Principles With Applications, 7th Edition Giancoli (PDFDrive)

Lecture PowerPoints
Chapter 28
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 7th edition
Giancoli
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Chapter 28
Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

Contents of Chapter 28
•  Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory

•  The Wave Function and Its Interpretation;
the Double-Slit Experiment
•  The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
•  Philosophic Implications; Probability versus Determinism
•  Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms

Contents of Chapter 28
•  Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom;

Quantum Numbers
•  Multielectron Atoms; the Exclusion Principle
•  The Periodic Table of Elements
•  X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number
•  Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
•  Lasers
•  Holography

28-1 Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory
Quantum mechanics incorporates wave-particle duality, and
successfully explains energy states in complex atoms and
molecules, the relative brightness of spectral lines, and many other
phenomena.
It is widely accepted as being the fundamental theory underlying
all physical processes.

28-1 Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory
Quantum mechanics is essential to understanding atoms and
molecules, but can also have effects on larger scales.

28-2 The Wave Function and Its
Interpretation; the Double-Slit Experiment
An electromagnetic wave has oscillating electric and magnetic

fields. What is oscillating in a matter wave?
This role is played by the wave function, Ψ. The square of the
wave function at any point is proportional to the number of
electrons expected to be found there.
For a single electron, the wave function is the probability of
finding the electron at that point.

28-2 The Wave Function and Its
Interpretation; the Double-Slit Experiment
For example: the interference pattern is observed after many

electrons have gone through the slits.
If we send electrons one
at a time, we cannot
predict the path any
single electron will
take, but we can
predict the overall
distribution.

28-3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Quantum mechanics tells us there are limits to measurement—not

because of the limits of our instruments, but inherently.
This is due to the wave-particle duality, and to interaction
between the observing equipment and the object being observed.

Imagine trying to see an electron

with a powerful microscope. At
least one photon must scatter off
the electron and enter the
microscope, but in doing so
it will transfer some of its
momentum to the electron.

The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron is taken to be the

momentum of the photon—it could transfer anywhere from none
to all of its momentum. We can write that Δp ≈ h/λ.
In addition, the position can only be measured to about one
wavelength of the photon, Δx ≈ λ.
Combination of these two uncertainties gives us Δx ×Δp ≈ h

More accurate calculations find the combination of uncertainties:
(28-1)
This is called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

It tells us that the position and momentum cannot simultaneously
be measured with precision.

This relation can also be written as a relation between the

uncertainty in time and the uncertainty in energy:
(28-2)
This says that if an energy state only lasts for a limited time, its
energy will be uncertain. It also says that conservation of energy
can be violated if the time is
short enough.

Example
•  J/ψ particle: The J/ψ meson, discovered in 1974, was measured to have
an average mass of 3100 MeV/c2 and a mass “width” of 63 KeV/c2. By
this we mean that the masses of different J/ψ mesons were actually
measured to be slightly different from one another. This mass width is
related to the very short lifetime of the J/ψ meson before it decays into
other particles. From the uncertainty principle, if the particle exists for
only a time Δt, its mass will be uncertain by ΔE ≈ ħ/Δt. Estimate the
J/ψ lifetime.
•  Solution:
ΔE = (63 × 10 3 eV )(1.60 × 10 −19 J / eV ) = 1.01 × 10 −14 J

 1.055 × 10 −34 J⋅ s −20
τ≈ = −14 ≈ 1 × 10 s
ΔE 1.01 × 10 J

€
28-4 Philosophic Implications;
Probability versus Determinism
The world of Newtonian mechanics is a deterministic one. If you

know the forces on an object and its initial velocity, you can
predict where it will go.
Quantum mechanics is very different—you can predict what
masses of electrons will do, but have no idea what any individual
one will.

28-5 Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms
Since we cannot say exactly where an electron is, the Bohr picture
of the atom, with electrons in neat orbits, cannot be correct.
Quantum theory describes
an electron probability
distribution; this figure
shows the distribution
for the ground state of
hydrogen.

