Analog Modulation

Schemes
2

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
( Explain the concept of modulation.
( Describe the differences among analog modulation schemes.
( Analyze amplitude-modulated signals in the time and frequency domains.
( Analyze frequency-modulated signals in the frequency domain.
( Describe phase modulation.
( Explain the need for pre-emphasis and de-emphasis with FM signals.
36 ! CHAPTER 2

' 2.1 Introduction

In Chapter 1 we saw that modulation is necessary in order to transmit intelli-
gence over a radio channel. A radio-frequency signal can be modulated by
either analog or digital information. In either case, the information sig-
nal must change one or more of three parameters: amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
With the exception of Morse code transmission, which is digital though
not binary, the earliest wireless communication systems used analog modu-
lation, and these schemes are still very popular in such diverse areas as
broadcasting and cellular telephony. Analog modulation schemes tend to
be more intuitive and hence easier to understand than their digital variants,
so they will be considered first. Of the analog schemes, amplitude modula-
tion (AM) is simplest and was first historically, therefore, it seems logical
to begin with it. Frequency modulation (FM) is more common in modern
systems, so it will be discussed next. Finally, phase modulation (PM) is
seen less often than the others in analog systems, but it is very common
in digital communication, so we will introduce it here but leave the details
for later.

' 2.2 Amplitude Modulation

An amplitude-modulated signal can be produced by using the instantaneous
amplitude of the information signal (the baseband or modulating sig-
nal) to vary the peak amplitude of a higher-frequency signal. Figure 2.1(a)
shows a baseband signal consisting of a 1-kHz sine wave, which can be com-
bined with the 10-kHz carrier signal shown in Figure 2.1(b) to produce the
amplitude-modulated signal of Figure 2.1(c). If the peaks of the individual
waveforms of the modulated signal are joined, an envelope results that re-
sembles the original modulating signal. It repeats at the modulating fre-
quency, and the shape of each “half” (positive or negative) is the same as
that of the modulating signal.
Figure 2.1(c) shows a case where there are only ten cycles of the carrier
for each cycle of the modulating signal. In practice, the ratio between car-
rier frequency and modulating frequency is usually much greater. For in-
stance, an AM citizens’ band (CB) station would have a carrier frequency of
about 27 MHz and a modulating frequency on the order of 1 kHz. A wave-
form like this is shown in Figure 2.2. Since there are thousands of cycles of
the carrier for each cycle of the envelope, the individual RF cycles are not
visible, and only the envelope can be seen.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 37

FIGURE 2.1 Amplitude modulation

The AM envelope allows for very simple demodulation. All that is neces-
sary is to rectify the signal to remove one-half of the envelope, then low-pass
filter the remainder to recover the modulation. A simple but quite practical
AM demodulator is shown in Figure 2.3.
Because AM relies on amplitude variations, it follows that any amplifier
used with an AM signal must be linear, that is, it must reproduce amplitude
variations exactly. This principle can be extended to any signal that has an
envelope. This point is important, because nonlinear amplifiers are typically
less expensive and more efficient than linear amplifiers.
38 ! CHAPTER 2

FIGURE 2.2
AM envelope

FIGURE 2.3
AM demodulator

Time-Domain Now that we understand the general idea of AM, it is time to examine the
Analysis system in greater detail. We shall look at the modulated signal in both
the time and frequency domains, as each method emphasizes some of the
important characteristics of AM. The time domain is probably more familiar,
so we begin there.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 39

AM is created by using the instantaneous modulating signal voltage to

vary the amplitude of the modulated signal. The carrier is almost always a
sine wave. The modulating signal can be a sine wave, but is more often an ar-
bitrary waveform, such as an audio signal. However, an analysis of sine-wave
modulation is very useful, since Fourier analysis often allows complex sig-
nals to be expressed as a series of sinusoids.
We can express the above relationship by means of an equation:

v(t) = (E c + e m ) sin ω c t (2.1)

where
v(t) = instantaneous amplitude of the modulated signal in volts
E c = peak amplitude of the carrier in volts
e m = instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal in volts
ω c = the frequency of the carrier in radians per second
t = time in seconds
If the modulating (baseband) signal is a sine wave, Equation (2.1) has the fol-
lowing form:

v(t) = (E c + E m sin ω m t) sin ω c t (2.2)

where
E m = peak amplitude of the modulating signal in volts
ω m = frequency of the modulating signal in radians per second
and the other variables are as defined for Equation (2.1).

EXAMPLE 2.1 Y
A carrier with an RMS voltage of 2 V and a frequency of 1.5 MHz is modu-
lated by a sine wave with a frequency of 500 Hz and amplitude of 1 V RMS.
Write the equation for the resulting signal.

SOLUTION
First, note that Equation (2.2) requires peak voltages and radian frequencies.
We can easily get these as follows:

Ec = 2 × 2 V
= 2.83 V

Em = 2 × 1 V
= 1.41 V
40 ! CHAPTER 2

ωc = 2π × 1.5 × 106
= 9.42 × 106 rad/s

ωm = 2π × 500
= 3.14 × 103 rad/s

So the equation is

v(t) = (Ec + Em sin ωmt) sin ωct

= [2.83 + 1.41 sin (3.14 × 103t)] sin (9.42 × 106t) V
X

Modulation The ratio between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and the carrier is
Index defined as the modulation index, m. Mathematically,

m = E m /E c (2.3)
Modulation can also be expressed as a percentage, by multiplying m by 100.
For example, m = 0.5 corresponds to 50% modulation.
Substituting m into Equation (2.2) gives:

v(t) = E c (1 + m sin ω m t) sin ω c t (2.4)

EXAMPLE 2.2 Y
Calculate m for the signal of Example 2.1 and write the equation for this sig-
nal in the form of Equation (2.4).

SOLUTION
To avoid an accumulation of round-off errors we should go back to the origi-
nal voltage values to find m.

m = Em /Ec
= 1/2
= 0.5

It is all right to use the RMS values for calculating this ratio, as the factors of
2, if used to find the peak voltages, will cancel.
Now we can rewrite the equation:

v(t) = Ec(1 + m sin ωmt) sin ωct

= 2.83 [1+ 0.5 sin (3.14 × 103t)] sin (9.42 × 106t) V
X
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 41

It is worthwhile to examine what happens to Equation (2.4) and to the

modulated waveform, as m varies. To start with, when m = 0, Em = 0 and we
have the original, unmodulated carrier. As m varies between 0 and 1, the
changes due to modulation become more pronounced. Resultant waveforms
for several values of m are shown in Figure 2.4. Note especially the result
for m = 1 or 100%. Under these conditions the peak signal voltage will vary
between zero and twice the unmodulated carrier amplitude.

