nothing was looking for how to assign responsibility for change in
more important to survival, yet nothing has such individual and group behaviors, the social zeitgeist,
potential to cause problems today. Our resistance to and all moral failings. As in any field, these factors
change is a function of how we project our cost/benefit have stimulated a mixed bag of research—some very
analysis, yet old habits die hard. important and well done and, unfortunately, some
agenda-driven research with less rigorous academic
Equilibrium doesn’t really exist, except in our fifth
integrity. Research is, after all, largely influenced by
grade science textbooks. But we like to think it does
how you ask a question, define what you measure,
because it makes us so much more comfortable. We
measure it, and interpret the findings. Reading the
like everything to stay put, like the trees. The human
methodology section and statistical results of a
reaction to change--resistance--is normal. Humans
research report is valuable and seldom done. This is
also have the added gift of selective memory to help
particularly important for civic responsibility because
maintain cognitive comfort. We pine for the “good old

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reading apparently journalists are not required to read physical structures, laws, codes of behavior, language
the actual report in order to cover it in the national and the arts. Every generation will make their mark on
press. Many articles are based on press releases from the environment to support their mental models and
the sponsoring institutions or, worse yet, on another with the vast changes in technologies and media today,
journalist's interpretation. this goes a long way toward describing the discrepancy
in the attitudes toward media use between
Most of the research that we would consider to be
generations. This is a biological description of Marc
media psychology focuses on mass media and for good
Prensky’s (2001) excellent metaphor of the young as
reason. Mass media was a game-changer, bringing
“digital natives” versus older generations of “digital
information, images, and culture to a broader segment
immigrants.”
of society and the world. Researchers looked to
understand what was perceived as a unidirectional Because the media survives only by arresting and
flow of influence from media conglomerates, holding the attendance of the audience, they deliver
advertisers, and government bodies on the public. This technology and content that viewers want. We must
media effects tradition has produced various theories— recognize the evolving media environment. Part of the
such as, the silver bullet (targeted impact), media job of media psychologists will be to take up the
framing (we don’t tell people what to think, we tell challenge of training the next generation to engage
them what to think about), and uses and gratifications positively and productively with media; part will be
(people use media to gratify needs)--and they have easing the fears of the digital immigrants about the
evolved from viewing media consumers as a new media world.
homogeneous and passive audience to one driven by
We also need to place the study of psychological
individual differences and motivations.
processes within the context of mediated
In spite arguments for reciprocity between individuals communications and recognize the dynamic role of
and our cultural environment (e.g. Baudrillard, Freud, these processes in interpersonal relations, social
McLuhan, and Vygotsky), few psychological or media
theories actually focus on media as part of a dynamic
interactive system including media content providers
to media consumers, co-evolving in a social
environment. Bandura’s model of social cognitive
theory does this, but his earlier work on social learning
is much more common as the theoretical framework
for media effects research.
Recent work in neurobiology and evolutionary
psychology has begun to shed light on the impact of
social interaction on the formation of internal
structures. We are beginning to indentify variations in Part of the job of media
human brain plasticity in response to the environment psychologists will be to take up
and variations in cognitive processing over the lifespan the challenge of training the
to achieve psychological consonance. Birth to early
next generation to engage
adulthood is a period of high plasticity in terms of
brain maturation and is subject to shaping by the positively and productively with
environment. Once past early adulthood, change in the media. The other part will be
human brain derives from cognitive intervention– easing the fears of the digital
which is, as we all know, a lot more difficult. Thus, immigrants about the new
from adulthood onward, humans find it “easier” to
media world.
alter the environment to suit their cognitive structures
than the other way around. Human alterations include

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interaction and social structures. We need to What is a Media Psychologist?
acknowledge the reciprocal relationship between
individuals and media, in other words, to own our own There are several misconceptions about what it means
responsibility for what circulates in the system. to be a media psychologist. Since it is probably easier
to say what a media psychologist is not than to define
As if that weren’t enough of a moving target, we need what it is, let me start there.
to keep this all in context. Individual experience is,
well, individual, and depends on a number of factors. Media psychology is NOT:
Goals are equally individual and not always “rational” • A clinical degree
by someone else’s standard. For example, there have
• Media studies
been recent articles about media technologies altering
brain activity, particularly as it impacts attention. But • Appearing on TV, having a radio show, or
before we feel compelled to draw conclusions about being in a movie
something being good or bad, we need to ask questions
• Running the AV department for your
beyond “is it different.” We need to ask what thinking
organization
skills people need to succeed in the world today and
tomorrow, not in times past. Whether or not you pine • Watching TV for a living
for the good old days, time has the inconvenient habit
• Hanging out with movie stars
of going forward—technology isn’t going away.
Some of those things would be fun, of course, and
some media psychologists may, in fact, do those things
too, but sadly, they are not the defining characteristics
of a media psychologist.
The key to media psychology is this: you have to learn
psychology AND technology. If you want to "practice"
media psychology, you need to know how media
technologies work--how they are developed, produced,
and consumed. And you have to know psychology so
you can actually apply it to issues of usability,
effectiveness, and impact. It may not seem very
encouraging to hear, especially from someone who is
passionate about media psychology, but if you are
searching for a profession with a clear career path,
Media psychology is not a
predictable income estimations, and logical next steps,
clinical degree or about being on this is not a field for you.
TV.
As I discussed in earlier posts, (Media Psychology:
The key to media psychology is Why You Should Care Part 1 and Part 2--and yes, Part
3 is the last one in case you were worried), I view
this that you have to learn
media psychology as the intersection of human
psychology AND technology. experience and media. In other words, media
psychology is the applied study of what happens when
people interact with media as producers, distributors,
and consumers through the lens of psychology.
I realize that definition is like waving your arms
around the room and is no help at all. It makes media
psychology very, very broad. Not surprisingly, the
applications are also broad and equally ill-defined. The

