energies

Article
Lightning Impulse Overvoltage Propagation in HVDC
Meshed Grid
Marek Florkowski , Jakub Furgał and Maciej Kuniewski *

Department of Electrical and Power Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology, al. Mickiewicza 30,
30-059 Kraków, Poland; [email protected] (M.F.); [email protected] (J.F.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper reports on the propagation of lightning overvoltage in a high-voltage direct
current (HVDC) meshed grid. Since several topologies of meshed grids have been elaborated in
the last decade, we used a common comprehensive reference test platform. The lightning impulse
propagation was investigated with regard to the impact of surge arresters and the polarity of the
lightning stroke concerning the DC line polarity (±500 kV). Various scenarios were considered,
including a direct lightning strike to the DC+ conductor, to the tower, and to the shielding wire in the
middle of the span, including backflash on the insulators. The influence of tower footing impedance
on overvoltage levels at various nodes was assessed, depicting the critical value. A description
of the models used in the simulations was provided. The main focus of the paper was on the
wide-area propagation of the overvoltages in the meshed grid, at distant terminals and inside the
feeders. An interesting observation was the effects of lightning at the far end of the analyzed grid,
propagating through multiterminal and long-distance connections. The presented analysis, based on
an exemplary meshed HVDC grid, underlines the importance of the insulation coordination studies
and system security studies with respect to the localization of overvoltage protection systems.





 Keywords: meshed HVDC grids; high voltage; lightning impulse; overvoltage propagation; flashover;
Citation: Florkowski, M.; Furgał, J.; DC transmission; electromagnetic transient simulation
Kuniewski, M. Lightning Impulse
Overvoltage Propagation in HVDC
Meshed Grid. Energies 2021, 14, 3047.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113047 1. Introduction
After the successful half-century development and implementation of high-voltage
Academic Editor: Mario Marchesoni
direct current (HVDC) technology, mainly in point-to-point connections, the next step is
the implementation of meshed HVDC (mHVDC) grids. HVDC systems seem to be the
Received: 30 March 2021
Accepted: 21 May 2021
most effective for long-distance electrical energy transmission and integration of large-scale
Published: 24 May 2021
renewable resources, both in on/off-shore wind parks and photovoltaic farms, as well as
hydro/coal/gas generation sources. The natural benefits are the increased redundancy
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
and enhanced flexibility in multidirectional energy transfer. Such configurations also allow
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
for interconnections of AC asynchronous grids in a broader sense with only back-to-back
published maps and institutional affil- connections. In the last decade, several topologies of multiterminal HVDC grids were
iations. analyzed [1–4]. Such meshed grids can be configured in various topologies, such as ring,
radial, or meshed, with various densities of interconnections. The enabler of this concept
was the development of DC circuit breakers, which are the key elements for selective fault
insulation in individual feeders [5,6]. The development of voltage source converters (VSC)
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
accelerated the concept and feasibility of multiterminal networks. The VSC introduced
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
flexibility in active and reactive power control, enabling autonomous control of individual
This article is an open access article
converters without involving fast communication between different terminals [3,7]. It
distributed under the terms and is expected also that meshed HVDC grids will increase the power system stability and
conditions of the Creative Commons mitigate cascade blackouts.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// To allow for universal studies and easy results comparison, researchers have elabo-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ rated several common reference frameworks [1,8–10]. Such models containing various
4.0/). topologies and components may be used for broad sets of analysis such as power flow,

Energies 2021, 14, 3047. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113047 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 3047 2 of 21

control and protection strategies, transients, and overvoltages. From the high-voltage
electrical insulation point of view, the exposure and endurance to transients, overvoltages,
or harmonics is an important element of system reliability [1,11–16]. The operating system
voltage level is reaching nowadays 1100 kV [3]. The lightning propagation studies in
HVDC are focused mainly on the two-terminal lines [17–20]. The multiterminal analysis
reveals the propagation of the overvoltage front through terminals and inside the feeders.
In this paper, the investigated system setup was according to the common reference plat-
form proposed in [1,10], which contains a compressive HVDC grid test model with four
submodels for different DC application scenarios. The simulations were performed using
electromagnetic transient program/alternative transient program (EMTP/ATP).
This paper focused on the analysis of overvoltages generated in a meshed HVDC
(mHVDC) grids subjected to lightning strikes. The predefined striking point and corre-
sponding scenarios were selected. The propagation of overvoltage in a wide-area mHVDC
grid was investigated. The topic is emerging and there are not many research papers avail-
able in this field thus far. The main target over last decades was related to the peer-to-peer
HVDC connections. As it is presented in the paper, the lightning is propagated in a complex
way in the multiterminal topology of the grid, which may add additional constrains for
protection. In this context, this paper presents a novel investigation and underlines the
need for a wide-scale distributed insulation coordination approach. In order to provide
easy comparison and validity of results, we used a common comprehensive reference
test platform. The presented form of analysis contributes to the insulation coordination
studies and system security studies with respect to the localization and adjustment of
protection elements.

2. Meshed Grid Topology and Overvoltage Propagation

The overvoltage propagation simulations were performed through applying a refer-
ence model system proposed in [1,10]. The topology and parameters of the system are
shown in Figure 1. It reflects the application of DC grid integration of large-scale onshore
renewable generation ±500 kV. The following notations were used: an onshore AC bus
named as “Ba”, a bipole DC bus as “Bb”, and a bipole AC–DC converter as “Cb”. The setup
consisted of a five-terminal bipole VSC HVDC grid with one DC voltage level (±500 kV),
5 DC buses, one DC mesh formed by three buses (Bb-A1, Bb-A2, and Bb-A3), and two
DC radial branches (Bb-A1 to Bb-A5 and Bb-A3 to Bb-A4). The five DC buses were in-
terconnected via five DC overhead lines (OHLs). The substations in the bus nodes were
assumed as air insulated substations (AIS). The lengths of the individual lines are depicted
in kilometers in Figure 1. In this configuration, two wind farms at Ba-A1 and Ba-A3 and
two conventional generators at Ba-A2 and Ba-A5 were connected to the DC grid via four
AC/DC converters.