FIGURE 2.4 Envelopes for various values of m

42 ! CHAPTER 2

Overmodulation When the modulation index is greater than one, the signal is said to be
overmodulated. There is nothing in Equation (2.4) that would seem to pre-
vent E m from being greater than E c , that is, m greater than one. There are
practical difficulties, however. Figure 2.5(a) shows the result of simply sub-
stituting m = 2 into Equation (2.4). As you can see, the envelope no longer re-
sembles the modulating signal. Thus the type of demodulator described
earlier no longer gives undistorted results, and the signal is no longer a
full-carrier AM signal.
Whenever we work with mathematical models, we must remember
to keep checking against physical reality. This situation is a good example.
It is possible to build a circuit that does produce an output that agrees with
Equation (2.4) for m greater than 1. However, most practical AM modulators
produce the signal shown in Figure 2.5(b) under these conditions. This
waveform is completely useless for communication. In fact, if this signal
were subjected to Fourier analysis, the sharp “corners” on the waveform as
the output goes to zero on negative modulation peaks would be found to
represent high-frequency components added to the original baseband
signal. This type of overmodulation creates spurious frequencies known as
splatter, which cause the modulated signal to have increased bandwidth.
This can cause interference with a signal on an adjacent channel.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that for full-carrier AM, m must be
in the range from 0 to 1. Overmodulation creates distortion in the demodu-
lated signal and may result in the signal occupying a larger bandwidth than
normal. Since spectrum space is tightly controlled by law, overmodulation
of an AM transmitter is actually illegal, and means must be provided to pre-
vent it.

FIGURE 2.5 Overmodulation

 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 43

Modulation Index Practical AM systems are seldom used to transmit sine waves, of course.
for Multiple The information signal is more likely to be a voice signal, which contains
Modulating many frequencies. When there are two or more sine waves of different,
Frequencies uncorrelated frequencies (that is, frequencies that are not multiples of each
other) modulating a single carrier, m is calculated by using the equation

mT = m12 + m22 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2.5)

where
m T = total resultant modulation index
m 1 , m 2 , etc. = modulation indices due to the individual
modulating components.

EXAMPLE 2.3 Y
Find the modulation index if a 10-volt carrier is amplitude modulated by
three different frequencies, with amplitudes of 1, 2, and 3 volts respectively.

SOLUTION
The three separate modulation indices are:
m1 = 1/10 = 0.1
m2 = 2/10 = 0.2
m3 = 3/10 = 0.3

mT = m12 + m22 + m32

= 01 . 2 + 0.2 2 + 03
. 2
= 0374
.
X

Measurement of If we let Em and Ec be the peak modulation and carrier voltages respectively,
Modulation then we can see, from Equation (2.4), that the maximum envelope voltage is
Index simply

E max = E c (1 + m) (2.6)

and the minimum envelope voltage is

E min = E c (1 − m) (2.7)
44 ! CHAPTER 2

Note, by the way, that these results agree with the conclusions expressed
earlier: for m = 0, the peak voltage is Ec, and for m = 1, the envelope voltage
ranges from 2Ec to zero.
Applying a little algebra to the above expressions, it is easy to show that

E max − E min
m = (2.8)
E max + E min

Of course, doubling both Emax and Emin will have no effect on this equa-
tion, so it is quite easy to find m by displaying the envelope on an oscillo-
scope and measuring the maximum and minimum peak-to-peak values for
the envelope voltage.

EXAMPLE 2.4 Y
Calculate the modulation index for the waveform shown in Figure 2.2.

SOLUTION
It is easiest to use peak-to-peak values with an oscilloscope. From the figure
we see that:

E max = 150 mV p-p E min = 70 mV p-p

E max − E min
m =
E max + E min
150 − 70
=
150 + 70
= 0364
.
X

Frequency- So far we have looked at the AM signal exclusively in the time domain, that
Domain Analysis is, as it can be seen on an oscilloscope. In order to find out more about this
signal, however, it is necessary to consider its spectral makeup. We could use
Fourier methods to do this, but for a simple AM waveform it is easier, and
just as valid, to use trigonometry.
To start, we should observe that although both the carrier and the modu-
lating signal may be sine waves, the modulated AM waveform is not a sine
wave. This can be seen from a simple examination of the waveform of Fig-
ure 2.1(c). It is important to remember that the modulated waveform is
not a sine wave when, for instance, trying to find RMS from peak voltages.
The usual formulas, so laboriously learned in fundamentals courses, do not
apply here!
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 45

If an AM signal is not a sine wave, then what is it? We already have a

mathematical expression, given by Equation (2.4):

v(t) = E c (1 + m sin ω m t) sin ω c t

Expanding it and using a trigonometric identity will prove useful. Ex-
panding gives

v(t) = E c sin ω c t + mE c sin ω c t sin ω m t

The first term is just the carrier. The second can be expanded using the trigo-
nometric identity
1
sin A sin B =
2
[cos( A − B) − cos( A + B)]
to give
mE c
v (t ) = E c sin ω ct +
2
[cos(ω c − ω m )t − cos(ω c + ω m )t ]
which can be separated into three distinct terms:
mE c mE c
v (t ) = E c sin ω ct + cos(ω c − ω m )t − cos(ω c + ω m )t (2.9)
2 2
We now have, in addition to the original carrier, two other sinusoidal
waves, one above the carrier frequency and one below. When the complete
signal is sketched in the frequency domain as in Figure 2.6, we see the carrier
and two additional frequencies, one to each side. These are called, logically
enough, side frequencies. The separation of each side frequency from the
carrier is equal to the modulating frequency; and the relative amplitude
of the side frequency, compared with the carrier, is proportional to m, be-
coming half the carrier voltage for m = 1. In a real situation there is generally
more than one set of side frequencies, because there is more than one modu-
lating frequency. Each modulating frequency produces two side frequencies.
Those above the carrier can be grouped into a band of frequencies called the
upper sideband. There is also a lower sideband, which looks like a mirror
image of the upper, reflected in the carrier.

FIGURE 2.6
AM in the frequency
domain
46 ! CHAPTER 2

From now on we will generally use the term sideband, rather than side
frequency, even for the case of single-tone modulation, because it is more
general and more commonly used in practice.
Mathematically, we have:

ƒ usb = ƒ c + ƒ m (2.10)
ƒ lsb = ƒ c − ƒ m (2.11)
mE c
E lsb = E usb = (2.12)
2
where
ƒ usb = upper sideband frequency
ƒ lsb = lower sideband frequency
E usb = peak voltage of the upper-sideband component
E lsb = peak voltage of the lower-sideband component
E c = peak carrier voltage

EXAMPLE 2.5 Y
(a) A 1-MHz carrier with an amplitude of 1 volt peak is modulated by a
1-kHz signal with m = 0.5. Sketch the voltage spectrum.
(b) An additional 2-kHz signal modulates the carrier with m = 0.2. Sketch
the voltage spectrum.