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good news is that makes the potential is limitless perception), developmental psychology (different
because media psychology adds values to any place stages of emotional, cognitive, and physical
that an understanding of human behavior can be development across the lifespan), cultural psychology
applied to media technologies. (an appreciation of how different people and cultures
have different standards and goals and how that is part
I get lots of questions from recent college graduates
of the cognitive process), and positive psychology
about how to pursue a career in media psychology. I
(what makes people function better both behaviorally
am always appreciative of their enthusiasm, honored
and emotionally).
to represent the field, and pleased to share my views
and words of encouragement. As I mentioned above, being a media psychologist is
not being a psychologist in the media or promoting
Media psychology is very exciting and has tremendous
psychology in the media.
potential. This is the beginning of the field so the early
entrants have the excitement and burden of defining Media psychology is not a clinical degree. A degree in
the path. This is part of what I love about media media psychology will not qualify you for the
psychology. There are no easy answers. It is not an psychological treatment of patients in a mental health
“ivory tower” field. It requires a good knowledge base capacity. Not only will you not have the preparations,
and draws across multiple disciplines because media but there are serious ethical and legal consequences if
technologies are not isolated or compartmentalized. It you offer mental health treatment without adequate
also requires the ability to think critically and have a training and licensing.
certain amount of cognitive flexibility since the
If someone is interested in working with people in a
technologies (and thus the field) change constantly.
mental health treatment capacity, then the logical next
Media psychology is also considerably more complex step is a clinical psychology program--even if heor she
than focusing on media as a reflection of culture wants to use media technologies within that practice.
because it encompasses the integration of media First become a clinician and then learn how to
technologies into life in a myriad of ways. People are translate that to technology. Nothing is worse than
now interacting with media in multiple ways across bad psychology in volume. As most people know,
multiple platforms as producers, consumers, and working with clients as a mental health professional
distributors of information of all kinds: visual images, requires specific training, supervised practice, an
sound, video, text, and color both synchronously and internship, and has licensing requirements. In the US,
asynchronously. these requirements vary depending on the type of
work/title/training (e.g. a counselor, therapist,
My advice to recent psych grads is to get some media
psychologist, or psychiatrist). Each title has very
technology experience so that they can apply
specific requirements defined by the governing body
psychology to that knowledge base. If you don't
where you want to practice and the type of practice it
understand the technology, it doesn't matter how well
entails. (The rules differ from place to place; even state
you know the psychology. This could mean anything
to state, in the US, so it’s important to check for the
from virtual environments like gaming, business and
specifics in the place you want to work.)
marketing communications, or community
development in social media, to translating Being a research psychologist is somewhat different in
educational materials for technology. This can be done terms of official requirements. An important
by working in the field in an area of interest, or finding component of studying psychology is learning how to
a program in a university that has courses in both do research and understand research results. (Yes, the
psychology and media communications and dreaded statistics and research methodology courses.)
production (and not just mass media.) Areas in Licensing requirements do not apply to research,
psychology that I think are particularly important to however most lead researchers have graduate degrees
media psychology are cognitive psychology (how we at the doctoral level. There are also are ethical
process information, make mental models, attention, requirements when you are dealing with human

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subjects and therefore research done at institutions are Pamela Rutledge, Ph.D., M.B.A. is the Director of the
reviewed by an Internal Review Board to make sure Media Psychology Research Center. She is adjunct faculty
subjects rights and well-being are not violated by the for media psychology and social media at Fielding Graduate
University, and instructor of media psychology and social
research design.
media at UCLA Extension and UC Irvine Extension. She is
To me, media psychology is about understanding the a member of the advisory board of the Social Media
Certificate Program at UC Irvine. Dr. Rutledge is the editor
interaction of people and media technologies in the
of the Media Psychology Review, an online journal
context of the current culture. Media technologies dedicated to bridging the research-practice gap to expand
function as a system, with a continual feedback loop the frontiers of Media Psychology across traditional and
between users and the producers, and thus mutually emerging technologies. Dr. Rutledge authors the blog
influential. As much as we’d like to blame “the media” “Positively Media” on Psychology Today can be found on
for a bunch of stuff, it is not separable from society. Facebook, LinkedIn, Second Life (avatar Media Writer) and
Twitter (mediapsychology).
Human experience does not happen independent of
the current social, political, and technological Email: [email protected]
environment.
Media technologies are ubiquitous, with potential roles
in everything from education, healthcare, science,
business, advocacy, and public policy to
entertainment. I have been involved in interesting
research assessing website design for pre-schoolers,
games that promoted altruistic behavior, developing
educational initiatives that use emerging technologies
like virtual worlds and augmented reality to create
immersive learning environments, how technology
literacy influences identity development, and how our
mental models influence our interpretation of
information. I also get to see media psychology in
action by teaching online.
Recognizing the interactive and dynamic relationship
between humans and media is key to a more accurate
and useful understanding of the human-media
experience that is at the root of effective assessment,
development, and production of media that can make
a positive contribution to life and society. Psychology
provides a robust set of tools that allow us to consider
the implications of individual differences, group
behaviors, identity formation, developmental
pathways, cognitive styles, visual processing,
persuasion, attention, social cognition, sense of place,
self-efficacy, and a whole bunch of other really cool
stuff.
The tools of media psychology can only help us,
though, if we are also willing, as individuals, to take
responsibility for our part in the system. It is the only
way we can develop better technologies and use them
well.

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