Figure 1. Reference DC grid for integration of large-scale onshore renewable power generation used
for lightning overvoltage propagation. A lightning strike spot is marked by a red arrow [10].
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 3 of 21

The solar power plant was connected to the grid at Bb-A4. In the reference model, the
DC grid was connected to two AC systems, 750 kV and 220 kV, to present the flexibility of
the integration. A lightning strike spot is marked in Figure 1 by a red arrow. Two kinds
of lightning impulses were considered, the first one attacking the phase conductor with
magnitude 20 kA and the latter one with magnitude 200 kA striking the shielding wire.
A lightning impulse was subjected to the DC part of the model system with a DC line Bb-
A1–Bb-A5, 297 km from the Bb-A1 node and 3 km from the Bb-A5 node. The overvoltage
propagation was analyzed in all feeders of the meshed grid. The overvoltage transfer to
the AC side was not analyzed in this paper. The parameters of the lightning impulses
are summarized in Section 3.3. The lightning current values and models were selected
according to [21,22]. In the test topology, the following elements were modeled: overhead
lines, tower and grounding systems, insulators including back flash-over phenomenon,
and surge arresters. The frequency-dependent models, described in the next section,
were applied. The back-flash was simulated with a leader model of discharge. Tower
footing impedance as a parameter was changed in a range of 1–300 Ω [23,24]. The AC/DC
converter stations were modeled as bipolar two-level half-bridges. On the DC side, the trap
filters for 11, 13, 24, and 36 harmonics along with a smoothing choke were implemented.
On the AC side, the simplified RC transformer representation was used.
The following scenarios of the lightning impulse propagation were investigated with
regard to the impact of surge arresters and polarity of the lightning strike with respect
to the DC line polarity (±500 kV): lightning strike to the tower; a lightning strike to DC+
conductor; a lightning strike to middle of the span, including backflash to DC+ conductor;
and analysis of footing impedance impact on overvoltages levels during the lightning
strike to tower.

3. Simulation System Configuration and Parameters

Computer simulation analysis of lightning overvoltage propagation in HVDC meshed
overhead lines were performed in the EMTP/ATPDraw framework. The computer mod-
els were constructed according to the state-of-the-art analysis for fast transients [25–28].
This section presents the description of computer models, the physical phenomena, and
their parameters.

3.1. Description of Simulation Test Setup

The simulation test setup had the layout described in the literature as a benchmark
test setup STM-DC1 (Figure 1) [10]. A detailed description of the topology is presented
in Section 2. The single line diagram of the layout is illustrated in Figure 2. The HVDC
stations, OHL connections, substation nodes, and metal oxide overvoltage protection
(MOV) are shown. The terminals A1 to A5 are marked on this layout. The red arrow
indicates the module where a lightning strike hit was placed.

Figure 2. Single line diagram of the simulated layout based on the reference topology of mHVDC.
The red arrow indicated the module where the lightning strike hit was localized.
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 4 of 21

3.2. Description of the Models Used in the Simulations

This section presents a detailed description of digital models of electrical equipment
used in the simulations and physical phenomena that have to be considered in calculations.
The following elements of the mHVDC grid have to be modeled in detail in the lightning
overvoltage simulations:
- overhead lines (JMarti) [26,27,29];
- towers [26,27,29];
- insulator and backflash phenomena [25];
- surge arrester model [22];
- footing impedance [25,27];
- power electronic converters AC/DC [28,29];
- substation (including harmonic filters 11/13 and 24/36, smoothing inductance), [25,26].

3.2.1. Overhead Lines

The overhead lines were simulated as a distributed parameter model (JMarti proce-
dure) with a frequency-dependent transformation matrix [27,30]. The main frequency at
which the parameters were tuned was 500 kHz. This kind of model is suitable for lightning
transient analysis. The corona phenomenon was not taken into account in the model. The
skin effect in conductors was implemented for the damping of HF components. The used
model of the lines simulated the inductive and capacitive couplings between wires. The
phase wires were simulated as a single bundle conductor. The length of the particular
sections between substations ranged from 100 km up to 400 km (Figure 1). The lightning
studies usually consider the detailed model of the overhead line to 10 spans around the
point where the lightning hit was implemented; in order to simplify the model of the whole
simulated HVDC layout, the 10 span division of OHL was also simulated in the sections
with substations. The single span had a length of 350 m and consisted of the tower model
with footing impedance and insulators (Figure 5). On the selected insulators, the backflash
model was implemented. The planar dimensions of the conductor coordinates are shown
in Figure 3 and reflect the 500 kV DC tower design [10]. The ground wires were shorted
together at the towers.

Figure 3. The 500 kV HVDC tower dimensions used in simulations [10].

3.2.2. Tower
The lightning transients propagating in the overhead line grounding wires reached the
towers, which play a role as a discontinuity node for the waves. After reaching the tower,
the wave divides into the wave traveling along the conductors and the wave traveling along
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 5 of 21

with the tower to the grounding system. In wave theory, the towers for fast transients act
as transmission lines and have to be simulated in this manner. In the ATPDraw, the single-
phase distributed parameter line element was used. The surge impedance Zf of the tower
can be calculated according to (1) [27]; the tower layout considered in the analyses was
threatened as a cylinder with height and diameter corresponding to the tower dimension.
For this design, the surge impedance can be described by
 
H
Z f = 60 ln (1)
r

where
H—the tower height [m];
r—the radius of the cylinder representing the tower [m].
The distance between particular sections (ground wires–power conductor–grounding
system) was simulated as a lossless distributed line connecting the insulators with the
footing impedance model. The wave velocity in the tower model was set to 255 m/µs.