SOLUTION
(a) The frequency scale is easy. There are three frequency components. The
carrier is at:

ƒc = 1 MHz

The upper sideband is at:

ƒusb = ƒc + ƒm
= 1 MHz + 1 kHz
= 1.001 MHz

The lower sideband is at:

ƒlsb = ƒc − ƒm
= 1 MHz − 1 kHz
= 0.999 MHz
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 47

Next we have to determine the amplitudes of the three components. The car-
rier is unchanged with modulation, so it remains at 1 V peak. The two side-
bands have the same peak voltage:
mE c
E lsb = E usb =
2
. ×1
05
=
2
= 0.25 V

Figure 2.7(a) shows the solution.

(b) The addition of another modulating signal at a different frequency sim-
ply adds another set of side frequencies. It does not change anything
that was done in part (a). The new frequency components are at 1.002
and 0.998 MHz, and their amplitude is 0.1 volt. The result is shown in
Figure 2.7(b).

FIGURE 2.7
X

Bandwidth Signal bandwidth is one of the most important characteristics of any modu-
lation scheme. In general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable. In any situation
where spectrum space is limited, a narrow bandwidth allows more signals
to be transmitted simultaneously than does a wider bandwidth. It also
allows a narrower bandwidth to be used in the receiver. The receiver must
have a wide enough bandwidth to pass the complete signal, including all
the sidebands, or distortion will result. Since thermal noise is evenly distrib-
uted over the frequency domain, a narrower receiver bandwidth includes
48 ! CHAPTER 2

less noise and this increases the signal-to-noise ratio, unless there are other
factors.
The bandwidth calculation is very easy for AM. The signal extends from
the lower side frequency, which is the difference between the carrier fre-
quency and the modulation frequency, to the upper side frequency, at the
sum of the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency. The difference
between these is simply twice the modulation frequency. If there is more
than one modulating frequency, the bandwidth is twice the highest modulat-
ing frequency. Mathematically, the relationship is:

B = 2F m (2.13)
where
B = bandwidth in hertz
F m = the highest modulating frequency in hertz

EXAMPLE 2.6 Y
Citizens’ band radio channels are 10 kHz wide. What is the maximum modu-
lation frequency that can be used if a signal is to remain entirely within its
assigned channel?

SOLUTION
From Equation (2.13) we have

B = 2 Fm

so
B
Fm =
2
10 kHz
=
2
= 5 kHz
X

Power Power is important in any communication scheme, because the crucial

Relationships signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver depends as much on the signal power
being large as on the noise power being small. The power that is most impor-
tant, however, is not the total signal power but only that portion that is used
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 49

to transmit information. Since the carrier in an AM signal remains un-

changed with modulation, it contains no information. Its only function is to
aid in demodulating the signal at the receiver. This makes AM inherently
wasteful of power, compared with some other modulation schemes to be
described later.
The easiest way to look at the power in an AM signal is to use the fre-
quency domain. We can find the power in each frequency component, then
add to get total power. We shall assume that the signal appears across a resis-
tance R, so that reactive volt-amperes can be ignored. We will also assume
that the power required is average power.
Suppose that the modulating signal is a sine wave. Then the AM signal
consists of three sinusoids, the carrier and two sidebands, as shown in Fig-
ure 2.6.
The power in the carrier is easy to calculate, since the carrier by itself is a
sine wave. The carrier is given by the equation

ec = E c sin ω c t

where
e c = instantaneous carrier voltage
E c = peak carrier voltage
ω c = carrier frequency in radians per second

Since Ec is the peak carrier voltage, the power developed when this signal
appears across a resistance R is simply
2
 Ec 
 
 
 2 
Pc =
R
2
E
= c

2R

The next step is to find the power in each sideband. The two frequency
components have the same amplitude, so they have equal power. Assuming
sine-wave modulation, each sideband is a cosine wave whose peak voltage is
given by Equation (2.12):

E lsb = E usb = mE c /2

Since the carrier and both sidebands are part of the same signal, the side-
bands appear across the same resistance, R, as the carrier. Looking at the
lower sideband,
50 ! CHAPTER 2

2
E lsb
Plsb =
2R
2
 mE c 
 
 2 
=
2R
m 2 E c2
=
4 × 2R
m2 E c2
= ×
4 2R
m2
Plsb = Pusb = Pc (2.14)
4
Since the two sidebands have equal power, the total sideband power is
given by

m2
Psb = Pc (2.15)
2
The total power in the whole signal is just the sum of the power in the
carrier and the sidebands, so it is

 m2 
Pt = Pc +   Pc
 2 

or
 m2 
Pt = Pc  1 +  (2.16)
 2 

These latest equations tell us several useful things:

( The total power in an AM signal increases with modulation, reaching
a value 50% greater than that of the unmodulated carrier for 100%
modulation.
( The extra power with modulation goes into the sidebands: the carrier
power does not change with modulation.
( The useful power, that is, the power that carries information, is rather
small, being a maximum of one-third of the total signal power for
100% modulation and much less at lower modulation indices. For
this reason, AM transmission is more efficient when the modulation
index is as close to 1 as practicable.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 51

EXAMPLE 2.7 Y
An AM transmitter has a carrier power output of 50 W. What would be the to-
tal power produced with 80% modulation?

SOLUTION
 m2 
Pt = Pc  1 + 
 2 

 0.82 
= 50 W  1 + 
 2 

= 66 W
X

Measuring Since the ratio between sideband and carrier power is a simple function of m,
Modulation it is quite possible to measure modulation index by observing the spectrum
Index in the of an AM signal. The only complication is that spectrum analyzers generally
Frequency display power ratios in decibels. The power ratio between sideband and car-
Domain rier power can easily be found from the relation:

Plsb  dB 
= antilog   (2.17)
Pc  10 

where
P c = carrier power
P lsb = power in one sideband
dB = difference between sideband and carrier signals, measured
in dB (this number will be negative)

Once the ratio between carrier and sideband power has been found, it is
easy to find the modulation index from Equation (2.14):

m2
Plsb = Pc
4
4 Plsb
m2 =
Pc

Plsb
m = 2 (2.18)
Pc
52 ! CHAPTER 2

Although the time-domain measurement described earlier is simpler

and uses less-expensive equipment, frequency-domain measurement en-
ables much smaller values of m to be found. A modulation level of 5%, for
instance, would be almost invisible on an oscilloscope, but it is quite obvi-
ous, and easy to measure, on a spectrum analyzer. The spectrum analyzer
also allows the contribution from different modulating frequencies to be
observed and calculated separately.

EXAMPLE 2.8 Y
Calculate the modulation frequency and modulation index for the spectrum
analyzer display shown in Figure 2.8.