28-6 Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen
Atom; Quantum Numbers
There are four different quantum numbers needed to specify the

state of an electron in an atom.
1.  Principal quantum number n gives the total energy:

2. Orbital quantum number l gives the angular momentum; l can

take on integer values from
0 to n − 1.
(28-3)
3. The magnetic quantum number, ml, gives the direction of the

electron’s angular momentum, and can take on integer values
from −l to +l.

This plot indicates the

quantization of angular
momentum direction for
l = 2. The other two components
of the angular momentum are
undefined.

4. The spin quantum number, ms, which for an electron can take
on the values +½ and −½. The need for this quantum number
was found by experiment; spin is an intrinsically quantum
mechanical quantity, although it mathematically behaves as a
form of angular momentum.

This table summarizes the four quantum numbers.

The angular momentum quantum numbers do not affect the energy

level much, but they do change the spatial distribution of the
electron cloud.

“Allowed” transitions between energy levels occur between states

whose value of l differ by one:
Other, “forbidden,” transitions also occur but with much lower

probability.

28-7 Multielectron Atoms;
the Exclusion Principle
Complex atoms contain more than one electron, so the interaction

between electrons must be accounted for in the energy levels. This
means that the energy depends on both n and l.
A neutral atom has Z electrons, as well as Z protons in its nucleus. Z
is called the atomic number.
In order to understand the electron distributions in atoms, another
principle is needed. This is the Pauli exclusion principle:
No two electrons in an atom can occupy the same quantum state.
The quantum state is specified by the four quantum numbers; no two
electrons in the same atom can have the same set.

28-7 Multielectron Atoms;
the Exclusion Principle
This chart shows the occupied—and some unoccupied—states in

He, Li, and Na.

28-8 The Periodic Table of the Elements
We can now understand the
organization of the periodic
table.
Electrons with the same n
are in the same shell.
Electrons with the same n
and l are in the same
subshell.
The exclusion principle
limits the maximum number
of electrons in each subshell
to 2(2l + 1).
Each value of l is given its
own letter symbol.
Electron configurations are written by giving the value for n, the

letter code for l, and the number of electrons
in the subshell as a superscript.
For example, here is the ground-state configuration
of sodium:
1s22s22p63s1

This table shows the

configuration of the
outer electrons only.

Atoms with the same number of electrons in their outer shells

have similar chemical behavior. They appear in the same column
of the periodic table.
The outer columns—those with full, almost full, or almost empty
outer shells—are the most distinctive.
The inner columns, with partly filled shells, have more similar
chemical properties.

Examples
•  (1) Calculate the magnitude of the angular momentum of an electron in

the n = 5, l=4 state of hydrogen.
•  Solution: Angular momentum
L = l( l +1) = 12 = 12 (1.055 × 10 −34 J⋅ s) = 3.65 × 10 −34 J⋅ s

•  (2) A hydrogen atom is in 5d state. Determine (a) the principal quantum
number; (b) the energy of the state; (c) the orbital angular momentum,
€ and (d) the possible values for the magnetic quantum number.
13.6eV 13.6eV
•  Solution: (a) n = 5; (b) E n = − 2 =− = −0.544eV
n 25
(c) The d subshell has l=2. So L = l( l +1) = 6

(d) ml= -2,-1, 0, 1,€2
28-9 X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number
The effective charge that an electron “sees” is the charge on the

nucleus shielded by inner electrons. Only the electrons in the first
level see the entire nuclear charge.

The energy of a level is proportional to Z 2 , so the wavelengths

corresponding to transitions to the n = 1 state in high-Z atoms are
in the X-ray range.

Inner electrons can be ejected by high-energy electrons. The

resulting X-ray spectrum is characteristic of the element.
This example is for
molybdenum.

Measurement of these spectra allows determination of inner

energy levels, as well as Z, as the wavelength of the shortest X-
rays is inversely proportional to Z 2 .

The continuous part of the X-

ray spectrum comes from
electrons that are decelerated
by interactions within the
material, and therefore emit
photons. This radiation is
called
bremsstrahlung
(“braking radiation”).

28-10 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
If an electron is excited to a higher energy state, it may emit two

or more photons of longer wavelength as it returns to the lower
level.

28-10 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
Fluorescence occurs when the absorbed photon is ultraviolet and

the emitted photons are in the visible range.
Phosphorescence occurs when the electron is excited to a
metastable state; it can take seconds or more to return to the lower
state. Meanwhile, the material glows.