3.2.3. Insulator and Backflash Model

The insulators used in the HVDC overhead lines are ceramic cap-and-pin or long rod
type [31]. In the fast transient analysis, these types can be simulated as lumped capacitance,
despite the DC voltage. In the case of the cap-and-pin type, the model can be extended
for every element in the insulator chain, especially for the analysis of single cap failure’s
impact on the insulator performance. The capacitance value can be determined due to the
length of the insulator and typically reaches values between 80–200 pF depending on the
type. For ceramic cap-pin insulators, the capacitance of 100 pF/unit is assumed [25]. The
lumped capacitance model has to be extended to the parallel switches used for simulation
of the flashover between the conductor and the ground structure of the tower. The switches
are controlled by the algorithm describing the leader development method (LDM) [25]; in
order to simulate this, the MODELS procedure is used. The LDM for the simulation of the
back-flashover across an insulator considers the overvoltage shape, physical properties of
the electric discharge mechanism, and properties of the distance between the conductor
and tower. This method is based on empirical results. The algorithm used in this model
has implemented a differential equation for the length of the leader, which has to be solved
during the simulation.  
dL V (t)
= K ·V ( t ) − E0 (2)
dt g−L
where
K, E0 —empirical constants [25];
V(t)—voltage across the insulator [kV];
L—leader length [m];
g—length of the insulator [m].
The condition for the breakdown is met when the leader length L reaches the length
of the insulator g; for analyzed cases, the length of the insulator was set to 6 m [31].

3.2.4. Footing Impedance

The purpose of the earthing system is to enable the flow of discharging electric
currents into the earth through a metal electrode that is buried in the ground. The impulse
impedance of a grounding system is necessary for determining its performance while
discharging impulse currents to the ground, as in the case of a lightning strike. During
the high-current flow through the electrode in the ground, the soil becomes ionized after
reaching the critical ionization field Eg . This phenomenon increases the effective area of
the conducting element, which causes the decrease of the footing impedance for high
currents [27]. The impulse impedance due to fast transients phenomena also has a non-
resistive component related to the magnetic field around the conductors; thus, this model
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 6 of 21

also has to be equipped with a series lumped inductance with the value of 1 µH/m. Impulse
resistance Ru of the real earthing system of towers can be approximated by the following
formula [25]:
Rst
R u (i ) = q (3)
1 + Iig

where
Eg
Ig = ρ e (4)
2π R2 st
Eg ≈ 300–400 kV m−1 ;
ρe —soil resistivity usually in range of 100–300 Ω m;
Rs —resistance of earthing system for DC current, Ω.
The characteristics of the nonlinear footing impedance used in the simulations, as a
function of impulse current, is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Relation between footing impedance and the impulse current, calculated for the static
resistance Rst = 10 Ω.

The model of elements in the OHL (7) used in the simulations is presented in Figure 5.
The individual components of the real system such as lightning stroke (1), insulators (5),
backflash (6), and a tower with footing impedance (2, 3, 4) are matched with the model by
corresponding numbers.

Figure 5. Model of overhead line (7), insulators (5), backflash (6), and tower with footing impedance
(2, 3, 4).

3.2.5. Surge Arresters

The model of surge arrester developed by the IEEE Working Group in 1992 is pre-
sented in Figure 6 [22]. Parameters of RLC elements and voltage–current characteristics of
nonlinear resistors can be determined from the geometrical parameters of the arrester and
nominal parameters, which can be found in catalogs [22]. The idea of this model is to divide
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 7 of 21

the low-frequency components that are filtered by the L1 -R1 -A1 circuit from high-frequency
components that mostly are affected by circuit L0 R0 -C-A0 . The RLC elements do not have
the physical meaning of the real metal oxide varistors. Only the capacitance C represents
the input capacitance of the real object.

Figure 6. Model of metal oxide surge arresters worked out by the IEEE [22].

Characteristics of varistors A0 and A1 are represented by the following formulas:

A0 = Aw0 ∗ U8/20;10 /1, 6 (5)

A1 = Aw1 ∗ U8/20;10 /1, 6 (6)

where
U8/20;10 —residual voltage with current impulse of times 8/20 µs and maximum value
of 10 kA;
Aw0 , Aw1 —relation approximated with the use of formulas

Aw0 = c0 i0.051
A0 . (7)

Aw1 = c1 i0.058
A1 . (8)
where
c0 , c1 —constants: c0 = 1.18; c1 = 0.92;
i A0 , i A1 —currents in the varistors A0 and A1 , A.
Parameters of linear elements L0 , R0 , L1 , R1 , and C are respectively expressed by the
following dependences:
L0 = 0, 2 ∗ d/n[µH ] (9)
R0 = 100 ∗ d/n[Ω] (10)
L1 = 15 ∗ d/n[µH ] (11)
R1 = 65 ∗ d/n[Ω] (12)
C = 100 ∗ n/d[ pF ] (13)
where
d—height of the varistor column [m];
n—number of parallel varistor columns.
The following parameters of surge arresters were used in the lightning overvoltage
simulations in mHVDC at 500 kV [18]:
 maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV): 750 kV;
 lightning impulse protective level (LIPL): 1130 kV (10 kA, 8/20 µs);
 switching impulse protective level (SIPL): 960 kV (3 kA, 30/60 µs).