FIGURE 2.8

SOLUTION
First let us find ƒm. The difference between the carrier and either sideband is
2 divisions at 5 kHz/division, or 10 kHz. So ƒm = 10 kHz.
Next, we need to find the modulation index. The two sidebands have
the same power, so we can use either. The spectrum analyzer is set for 10
dB/division, and each sideband is 1.5 divisions, or 15 dB, below the carrier.
This corresponds to a power ratio of

Plsb  −15 
= antilog  
Pc  10 
= 0.0316
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 53

From Equation (2.18),

Plsb
m = 2
Pc
= 2 00316
.
= 0356
.
X

' 2.3 Suppressed-Carrier AM Systems

It is possible to improve the efficiency and reduce the bandwidth of an AM
signal by removing the carrier and/or one of its sidebands. Recall from the
previous section that the carrier has at least two-thirds of the power in an
AM signal, but none of the information. This can be understood by noting
that the presence of modulation has no effect on the carrier. Removing the
carrier to create a double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) AM signal
should therefore result in a power gain for the information-carrying part of
the signal of at least three (or about 4.8 dB), assuming that the power re-
moved from the carrier could be put into the sidebands. Note also that the
upper and lower sidebands are mirror images of each other, containing ex-
actly the same information. Removing one of these sidebands would reduce
the signal bandwidth by half. Assuming that the receiver bandwidth is also
reduced by half, this should result in a reduction of the noise power by a fac-
tor of two (3 dB). Therefore, removing the carrier and one sideband should
cause the resulting single-sideband suppressed-carrier AM (SSBSC or just SSB)
signal to have a signal-to-noise improvement of 7.8 dB or more, compared
with full-carrier double-sideband AM.
It is quite practical to remove the carrier from an AM signal, provided it
is re-inserted at the receiver. Removing one sideband is also effective, and
there is no need to replace it. Single-sideband AM is quite popular for voice
communication systems operating in the high-frequency range (3–30 MHz)
and has also been used for terrestrial point-to-point microwave links carry-
ing telephone and television signals.
Figure 2.9 shows the idea. Figure 2.9(a) shows the baseband spectrum of
a typical voice signal. In Figure 2.9(b) we have double-sideband suppressed-
carrier AM (DSBSC). The carrier frequency of 1 MHz is indicated but there is
no carrier, just the upper and lower sidebands. In Figure 2.9(c), the lower
sideband has been removed and only the upper sideband is transmitted.
54 ! CHAPTER 2

FIGURE 2.9
DSB and SSB transmission

Since single-sideband is a variant of AM, an SSB signal does have an enve-

lope and must be used with linear amplifiers. The envelope is different from
that for a full-carrier AM signal, however. Figure 2.10 shows a signal with two
modulation frequencies, called a two-tone test signal. Note that the envelope is
caused by the algebraic addition of the two sideband components. Its fre-
quency is that of the difference between the two modulating signal frequen-
cies, in this case 2 kHz.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 55

FIGURE 2.10 Two-tone modulation

' 2.4 Frequency and Phase Modulation

Frequency modulation (FM) is probably the most commonly used analog
modulation technique, seeing application in everything from broadcast-
ing to cordless phones. Phase modulation (PM) is rarely used in analog sys-
tems but is very common in digital communication. Obviously, frequency
and phase are very closely related, so it makes sense to discuss the two
schemes together. In fact, they are often grouped under the heading of angle
modulation.
56 ! CHAPTER 2

In our discussion of amplitude modulation, we found that the ampli-

tude of the modulated signal varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. In FM it is the frequency, and in PM
the phase of the modulated signal that varies with the amplitude of the mod-
ulating signal. This is important to remember: in all types of modulation it
is the amplitude, not the frequency, of the baseband signal that does the
modulating.
The amplitude and power of an angle-modulation signal do not change
with modulation. Thus, an FM signal has no envelope. This is actually an
advantage; an FM receiver does not have to respond to amplitude varia-
tions, and this lets it ignore noise to some extent. Similarly, FM equipment
can use nonlinear amplifiers throughout, since amplitude linearity is not
important.

Frequency Figure 2.11 demonstrates the concept of frequency modulation. Although a

Modulation sine wave is mathematically simpler, a square-wave modulating signal is
used in the figure to make the process easier to follow by eye. Figure 2.11(a)
shows the unmodulated carrier and the modulating signal. Figure 2.11(b)
shows the modulated signal in the time domain, as it would appear on an
oscilloscope. The amount of frequency change has been exaggerated for
clarity. The amplitude remains as before, and the frequency changes can
be seen in the changing times between zero crossings for the waveforms. Fig-
ure 2.11(c) of the figure shows how the signal frequency varies with time
in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal. Finally, in Fig-
ure 2.11(d) we see how the phase angle varies with time. When the fre-
quency is greater than ƒ c , the phase angle of the signal gradually increases
until it leads that of the carrier, and when the frequency is lower than ƒc, the
signal phase gradually lags that of the carrier.
The maximum amount by which the transmitted frequency shifts in one
direction from the carrier frequency is defined as the deviation. The total
frequency swing is thus twice the deviation. A frequency modulation
index, mƒ, is also defined:

δ
mƒ = (2.19)
ƒm

where
m ƒ = frequency modulation index
δ = peak deviation in hertz
ƒ m = modulating frequency in hertz
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 57

The FM modulation index varies with the modulating frequency, unlike

the case for AM. This choice of a definition for mƒ causes the modulation in-
dex to be equal to the peak phase deviation in radians, which is inversely
proportional to the modulating frequency. The modulation index for phase
modulation is also defined as the peak phase deviation.

FIGURE 2.11 Frequency modulation

58 ! CHAPTER 2

EXAMPLE 2.9 Y
A cell phone transmitter has a maximum frequency deviation of 12 kHz.
Calculate the modulation index if it operates at maximum deviation with a
voice frequency of
(a) 300 Hz
(b) 2500 Hz

SOLUTION
(a) δ
mƒ =
ƒm
12 kHz
=
300 Hz
= 40

(b) δ
mƒ =
ƒm
12 kHz
=
2500 Hz
= 4.8
X

Note that there is no requirement for the FM (or PM) modulation index
to be less than 1. When FM modulation is expressed as a percentage, it is the
deviation as a percentage of the maximum allowed deviation that is being
stated.

The Angle Frequency modulation produces an infinite number of sidebands, even for
Modulation single-tone modulation. These sidebands are separated from the carrier by
Spectrum multiples of ƒm, but their amplitude tends to decrease as their distance from
the carrier frequency increases. Sidebands with amplitude less than about
1% of the total signal voltage can usually be ignored; for practical purposes
an angle-modulated signal can be considered to be band-limited. In most
cases, though, its bandwidth is much larger than that of an AM signal.