28-11 Lasers
A laser produces a narrow, intense beam of coherent light. This

coherence means that, at a given cross section, all parts of the beam
have the same phase.
The top figure shows absorption of a
photon. The bottom picture shows
stimulated emission—if the atom is
already in the excited state, the
presence of another photon of the
same frequency can stimulate the
atom to make the transition to the
lower state sooner. These photons are
in phase.
28-11 Lasers
To obtain coherent light from stimulated emission, two conditions

must be met:
1.  Most of the atoms must be in the excited state; this is called
an inverted population.

28-11 Lasers
2. The higher state must be a metastable state, so that once the

population is inverted, it stays that way. This means that
transitions occur through stimulated emission rather than
spontaneously.

28-11 Lasers
The laser beam is narrow, only spreading due to diffraction, which

is determined by the size of the
end mirror.
An inverted population can be
created by exciting electrons
to a state from which they
decay to a metastable state.
This is called optical pumping.

28-11 Lasers
A metastable state can also be created through interactions

between two sets of atoms, such as in a helium-neon laser.

28-11 Lasers
Lasers are used for a wide variety of applications: surgery,

machining, surveying, reading bar codes, CDs, and DVDs, and so
on. This diagram shows how a CD is read.

28-12 Holography
Holograms are created using the coherent light of a laser. The

beam is split, allowing the film to record both the intensity and the
relative phase of the light. The resulting image, when illuminated
by a laser, is three-dimensional.
White-light holograms are made with a laser but can be viewed in
ordinary light. The emulsion is thick, and contains interference
patterns that make the image somewhat three-dimensional.

Summary of Chapter 28
•  Quantum mechanics is the basic theory at the atomic level; it is

statistical rather than deterministic
•  Heisenberg uncertainty principle:
•  Electron state in atom is specified by four numbers, n, l, ml, and

ms

•  n, the principal quantum number, can have any integer value,

and gives the energy of the level
•  l, the orbital quantum number, can have values from 0 to n − 1
•  ml, the magnetic quantum number, can have values from −l to
+l
•  ms, the spin quantum number, can be +½ or −½

•  Energy levels depend on n and l, except in hydrogen. The other

quantum numbers also result in small energy differences.
•  Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in the same atom
can be in the same quantum state
•  Electrons are grouped into shells and subshells
•  Periodic table reflects shell structure
•  X-ray spectrum can give information about inner levels and Z
of high-Z atoms

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What is the wave function and how is it related to probability?

What is the wave function and how is it related to probability?

What is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle?

What is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle?

Lecture PowerPoints

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom;

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

An electromagnetic wave has oscillating electric and magnetic

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

For example: the interference pattern is observed after many

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Quantum mechanics tells us there are limits to measurement—not

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Imagine trying to see an electron

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron is taken to be the

Combination of these two uncertainties gives us Δx ×Δp ≈ h

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

More accurate calculations find the combination of uncertainties:

This is called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

This relation can also be written as a relation between the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

ΔE = (63 × 10 3 eV )(1.60 × 10 −19 J / eV ) = 1.01 × 10 −14 J

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

The world of Newtonian mechanics is a deterministic one. If you

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

There are four different quantum numbers needed to specify the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. Orbital quantum number l gives the angular momentum; l can

3. The magnetic quantum number, ml, gives the direction of the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

This plot indicates the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

This table summarizes the four quantum numbers.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

The angular momentum quantum numbers do not affect the energy

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

“Allowed” transitions between energy levels occur between states

Other, “forbidden,” transitions also occur but with much lower

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Complex atoms contain more than one electron, so the interaction

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

This chart shows the occupied—and some unoccupied—states in

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Electron configurations are written by giving the value for n, the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

This table shows the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Atoms with the same number of electrons in their outer shells

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

•  Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory

•  Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom;

•  (1) Calculate the magnitude of the angular momentum of an electron in

•  Quantum mechanics is the basic theory at the atomic level; it is

•  Electron state in atom is specified by four numbers, n, l, ml, and

•  n, the principal quantum number, can have any integer value,

•  Energy levels depend on n and l, except in hydrogen. The other