3.2.6. Substation
The substation was modeled including most of the equipment according to the rules of
the fast transient analysis [25,28]. In the analysis of the lightning overvoltage propagation
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 8 of 21

in HVDC meshed systems, it is necessary to set a proper time resolution that impacts
the shortening of step time in the simulation, and on the other hand sets the maximal
time to cover the flow and reflections of an electromagnetic wave in the line with the
longest connection up to 1000 km. The time of flight for overhead lines between the two
farthest stations is approximately 3.3 ms. In comparison to the lengths of the HVDC lines,
the sections between elements in the substation have marginal dimensions, and hence
the detailed simulation of these distances implies the usage of step time in the range of
several nanoseconds. For the optimization of computing time and the complexity of the
model, we compressed the substation bus ducts into a single lumped inductance, the power
apparatus, which was simulated as a lumped capacitance [25] representing its capacitance
to the ground, being also compressed as a single capacitance. This simplification did
not impact the analysis results of the lightning overvoltage propagation in the HVDC
meshed topology.
The short sections between the elements were modeled as a lumped inductance with
the value of 1 µH/m. The substations at the bus nodes were simulated as a lossless line
with a surge impedance of 300 Ω and lengths from 20 to 50 m. The smoothing inductance
was simulated as a lumped element with L = 2 mH.

3.2.7. Filter Banks

Filter banks are obligatory equipment in HVDC substations that improve the quality
of the currents and voltages in the grid. The parameters of the filters are mainly optimized
for particular frequencies, especially 11, 13, 24, and 36 harmonics, depending on the design
of the converters [32]. The inductor can be modeled in two ways, i.e., as a lumped element
that is used in this paper, or as an element with distributed inductance and capacitance for
the overvoltage distribution analysis. The lightning transients can stimulate the resonant
frequencies of filter banks. The filter banks were placed at the DC+ and DC- output
terminals of the substation. The model topology used in the simulations is presented in
Figure 7.

Figure 7. Model of the double tuned filter for 11 and 13 or 24 and 26 harmonics [32].

3.2.8. Power Electronic Converters AC/DC

The power electronics converters are key components of the HVDC substations. Due
to the design and used technology, the power electronics switches are IGBT transistors
or thyristors [3]. A detailed model of these elements is necessary for power converter
simulation analysis and the testing of the control algorithms. For lightning overvoltage
studies, the power electronics switches can be simplified to the diode model or can be
simulated as an open or closed ideal switch [28]. The representation of the current state
of the ideal switch impacts the transmission and reflection coefficients of traveling waves
reaching the substation. The necessary element of every switch in the transient simulation
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 9 of 21

is a snubber that is simulated as a parallel-connected RC element. The topology of the

12-pulse converter [12] was simulated in this paper.

3.2.9. HVDC Voltage Source

The whole model was fed by the ideal direct current voltage source connected to the
input of the power electronics converter. The voltage was set to +500 kV and −500 kV.

3.3. Lightning Surge, Lightning Hit on the Line, and Phenomena Related to Fast Transients
This section contains a detailed description of the lightning surge model and the
physical mechanism of the lightning hitting the overhead line wires. The description of the
fast transient wave propagation mechanism in the power line is presented.
Lightning strikes are unpredicted events occurring in nature. Strikes are character-
ized by charge flow between clouds and other structures, e.g., overhead lines, buildings,
trees, and ground. In theoretical analyses, lightning strike is assumed as a current source
with high amplitude exceeding hundreds of thousands of amperes. The CIGRE Working
Group [33] has analyzed the measured properties of currents during a lightning strike and
has established the statistical set of parameters describing the most important properties
of the lightning impulse shape. The further works of various scientists also refer to the
analysis of lightning impulse waveform parameters [31]. A total of 90% of lightning is
downward negative impulses; in some cases, especially during the winter or during a
lightning hit to tall structures (above 100 m height), positive current impulses are also
observed [33].
Adequate representation of the lightning impulse current is a topic described in several
scientific papers [21,31,33]. The literature provides two main proposals of the lightning
current waveforms, the CIGRE and the Heidler model. These two waveshapes are used
in lighting protection analysis studies. There are no exact parameters of the peak values,
steepness, and time to maximum and time to half value—these parameters are mainly
described by the log-normal distribution, and the mean values and dispersion are presented
in [21,33]. The Heidler model defined by the IEC 62305-1 is advised for the analysis of
lightning hit effects to objects in laboratory conditions [33]. The CIGRE lightning impulse
model is proposed as a mathematical description of a real lightning current with two
steepness waveshape and maximal steepness close to the peak; this model is suitable for
the analysis of the lightning to the overhead lines. The lightning hit study should precisely
define the peak values and the proper time parameters for the analyzed waveforms. In
this paper, two values of peak current were chosen, i.e., 20 kA and 200 kA. The 20 kA peak
value was assumed as the maximal rounded possible current that can hit the power line
conductor (Table 1). This current was calculated according to the electro-geometric model
(EGM) [33].

Table 1. Parameters and hit spot localization of the lightning impulses.

Localization
Lightning Impulse Magnitude [kA]
DC Line Bb-A1–Bb-A5
From Node Bb-A1 From Node Bb-A5
[km] [km]
To phase conductor 20 297 3
To shielding wire 200 297 3

The visual representation of the striking distance rs for the 20 kA current and the
case with the hit to the overhead line tower is shown in Figure 8. The calculations were
performed for the parameters described in the overhead line section and for the Formula
(14). The calculations revealed that the maximal current that can hit the power conductor
for the analyzed layout was 21.4 kA. Due to the symmetry of the power line, the current
was equal for both conductors. The report [34] suggests that the hit to the positive polarity
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 10 of 21

conductor is more probable than the striking to the negative pole. The formula for the
calculation of striking distance for a downward lightning strike is

rs = 10I 0.65 (14)

Figure 8 presents the striking distance for the current of 20 kA; the distance rs was drawn
around the wires in the 500 kV DC OHL layout and determined from the ground. When
the striking distance calculated from the power conductor exceeds the striking distance
calculated from the ground wires, the lighting protection might fail, and a strike to the line
wires is possible.

Figure 8. Lightning striking distance rs is shown for the power conductors (dashed line), ground
wires (solid line), and the ground (solid line).

The value of 200 kA was chosen as the worst-case scenario for the lightning hitting the
tower. The log-normal distributions of the peak current according to CIGRE [33] suggests
that the probability of a 200 kA lightning current strike is less than 0.15% (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Probability of first negative stroke lightning current crest value according to CIGRE
and IEEE.