Bessel Functions The equation for modulation of a carrier with amplitude A and radian fre-
quency ωc by a single-frequency sinusoid is of the form

v(t) = A sin (ω c t + m ƒ sin ω m t) (2.20)

 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 59

This equation cannot be simplified by ordinary trigonometry, as is the

case for amplitude modulation. About the only useful information that can
be gained by inspection is the fact that the signal amplitude remains con-
stant regardless of the modulation index. This observation is significant,
since it demonstrates one of the major differences between AM and FM or
PM, but it provides no information about the sidebands.
This signal can be expressed as a series of sinusoids by using Bessel func-
tions of the first kind. Proving this is beyond the scope of this text, but it
can be done. The Bessel functions themselves are rather tedious to evalu-
ate numerically, but that, too, has been done. Some results are presented in
Figure 2.12 and Table 2.1 shown on page 60. Bessel functions are equally
valid for FM and PM systems, since the modulation index is equal to the
peak phase deviation, in radians, for both techniques.

FIGURE 2.12
Bessel Functions

The table and graph of Bessel functions represent normalized voltages

for the various frequency components of an FM signal. That is, the numbers
in the tables will represent actual voltages if the unmodulated carrier has an
amplitude of one volt. J0 represents the component at the carrier frequency.
J1 represents each of the first pair of sidebands, at frequencies of ƒc + ƒm and
ƒc − ƒm. J2 represents the amplitude of each of the second pair of sidebands,
which are separated from the carrier frequency by twice the modulating
frequency, and so on. Figure 2.13 shows this on a frequency-domain plot.
All of the Bessel terms should be multiplied by the voltage of the un-
modulated carrier to find the actual sideband amplitudes. Of course, the
60 TABLE 2.1 Bessel Functions
m J0 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10 J11 J12 J13 J14 J15 J16 J17 J18 J19 J20
0 1.00
0.25 0.98 0.12
0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03
0.75 0.86 0.35 0.07 0.01
1 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02
1.25 0.65 0.51 0.17 0.04 0.01
1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01
1.75 0.37 0.58 0.29 0.09 0.02
2 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 0.01
2.25 0.08 0.55 0.40 0.17 0.05 0.01
2.4 0.00 0.52 0.43 0.20 0.06 0.02
2.5 −0.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02
2.75 −0.16 0.43 0.47 0.26 0.10 0.03 0.01
3 −0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01
3.5 −0.38 0.14 0.46 0.39 0.20 0.08 0.03 0.01
4 −0.40 −0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.01
4.5 −0.32 −0.23 0.22 0.42 0.35 0.20 0.08 0.03 0.01
5 −0.18 −0.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.01
5.5 0.00 −0.34 −0.12 0.26 0.40 0.32 0.19 0.09 0.03 0.01
6 0.15 −0.28 −0.24 0.11 0.36 0.36 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.01
6.5 0.26 −0.15 −0.31 −0.03 0.28 0.37 0.30 0.18 0.09 0.04 0.01
7 0.30 −0.01 −0.30 −0.17 0.16 0.35 0.34 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.01
7.5 0.27 0.14 −0.23 −0.26 0.02 0.28 0.35 0.28 0.17 0.09 0.04 0.01 0.01
8 0.17 0.24 −0.11 −0.29 −0.11 0.19 0.34 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.01
8.5 0.04 0.27 0.02 −0.26 −0.21 0.07 0.29 0.34 0.27 0.17 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.01
8.65 0.00 0.27 0.06 −0.24 −0.23 0.03 0.27 0.34 0.28 0.18 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01
9 −0.09 0.25 0.14 −0.18 −0.27 −0.06 0.20 0.33 0.30 0.21 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.01
10 −0.25 0.04 0.26 0.06 −0.22 −0.23 −0.01 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
11 −0.17 −0.18 0.14 0.23 −0.01 −0.24 −0.20 0.02 0.23 0.31 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.01
12 0.05 −0.22 −0.08 0.20 0.18 −0.07 −0.24 −0.17 0.04 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.10
13 0.21 −0.07 −0.22 0.00 0.22 0.13 −0.12 −0.24 −0.14 0.07 0.23 0.29 0.26 0.19 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.01
14 0.17 0.13 −0.15 −0.18 0.08 −0.15 −0.23 −0.11 0.08 0.24 0.29 0.25 0.19 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01
15 −0.01 0.20 0.04 −0.19 −0.12 0.13 0.21 0.03 −0.17 −0.22 −0.09 0.10 0.24 0.28 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01
16 −0.17 0.09 0.19 −0.04 −0.20 −0.06 0.17 0.18 −0.01 −0.19 −0.21 −0.07 0.11 0.24 0.27 0.24 0.18 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.02
17 −0.17 −0.10 0.16 0.14 −0.11 −0.19 0.00 0.19 0.15 −0.04 −0.20 −0.19 −0.05 0.12 0.24 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.11 0.07 0.04
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 61

FIGURE 2.13 FM in the frequency domain

Bessel coefficients are equally valid for peak or RMS voltages, but the user
should be careful to keep track of which type of measurement is being used.
When Bessel functions are used, the signal of Equation (2.20) becomes

v(t) = A sin (ω c t + m ƒ sin ω m t)

= A {J 0 (m ƒ ) sin ω c t − J 1 (m ƒ )[sin (ω c − ω m )t − sin (ω c + ω m )t]
+ J 2 (m ƒ )[sin (ω c − 2ω m )t + sin (ω c + 2ω m )t]
− J 3 (m ƒ )[sin (ω c − 3ω m )t + sin (ω c + 3 ω m )t]
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅} (2.21)
With angle modulation, the total signal voltage and power do not
change with modulation. Therefore, the appearance of power in the side-
bands indicates that the power at the carrier frequency must be reduced be-
low its unmodulated value in the presence of modulation. In fact, the
carrier-frequency component disappears for certain values of mƒ (for exam-
ple, 2.4 and 5.5).
This constant-power aspect of angle modulation can be demonstrated
using the table of Bessel functions. For simplicity, normalized values can be
used. Let the unmodulated signal have a voltage of one volt RMS across a re-
sistance of one ohm. Its power is, of course, one watt. When modulation is
applied, the carrier voltage will be reduced and sidebands will appear. J0 from
62 ! CHAPTER 2

the table will represent the RMS voltage at the carrier frequency and the
power at the carrier frequency will be
Vc2
Pc =
R
J 02
=
1
= J 02

Similarly, the power in each of the first pair of sidebands will be

PSB1 = J12
The combined power in the first set of sidebands will be twice as much as
this, of course. The power in the whole signal will then be
PT = J 02 + 2 J12 + 2 J 22 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
If the series is carried on far enough, the result will be equal to one watt,
regardless of the modulation index.
The bandwidth of an FM or PM signal is to some extent a matter of defi-
nition. The Bessel series is infinite, but as can be seen from the table or the
graph, the amplitude of the components will gradually diminish until at
some point they can be ignored. The process is slower for large values of m,
so the number of sets of sidebands that has to be considered is greater for
larger modulation indices. A practical rule of thumb is to ignore sidebands
with a Bessel coefficient of less than 0.01. The bandwidth, for practical pur-
poses, is equal to twice the number of the highest significant Bessel coeffi-
cient, multiplied by the modulating frequency.