The lightning surge transients are categorized as very fast transient overvoltages. For
these kinds of waveforms, the power lines are usually threatened as lines with distributed
parameters and are subjected to the wave theory. The traveling waves can be transmitted
and reflected from the point of discontinuity where two or more surge impedances are con-
nected. In the HVDC meshed networks, the most important issues with the reflection and
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 11 of 21

transmission of overvoltages are in points where two or more HVDC lines are connected;
in this case, the resultant surge impedance of the lines is equal to

1
Zz (s) = (15)
∑nk=2 Zk (s) + Zk

where
Zz (s)—resultant surge impedance of parallel connected lines;
Zk (s), Zk —surge impedance in Laplace domain and real domain of k-th line connected
to the common node;
s—Laplace operator.
Assuming that the two lines have the same surge impedance, we find that the resultant
surge impedance is Zfohl /2, which corresponds to the lower amplitude of the transmitted
overvoltage. Due to the reflection α and transmission β coefficients given by

2Zz (s)
α= (16)
Z1 + Zz (s)

Zz (s) − Z1
β= (17)
Z1 + Zz (s)
The transmitted wave has the amplitude of Uov2 = Uow1 /2. The reflected wave is
equal to Uov3 = −0.5 Uow1 . These calculations do not consider the damping of the traveling
wave. Figure 10 presents a simplified view of the point of discontinuity where two or more
OHLS are connected (without considering the detailed substations).

Figure 10. Division of the traveling wave at the point where two or more lines are connected.

Another issue in the analysis of the fast transients propagation in HVDC lines is the
nodes with power electronics switches. In this case, the two main states are available,
namely, fully open and fully closed switches. For these instances, the two scenarios for
traveling waves are taken into consideration, while a fully open switch traveling wave
passes the valve without change of amplitude and a fully closed switch wave reflects from
the switch such as for open-end, and also the amplitude rise can be observed.
The traveling electromagnetic waves along power conductors or earthling wires
can induct sister traveling overvoltages in parallel conductors. This event exists due to
inductive and capacitive couplings between wires. The inducted overvoltage wave has a
smaller amplitude than the original overvoltage and can pass the overvoltage protection
without changing its shape.
Table 2 presents the values of the parameters for the models used in the simulations.
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 12 of 21

Table 2. Summary of the parameters of the models used in the simulation.

Object/Symbol Description Value

Tower
h height of tower 47 m
lt1 length of upper tower segment 4m
lt2 length of lower tower segment 43 m
dl distance form the axis to the line wire 8m
dgw distance form the axis to the ground wire 6m
lspan length of the span 350 m
vtower velocity of the wave in the tower structure 255 m/µs
Zf surge impedance of the tower 139 Ω
Rf footing impedance 10 Ω
Insulators
Cin capacitance of insulator chain 2.75 pF
lin length of insulators 6m
Rarc arc resistance 0.5 Ω
Larc arc inductance 5 µH
Lightning Current
Ip peak value of lightning current 20 kA, 200 kA
tf front time 3 µs
th tail time 75 µs

4. Results and Discussion

This section contains the simulation results of lightning overvoltages in the meshed
HVDC grid. The simulations were performed for different scenarios considering the worst
case and the most probable cases:
• Scenario 1: lightning strike to the tower, single backflash to DC+ conductor,
Ip = −200 kA;
• Scenario 2: lightning strike to DC+ conductor, Ip = 20 kA;
• Scenario 3: lightning strike to middle of the span, backflash to DC+ Ip = −200 kA;
• Scenario 4: analysis of footing impedance (1 Ω–300 Ω) impact on overvoltage levels
during the lightning strike to tower.
The model of the STM1DC [10] layout (Figure 1) developed in the ATPDraw software
is presented in the figures below. Due to the complexity of the model, the visualization was
divided into parts covering the lightning strike model with backflash, OHL, and towers
with footing impedance (Figure 11), the overhead lines of HVDC meshed topology between
nodes Bb-A1, Bb-A4, and Bb-A2 (Figure 12) and the last part presents substation with
power converters, filter banks, and surge arresters (Figure 13).

Figure 11. The lightning current model, backflash model, tower, and line models, part of the network
Bb-A1 and Bb-A5 nodes in Figure 1.
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 13 of 21

Figure 12. The meshed part of the HVDC OHL network visible nodes Bb-A1, Bb-A4, and Bb-A2
(Figure 1).

Figure 13. Substation, power converter, and surge arrester models depicted at node Bb-A5 in Figure 1.

This type of substation was placed at nodes A1, A2, A3, and A5. The analysis covered
the impact of overvoltage protection on the overvoltage levels. For the scenarios 1–3,
two cases were simulated, with and without surge arresters. The surge arresters were
placed at the output terminals of the substations in nodes A2, A3, and A5. The simulations
were performed with DC lines charged separately with +500 kV and −500 kV.
The direct lightning strike was localized at a distance of five spans (5 × 350 m) from
the A5 substation. At the same distance, the lightning strike to the tower and the backflash
were simulated. The analysis of the impact of footing impedance value on the overvoltage
levels is described as scenario 4. In this analysis, the resistance of the tower was changed
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 14 of 21

from 1 to 300 Ω, and the overvoltages at the DC+ conductor were observed during a
−200 kA lightning strike to the OHL tower. The footing impedance has a strong impact on
the overvoltage level at the tower, which reflects on the backflash phenomenon.
The overvoltages were recorded at points A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5 (Figure 2) and at the
place where lightning hit OHL or the backflash occurred. The overvoltages were analyzed
only at the DC + conductor in the nodes A2, A3, and A5 and were measured at the entrance
to the substation. The summary of the maximal overvoltages for scenarios 1–3 is presented
in Table 3. The overvoltages are related to the nominal voltage value. Figures 14 and 15
graphically present the overvoltage levels at measurement points for different scenarios.
The Figures 16–18 presents overvoltages waveforms at measurement points for scenario
1,2,3 respectively. The results of the overvoltage characteristics for scenario 4 are presented
in Figure 19.