EXAMPLE 2.10 Y
An FM signal has a deviation of 3 kHz and a modulating frequency of 1 kHz.
Its total power is 5 W, developed across a 50 Ω resistive load. The carrier fre-
quency is 160 MHz.
(a) Calculate the RMS signal voltage.
(b) Calculate the RMS voltage at the carrier frequency and each of the first
three sets of sidebands.
(c) Calculate the frequency of each sideband for the first three sideband
pairs.
(d) Calculate the power at the carrier frequency, and in each sideband, for
the first three pairs.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 63

(e) Determine what percentage of the total signal power is unaccounted for
by the components described above.
(f) Sketch the signal in the frequency domain, as it would appear on a spec-
trum analyzer. The vertical scale should be power in dBm, and the hori-
zontal scale should be frequency.

SOLUTION
(a) The signal power does not change with modulation, and neither does
the voltage, which can easily be found from the power equation.
VT2
PT =
RL

VT = PT RL

= 5 W × 50Ω
= 15.8 V(RMS)

(b) The modulation index must be found in order to use Bessel functions to
find the carrier and sideband voltages.
δ
mƒ =
ƒm

3 kHz
=
1 kHz
= 3
From the Bessel function table, the coefficients for the carrier and the
first three sideband pairs are:
J0 = −0.26 J1 = 0.34 J2 = 0.49 J3 = 0.31
These are normalized voltages, so they will have to be multiplied by the to-
tal RMS signal voltage to get the RMS sideband and carrier-frequency voltages.
For the carrier,
Vc = J0VT
J0 has a negative sign. This simply indicates a phase relationship between
the components of the signal. It would be required if we wanted to add
together all the components to get the resultant signal. For our present
purpose, however, it can be ignored, and we can use
Vc = J 0 VT
= 0.26 × 15.8 V
= 4.11 V
64 ! CHAPTER 2

Similarly we can find the voltage for each of the three sideband pairs.
Note that these are voltages for individual components. There will be a lower
and an upper sideband with each of these calculated voltages.

V1 = J1VT
= 0.34 × 15.8 V
= 5.37 V

V2 = J2VT
= 0.49 × 15.8 V
= 7.74 V

V3 = J3VT
= 0.31 × 15.8 V
= 4.9 V
(c) The sidebands are separated from the carrier frequency by multiples of
the modulating frequency. Here, ƒc = 160 MHz and ƒm = 1 kHz, so there
are sidebands at each of the following frequencies.
ƒUSB1 = 160 MHz + 1 kHz = 160.001 MHz
ƒUSB2 = 160 MHz + 2 kHz = 160.002 MHz
ƒUSB3 = 160 MHz + 3 kHz = 160.003 MHz
ƒLSB1 = 160 MHz − 1 kHz = 159.999 MHz
ƒLSB2 = 160 MHz − 2 kHz = 159.998 MHz
ƒLSB3 = 160 MHz − 3 kHz = 159.997 MHz

(d) Since each of the components of the signal is a sinusoid, the usual equa-
tion can be used to calculate power. All the components appear across
the same 50 Ω load.
Vc2
Pc =
RL
4.112
=
50
= 0.338 W

Similarly, it can be shown that

P1 = 0.576 W P2 = 1.2 W P3 = 0.48 W

(e) To find the total power in the carrier and the first three sets of sidebands, it
is only necessary to add the powers calculated above, counting each of the
sideband powers twice, because each of the calculated powers represents
one of a pair of sidebands. We only count the carrier once, of course.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 65

PT = Pc + 2(P1 + P2 + P3)
= 0.338 + 2(0.576 + 1.2 + 0.48) W
= 4.85 W
This is not quite the total signal power, which was given as 5 W. The re-
mainder is in the additional sidebands. To find how much is unaccounted
for by the carrier and the first three sets of sidebands, we can subtract. Call
the difference Px.
Px = 5 − 4.85 = 0.15 W

As a percentage of the total power this is

015
.
Px (%) = × 100
5
= 3%
All the information we need for the sketch is on hand, except that the
power values have to be converted to dBm using the equation
P
P(dBm) = 10 log
1 mW
This gives
Pc(dBm) = 10 log 338 = 25.3 dBm
P1(dBm) = 10 log 576 = 27.6 dBm
P2(dBm) = 10 log 1200 = 30.8 dBm
P3(dBm) = 10 log 480 = 26.8 dBm
The sketch is shown in Figure 2.14.

FIGURE 2.14

X
66 ! CHAPTER 2

Bandwidth For PM, the bandwidth varies directly with the modulating frequency, since
doubling the frequency doubles the distance between sidebands. It is also
roughly proportional to the maximum phase deviation, since increasing mp
increases the number of sidebands. For FM, however, the situation is compli-
cated by the fact that
δ
mƒ =
ƒm

For a given amount of frequency deviation, the modulation index is in-

versely proportional to the modulating frequency. Recall that the frequency
deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Then, if
the amplitude of the modulating signal remains constant, increasing its fre-
quency reduces the modulation index. Reducing mƒ reduces the number of
sidebands with significant amplitude. On the other hand, the increase in ƒm
means that the sidebands will be further apart in frequency, since they are
separated from each other by ƒm. These two effects are in opposite directions.
The result is that the bandwidth does increase somewhat with increasing
modulating-signal frequency, but the bandwidth is not directly propor-
tional to the frequency. Sometimes FM is called a “constant-bandwidth”
communication mode for this reason, though the bandwidth is not really
constant. Figure 2.15 provides a few examples that show the relationship be-
tween modulating frequency and bandwidth. For this example the deviation
remains constant at 10 kHz as the modulating frequency varies from 2 kHz
to 10 kHz.
One other point must be made about the sidebands. With AM, restrict-
ing the bandwidth of the receiver has a very simple effect on the signal.
Since the side frequencies farthest from the carrier contain the high-
frequency baseband information, restricting the receiver bandwidth reduces
its response to high-frequency baseband signals, leaving all else unchanged.
When reception conditions are poor, bandwidth can be restricted to the
minimum necessary for intelligibility. For FM the situation is more compli-
cated, since even low-frequency modulating signals can generate sidebands
that are far removed from the carrier frequency. FM receivers must be de-
signed to include all the significant sidebands that are transmitted; other-
wise severe distortion, not just limited frequency response, will result.

Carson’s Rule The calculation of the bandwidth of an FM signal from Bessel functions is
easy enough, since the functions are available in a table, but it can be a bit te-
dious. There is an approximation, known as Carson’s rule, that can be used
to find the bandwidth of an FM signal. It is not as accurate as using Bessel
functions, but can be applied almost instantly, without using tables or even
a calculator.
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 67

FIGURE 2.15 Variation of FM bandwidth with modulating frequency

68 ! CHAPTER 2

Here is Carson’s rule:

B ≅ 2[δ (max) + ƒ m(max) ] (2.22)

Equation (2.22) assumes that the bandwidth is proportional to the sum
of the deviation and the modulating frequency. This is not strictly true. Car-
son’s rule also makes the assumption that maximum deviation occurs with
the maximum modulating frequency. Sometimes this leads to errors in prac-
tical situations, where often the highest baseband frequencies have much
less amplitude than lower frequencies, and therefore do not produce as
much deviation.

EXAMPLE 2.11 Y
Use Carson’s rule to calculate the bandwidth of the signal used in Example
2.10.

SOLUTION
Here there is only one modulating frequency, so

B ≅ 2(δ + fm)
= 2(3 kHz + 1 kHz)
= 8 kHz

In the previous example we found that 97% of the power was contained
in a bandwidth of 6 kHz. An 8-kHz bandwidth would contain more of the
signal power. Carson’s rule gives quite reasonable results in this case, with
very little work.
X

Narrowband and We mentioned earlier that there are no theoretical limits to the modulation
Wideband FM index or the frequency deviation of an FM signal. The limits are practical
and result from a compromise between signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth.
In general, larger values of deviation result in an increased signal-to-noise
ratio, while also resulting in greater bandwidth. The former is desirable, but
the latter is not, especially in regions of the spectrum where frequency space
is in short supply. It is also necessary to have some agreement about devia-
tion, since receivers must be designed for a particular signal bandwidth.
For these reasons, the bandwidth of FM transmissions is generally lim-
ited by government regulations that specify the maximum frequency devia-
tion and the maximum modulating frequency, since both of these affect
bandwidth. In general, relatively narrow bandwidth (on the order of 10 to
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 69

30 kHz) is used for voice communication, with wider bandwidths for such
services as FM broadcasting (about 200 kHz) and satellite television (36 MHz
for one system).

FM and Noise The original reason for developing FM was to give improved performance in
the presence of noise, and that is still one of its main advantages over AM.
This improved noise performance can actually result in a better signal-
to-noise ratio at the output of a receiver than is found at its input.
One way to approach the problem of FM and noise is to think of the
noise voltage as a phasor having random amplitude and phase angle. The
noise adds to the signal, causing random variations in both the amplitude
and phase angle of the signal as seen by the receiver. Figure 2.16 shows this
vector addition.

FIGURE 2.16
Effect of noise on an
FM signal

The amplitude component of noise is easily dealt with in a well-designed

FM system. Since FM signals do not depend on an envelope for detection,
the receiver can employ limiting to remove any amplitude variations from
the signal. That is, it can use amplifiers whose output amplitude is the same
for a wide variety of input signal levels. The effect of this on the amplitude
of a noisy signal is shown in Figure 2.17. As long as the signal amplitude is

FIGURE 2.17 Limiting

70 ! CHAPTER 2

considerably larger than the noise to begin with, the amplitude component
of the noise will not be a problem.
It is not possible for the receiver to ignore phase shifts, however. A PM re-
ceiver obviously must respond to phase changes, but so will an FM receiver
because, as we have seen, phase shifts and frequency shifts always occur to-
gether. Therefore, phase shifts due to noise are associated with frequency
shifts that will be interpreted by the receiver as part of the modulation.
Figure 2.18 shows the situation at the input to the receiver. The circle
represents the fact that the noise phasor has a constantly changing angle
with respect to the signal. Its greatest effect, and thus the peak phase shift to
the signal, will occur when the noise phasor is perpendicular to the resul-
tant. At that time, the phase shift due to noise is
E 
φ N = sin −1 N  (2.23)
 ES 

FIGURE 2.18
Phase shift due to
noise

(EN/ES) is the reciprocal of the voltage signal-to-noise ratio at the input. A

little care is needed here, as S/N is usually given as a power ratio, in decibels,
and will have to be converted to a voltage ratio before being used in Equa-
tion (2.23).
Equation (2.23) can be simplified as long as the signal is much larger
than the noise. This will cause the phase deviation to be small, and for small
angles the sine of the angle is approximately equal to the angle itself, in radi-
ans. Thus in a practical situation we can use
EN
φN ≈ (2.24)
ES

The phase shift due to noise can be reduced by making the signal volt-
age, relative to the noise voltage, as large as possible. This requires increased
transmission power, a better receiver noise figure, or both. Perhaps less obvi-
ous is the fact that the relative importance of phase shifts due to noise can be
reduced by having the phase shifts in the signal as large as possible. This is
accomplished by keeping the value of mƒ high, since mƒ represents the peak
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 71

phase shift in radians. It would seem that the ratio of signal voltage to noise
voltage at the output would be proportional to mƒ, and this is approximately
true under strong-signal conditions.

EXAMPLE 2.12 Y
An FM signal has a frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a modulating frequency of
1 kHz. The signal-to-noise ratio at the input to the receiver detector is 20 dB.
Calculate the approximate signal-to-noise ratio at the detector output.

SOLUTION
First, notice the word “approximate.” Our analysis is obviously a little sim-
plistic, since noise exists at more than one frequency. We are also going to as-
sume that the detector is completely unresponsive to amplitude variations
and that it adds no noise of its own. Our results will not be precise but they
will show the process that is involved.
First, let us convert 20 dB to a voltage ratio.

ES ( S/N )(dB )
= log −1
EN 20
20
= log −1
20
= 10
EN 1
=
ES 10
= 01
.
Since ES >> EN, we can use Equation (2.24).
EN
φN ≈
ES
= 01
. rad
Remembering that the receiver will interpret the noise as an FM signal
with a modulation index equal to φN, we find

mƒ N = 0.1

This can be converted into an equivalent frequency deviation δN due to

the noise.
δN = mƒƒm
= 0.1 × 1 kHz
= 100 Hz
72 ! CHAPTER 2

The frequency deviation due to the signal is given as 5 kHz, and the re-
ceiver output voltage is proportional to the deviation. Therefore, the output
S/N as a voltage ratio will be equal to the ratio between the deviation due to
the signal and that due to the noise.

 ES  δS
  =
 EN  δN
5 kHz
=
100 Hz
= 50

Since S/N is nearly always expressed in decibels, change this to dB.