Table 3. Maximal overvoltages at selected points for different scenarios without and with surge
arresters [p.u].

Scn. DC+ A5 A1 Striking A1 DC+ A3 A4 DC+ A2

1. −3.50 −11.00 1.48 1.14 1.25 1.15
1. sa −2.05 −11.07 1.48 1.14 1.24 1.13
2. 7.50 9.57 5.06 2.64 3.19 2.53
2. sa 2.30 9.57 5.06 1.97 3.19 1.96
3. −4.13 −10.15 1.50 1.19 1.23 1.15
3. sa −2.10 −10.08 1.50 1.19 1.22 1.14

Figure 14. Comparison of the maximal overvoltages at selected points grouped by the investigated
scenarios.

Figure 15. Comparison of the maximal overvoltages in different scenarios grouped by the measure-
ment point (sa—denotes cases with surge arrester installed).
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 15 of 21

Analysis of the results presented in Table 3 and Figures 14 and 15 show that lightning
overvoltages were able to reach every point in the meshed HVDC lines. The highest
overvoltages were observed at the point where lightning strikes; at this point, the over-
voltage wave splits into two waves that propagate along the conductor. Due to the higher
striking current, the higher overvoltages at the place where the back flash occurred were
higher than during the direct lightning hit. The lightning transients at the furthest node A3
exceeded the nominal voltage by 14% and were in a form of the short duration disturbance
(approximately 20 µs), as shown in Figure 18. These transients can surpass the overvoltage
protection and exposure equipment to fast transients.
The comparison between the direct lightning strike and the strike to earthing wire
showed the higher overvoltages in case of the shielding failure (scenario 2). In this case,
the whole energy of the lightning was directly injected into the conductor, and the electro-
magnetic wave was not flowing to the ground at nodes where the towers were.
In both analyzed lightning strikes, the division of the wave at the substation nodes
A1, A2, and A4 was observed. The overvoltage that passed this node reduced its value due
to the lower resultant surge impedance of the parallel connection of two lines.
The applied overvoltage protection in form of the metal oxide surge arresters model
only reduced the overvoltages that exceeded the residual voltages for surge arrester
(Figures 16–18). For overvoltages with longer duration (e.g., direct lightning strike), the
MOV placed near the lightning strike also impacted the transients at other points of the
meshed grid (Figure 18). This fact was due to the lower amplitude of reflected wave
from node A5, which for short distances interfered with the main wave produced by the
lightning strike and propagated along the grid. This phenomenon was not observed during
the backflash due to shorter times of the disturbance that exceeded the residual voltage of
the arrester.
The lightning hit in the middle of the span provided higher overvoltages in comparison
to case 1 with the strike directly to the tower (Table 3). During this phenomenon, the lack
of the direct current conduction to the ground while striking was observed. The current
flowed to the grounding system after reaching the tower by the wave. During this process,
the higher lightning current flowing in the earthing wire caused higher overvoltages in the
OHL conductor.
The statement of results for scenarios 1–3 is shown in Figures 16–18. In all cases, the
effect of surge arresters is highlighted, i.e., blue waveform represents the case without
overvoltage protection and brown waveform represents the case with installed protection.
The rows reflect the measurements at the specified nodes, whereas the columns refer to the
full waveform (I—left), first maximum (II—middle), and second maximum (III—right).

4.1. Lightning Strike to Tower, Backflash to DC+ Conductor, Ip = −200 kA—Scenario 1

The comparison of voltage waveforms measured at DC+ conductor in response to
lightning hit with magnitude Ip = −200 kA to tower, with backflash effect, is shown in
Figure 16 (scenario 1). The protecting effect of surge arresters was visible at node A5,
closest to the localization of a striking spot (row A)—overvoltage reduction for the first
maximum from 3.5 to 2.05 p.u.

4.2. Lightning Strike to DC+ Conductor, Ip = 20 kA—Scenario 2

The comparison of voltage waveforms measured at DC+ conductor in response to
lightning hit with magnitude Ip = −20 kA to DC+ conductor is shown in Figure 17 (scenario
2). The overvoltage reduction for the first maximum from 7.5 to 2.35 p.u. was visible at
terminal A5 (row A) with applied surge arrester protection. The attenuation effect was
also visible at far nodes A3 (row D) and A2 (row F). The overvoltage reaching the A3 node
passed two terminals in the multiterminal topology of mHVDC.
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 16 of 21

Figure 16. Voltage waveforms measured at DC+ in scenario 1: lightning hit to tower
Ip = −200 kA, with backflash, the case with and without overvoltage protection; A—node A5,
B—node where backflash occurred, C—node A1, D—node A3, E—node A4, F—node A2, I—full
waveform, II—first maximum, III—second maximum.

4.3. Lightning Strike to Middle of the Span, Backflash to DC+, Ip = −200 kA—Scenario 3
The comparison of voltage waveforms measured at DC+ conductor in response to a
lightning strike to middle of span with magnitude Ip = −200 kA with backflash is shown in
Figure 18 (scenario 3). The overvoltage reduction for the first maximum from 4.13 to 2.1 p.u.
was visible at terminal A5 (row A) with applied surge arrester protection. Overvoltage also
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 17 of 21

in this case reached the far end terminal A3 where the corresponding attenuation decreased
to 1.97 from 2.64 p.u. due to installed surge arresters.

Figure 17. Voltage waveforms measured at DC+ in scenario 2: lightning strike to DC+ conductor,
Ip = 20 kA, the case with and without overvoltage protection; A—node A5, B—node where lightning
strikes, C—node A1, D—node A3, E—node A4, F—node A2, I—full waveform, II—first maximum,
III—second maximum.
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 18 of 21

Figure 18. Voltage waveforms measured at DC+ in scenario 3: lightning strike to middle of span
Ip = −200 kA, with backflash, the case with and without overvoltage protection; A—node A5, B—
node where backflash occurs, C—node A1, D—node A3, E—node A4, F—node A2, I—full waveform,
II—first maximum, III—second maximum.

4.4. Analysis of Impact of Footing Impedance on Overvoltages Levels during Lightning Strike
to Tower
The simulation results of maximal overvoltage in relation to the footing impedance
are presented in Figure 19. The results determined the overvoltage coefficient kp referred to
the nominal voltage. The change of the grounding resistance is a natural process during the
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 19 of 21

lifetime of the towers. The main impact on the ground resistance change has soil resistivity
that changes its values due to atmospheric conditions.

Figure 19. Characteristics of maximal overvoltages at selected points of the test grid (Figure 1) in
relation to footing impedance Rf at spans where lightning strikes; scenario 4: lightning strike to tower
Ip = −200 kA, with backflash model, range of Rf = 1 to 300 Ω.

As can be seen in Figure 19, the value of 8 Ω was critical for analyzing the 200 kA
lightning strike. The simulation results showed that for higher footing impedance above
8 Ω, the backflash occurred and provided the voltage transients in the meshed grid that
were propagated along the conductors. Hence, the higher the footing impedance Rf, the
higher the propagating overvoltages.

5. Conclusions
This paper reports on the propagation of lightning overvoltages in multiterminal
HVDC grids, applying a common reference platform. In the simulations, various con-
figurations were considered, analyzing lightning strike hitting both shielding wire and
DC conductor. In the first case, the lightning to the tower as well as to the middle of the
span was evaluated, including the backflash effect on insulators. The worst-case results
showed that the overvoltages at the nearest substation terminals without overvoltage
protection can reach up to 7.5 p.u.; after applying the surge arresters, the overvoltages can
be reduced by 70% to 2.3 p.u., which is mainly dictated by characteristics of surge arrester.
The corresponding case with direct lighting strike produced overvoltages at the level of
3.5 p.u., and after applying the surge arresters, reduction by 4.2% to 2.05 p.u. was observed.
The main focus of the paper was on the wide-area propagation of the overvoltages in the
meshed grid. An interesting observation was the revelation of the effects of lightning at the
far end of the analyzed grid (e.g., terminal A3), propagating through the multiterminal and
long-distance connections. The most severe scenario, which in this case was a direct hit to
the conductor, revealed that overvoltages at the furthest node of the meshed grid can reach
up to 2.64 p.u. in cases without overvoltage protection. The overvoltage attenuation or
amplification is also strongly related to the impedance transformation at the terminal nodes
and corresponding wave effects. The influence of overvoltage protection was analyzed
in the paper. The surge arresters were placed at the HVDC station terminals and the
incoming overvoltage levels were compared. The maximal overvoltages occurred naturally
at the lightning strike hitting spot and both terminals of the subjected line, but they were
observed also at remote terminals (e.g., A4) at an elevated level; in every simulated case,
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 20 of 21

lightning strike produced transients reaching the furthest point for which values exceed
14% the nominal voltages. The comparison of direct tower hit versus the middle of the
span had a rather small difference at the distant nodes. In a parameterized analysis, the
effect of tower footing impedance was evaluated. The critical value of footing impedance
with respect to the overvoltage level was calculated at different terminals. The analyzed
configuration revealed that footing impedance higher than 8 Ω can be the reason for the
backflash phenomenon during lightning strikes to shielding wire with maximum values of
200 kA.
The presented analysis, based on an exemplary meshed HVDC grid, underlines the
importance of the insulation coordination studies and system security studies with respect
to the localization of overvoltage protection systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.F. and M.K.; methodology, M.F., J.F. and M.K.; software,
M.K.; validation, M.F. and J.F.; investigation, M.F., J.F. and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation,
M.F., J.F. and M.K.; writing—review and editing, M.F. and M.K. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
AC alternating current
AIS air insulated substation
ATP alternative transient program
CIGRE Conseil International des Grands Reseaux Electriques
DC direct current
EGM electro-geometric model
EMTP electromagnetic transient program
HF high-frequency
HVDC high-voltage direct current
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor
LDM leader development method
LIPL lightning impulse protective level
MCOV maximum continuous operating voltage
mHVDC meshed high-voltage direct current
MOV metal oxide varistor
OHL overhead line
SIPL switching impulse protective level
VSC voltage source converter

References
1. CIGRE Technical Brochure No 804, DC Grid Benchmark Models for System Studies; WG B4.72; CIGRE: Paris, France, 2020.
2. Bucher, M.K.; Wiget, R.; Andresson, G.; Franck, C.H. Multiterminal HVDC Networks–What is the Preferred Topology? IEEE
Trans. Power Deliv. 2014, 29, 406–413. [CrossRef]
3. Schönleber, K.; Oudallov, A.; Krontiris, A.; Lundberg, P. Opportunities for Embadded High-Voltage Direct Current. IEEE Power
Energy Mag. 2020, 18, 58–63. [CrossRef]
4. An, T.; Tang, G.; Wang, W. Research and application on multi-terminal and DC grids based on VSC-HVDC technology in China.
High. Volt. 2017, 2, 1–10. [CrossRef]
5. Franck, C.M. HVDC Circuit Breakers: A Review Identifying Future Research Needs. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2011, 26, 998–1007.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2021, 14, 3047 21 of 21

6. Bucher, M.K.; Franck, C.M. Fault Current Interruption in Multiterminal HVDC Networks. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2016, 31,
87–95. [CrossRef]
7. Haileselassie, M.; Uhlen, K. Power System Security in a Meshed North Sea HVDC Grid. Proc. IEEE 2013, 101, 978–990. [CrossRef]
8. Vrana, T.K.; Yang, Y.; Jovcic, D.; Dennetiere, S.; Jardini, J.; Saad, H. The Cigre B4 DC Grid Test System. Electra 2013, 270, 10–19.
9. An, T.; Zhou, X.; Han, C.; Wu, Y.; He, Z.; Pang, H.; Tang, G. A DC Grid Benchmark Model for Studies of Interconnection of Power
Systems. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 2015, 1, 101–109. [CrossRef]
10. An, T.; Han, C.; Wu, Y.; Tang, G. HVDC grid test models for different application scenarios and load flow studies. J. Mod. Power.
Sys. Clean Energy 2017, 5, 262–274. [CrossRef]
11. Florkowski, M.; Furgał, J. High Frequency Methods for Condition Assessment of Transformers and Electrical Machines; Publishing House
AGH: Kraków, Poland, 2013; ISBN 978-83-7464-614-7.
12. Florkowski, M.; Furgał, J.; Kuniewski, M. Propagation of overvoltages in the form of impulse, chopped and oscillating waveforms
in transformer windings–time and frequency domain approach. Energies 2020, 13, 304. [CrossRef]
13. Florkowski, M.; Kuniewski, M.; Zydroń, P. Partial Discharges in HVDC Insulation with Superimposed AC Harmonics. IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2020, 27, 1875–1882. [CrossRef]
14. Florkowski, M.; Furgał, J.; Kuniewski, M.; Pajak, ˛ P. Overvoltage exposures of transformer insulation systems during impulse
voltage tests and in operating conditions (in Polish). Electr. Rev. 2016, 10, 100–103.
15. IEC 60071-2 Insulation Co-Ordination—Part 2: Application Guidelines; IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.
16. IEC 60071-4 Insulation Co-Ordination—Part 4: Computational Guide to Insulation Co-Ordination and Modelling of Electrical Networks;
IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2004.
17. Goertz, M.; Wenig, S.; Gorges, S.; Kahl, M.; Beckler, S.; Christian, J.; Suriyah, M.; Leibfried, T. Lightning Overvoltage in a HVDC
Transmission System comprising Mixed Overhead-Cable Lines. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Power System
Transients (IPST’17), Seoul, Korea, 26–29 June 2017.
18. Asif, M.; Lee, H.; Park, K.; Shakeel, A.; Lee, B. Assessment of Overvoltage and Insulation Coordination in Mixed HVDC
Transmission Lines Exposed to Lightning Strikes. Energies 2019, 12, 4217. [CrossRef]
19. Lennerhag, O.; Lundquist, J.; Engelbrecht, C.; Karmokar, T.; Bollen, M.H.J. An Improved Statistical Method for Calculating
Lightning Overvoltages in HVDC Overhead Line/Cable Systems. Energies 2019, 12, 3121. [CrossRef]
20. Karmokar, T.; Lennerhag, O. Simplified Approach for Investigating Overvoltages in DC Cables in a ±320 kV Symmetrical
Monopolar HVDC System. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering (ISH’19), Budapest,
Hungary, 26–30 August 2019; pp. 1401–1412.
21. Furgał, J. Influence of Lightning Current Model on Simulations of Overvoltages in High Voltage Overhead transmission Systems.
Energies 2020, 13, 296. [CrossRef]
22. IEEE Working Group 3.4.11. Modelling of metal oxide surge arresters. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 1992, 7, 302–307. [CrossRef]
23. Pastromas, S.A.; Naxakis, I.A.; Xerra, S.I.; Koutras, K.N.; Pyrgioti, E.C. Evaluation of Wind Turbine Earthing System. In
Proceedings of the International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering (ISH’19), Budapest, Hungary, 26–30 August 2019; pp.
316–328.
24. Podporkin, G.V. Improvement of Overhead Transmission Lines Lightning Protection by Line Arresters with Separate Groundings
and Shielding Wire Fixed at Insulation Racks. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering
(ISH’19), Budapest, Hungary, 26–30 August 2019; pp. 1180–1191.
25. Modeling guidelines for fast front transients. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 1996, 11, 493–506. [CrossRef]
26. CIGRE Technical Brochure No 63, Guidelines for Representation of Network Elements When Calculating Transients; CIGRE: Paris,
France, 1990.
27. Ametani, A.; Kawamura, T. A method of a lightning surge analysis recommended in Japan using EMTP. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv.
2005, 20, 867–875. [CrossRef]
28. Gole, A.; Keri, A.; Kwankpa, C.; Gunther, E.; Dommel, H.; Hassan, I.; Marti, J.; Martinez, J.; Fehrle, K.; Tang, L.; et al. Guidelines
for modeling power electronics in electric power engineering applications. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 1997, 12, 505–514. [CrossRef]
29. Høidalen, K.K.; Prikler, L.; Peñaloza, F. ATPDRAW Version 7.2 for Windows Users’ Manual, Release No. 1.0. 2020.
30. ATP-EMTP Rule Book; Canadian/American EMTP User Group, Bonneville Power Administration: Portland, OR, USA, 1987.
31. Salimi, M.; Barthold, L.; Woodford, D.; Gole, A. Prospects for Compaction of HVDC Transmission Lines; CIGRE-IEC Colloquium:
Montréal, QC, Canada, 2016.
32. CIGRE. DC Side Harmonics and Filtering in HVDC Transmission Systems; Technical Brochures 811; CIGRE: Paris, France, 2020.
33. CIGRE. WG 33-01 of Study Committee 33, Overvoltages and Insulation Coordination: Guide to Procedure for Estimating the Lightning
Performance of Transmission Lines; Publ. No 63; CIGRE: Paris, France, 1991.
34. Rodrigues, E.; Pontes, R.S.T.; Bandeira, J.; Aguiar, V.P.B. Analysis of the Incidence of Direct Lightning over a HVDC Transmission
Line through EFD Model. Energies 2019, 12, 555. [CrossRef]