(S/N)o (dB) = 20 log 50

= 34 dB

This is an improvement of 14 dB over the S/N at the input.

X

Threshold Effect An FM signal can produce a better signal-to-noise ratio at the output of a
and Capture receiver than an AM signal with a similar input S/N, but this is not always
Effect the case. The superior noise performance of FM depends on there being a
sufficient input S/N ratio. There exists a threshold S/N below which the per-
formance is no better than AM. In fact, it is worse, because the greater band-
width of the FM signal requires a wider receiver noise bandwidth. When the
signal strength is above the threshold, the improvement in noise perfor-
mance for FM can be more than 20 dB compared with AM.
The noise-rejection characteristic of FM applies equally well to interfer-
ence. As long as the desired signal is considerably stronger than the interfer-
ence, the ratio of desired to interfering signal strength will be greater at the
output of the detector than at the input. We could say that the stronger sig-
nal “captures” the receiver, and in fact this property of FM is usually called
the capture effect. It is very easy to demonstrate with any FM system. For ex-
ample, it is the reason that there is less interference between cordless tele-
phones, which share a few channels in the 46- and 49-MHz bands, than one
might expect.

Pre-emphasis and An FM receiver interprets the phase shifts due to noise as frequency modula-
De-emphasis tion. Phase and frequency deviation are related by Equation (2.19):
δ
mƒ =
ƒm
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 73

which can be restated

δ = mƒ ƒm

The modulation index mƒ is simply the peak phase deviation in radians.

The frequency deviation is proportional to the modulating frequency. This
tells us, if the phase deviation due to thermal noise is randomly distributed
over the baseband spectrum, the amplitude of the demodulated noise will
be proportional to frequency. This relationship between noise voltage
and frequency is shown in Figure 2.19. Since power is proportional to the
square of voltage, the noise power will have the parabolic spectrum shown
in Figure 2.19. An improvement in S/N can be made by boosting (pre-
emphasizing) the higher frequencies in the baseband signal before modula-
tion, with a corresponding cut in the receiver after demodulation. Obviously
it is necessary to use similar filter characteristics for pre- and de-emphasis.
Usually simple first-order filters are used.

FIGURE 2.19
Spectrum of demodulated
noise

Note that pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are unnecessary with phase

modulation. Since the phase deviation due to noise is converted directly
into baseband noise output without the intermediate step of conversion
into an equivalent frequency deviation, the output noise will have a flat
spectrum, assuming thermal noise at the input to the demodulator.
74 ! CHAPTER 2

' Summary The main points to remember from this chapter are:
( In the time domain, the process of amplitude modulation creates a signal
with an envelope that closely resembles the original information signal.
( In the frequency domain, an amplitude-modulated signal consists of the
carrier, which is unchanged from its unmodulated state, and two side-
bands. The total bandwidth of the signal is twice the maximum modulat-
ing frequency.
( An amplitude-modulated signal can be demodulated by an envelope de-
tector, which consists of a diode followed by a lowpass filter.
( The peak voltage of an amplitude-modulated signal varies with the modu-
lation index, becoming twice that of the unmodulated carrier for the
maximum modulation index of 1.
( The power in an amplitude-modulated signal increases with modulation.
The extra power goes into the sidebands. At maximum modulation, the
total power is 50% greater than the power in the unmodulated carrier.
( Angle modulation includes frequency and phase modulation, which are
closely related.
( Frequency modulation is widely used for analog communication, while
phase modulation sees greatest application in data communication.
( The power of an angle-modulation signal does not change with modula-
tion, but the bandwidth increases due to the generation of multiple sets
of sidebands.
( The voltage and power of each sideband can be calculated using Bessel
functions. An approximate bandwidth is given by Carson’s rule.
( Frequency modulation has a significant advantage compared with AM in
the presence of noise or interference, provided the deviation is relatively
large and the signal is reasonably strong.
( The signal-to-noise ratio for FM can be improved considerably by using
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis. This involves greater gain for the higher
baseband frequencies before modulation, with a corresponding reduc-
tion after demodulation.

( Equation List
v(t) = (Ec + Em sin ωmt) sin ωct (2.2)

m = Em/Ec (2.3)

v(t) = Ec(1 + m sin ωmt) sin ωct (2.4)

 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 75

mT = m12 + m22 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2.5)

Emax = Ec(1 + m) (2.6)

Emin = Ec(1 − m) (2.7)

E max − E min
m = (2.8)
E max + E min

mE c mE c
v (t ) = E c sin ω ct + cos(ω c − ω m )t − cos(ω c + ω m )t (2.9)
2 2

ƒusb = ƒc + ƒm (2.10)

ƒlsb = ƒc − ƒm (2.11)

mE c
E lsb = E usb = (2.12)
2

B = 2fm (2.13)

m2
Plsb = Pusb = Pc (2.14)
4

m2
PSB = Pc (2.15)
2

 m2 
Pt = Pc  1 +  (2.16)
 2 

Plsb
m = 2 (2.18)
Pc

δ
mƒ = (2.19)
ƒm

v(t) = A sin (ωct + mƒ sin ωmt)

= A {J0(mƒ) sin ωct − J1(mƒ)[sin (ωc − ωm)t − sin (ωc + ωm)t]
+ J2(mƒ) [sin (ωc − 2ωm)t + sin (ωc + 2ωm)t]
− J3(mƒ)[sin (ωc − 3ωm)t + sin (ωc + 3 ωm)t]
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅} (2.21)
76 ! CHAPTER 2

B ≅ 2[δ(max) + ƒm(max)] (2.22)

EN
φN ≈ (2.24)
ES

( Key Terms
angle modulation term that applies to both frequency modulation (FM)
and phase modulation (PM) of a transmitted signal
capture effect tendency of an FM receiver to receive the strongest signal
and reject others
deviation in FM, the peak amount by which the instantaneous signal
frequency differs from the carrier frequency in each deviation
envelope imaginary pattern formed by connecting the peaks of
individual RF waveforms in an amplitude-modulated signal
frequency modulation modulation scheme in which the transmitted
frequency varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the information signal
frequency modulation index peak phase shift in a frequency-modulated
signal, in radians
modulation index number indicating the degree to which a signal is
modulated
overmodulation modulation to an extent greater than that allowed for
either technical or regulatory reasons
phase modulation communication system in which the phase of a high-
frequency carrier is varied according to the amplitude of the baseband
(information) signal
side frequencies frequency components produced above and below the
carrier frequency by the process of modulation
sideband a group of side frequencies above or below the carrier
frequency
splatter frequency components produced by a transmitter that fall
outside its assigned channel

( Questions
1. What is meant by the “envelope” of an AM waveform, and what is its
significance?
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 77

2. Although amplitude modulation certainly involves changing the am-

plitude of the signal; it is not true to say that the amplitude of the carrier
is modulated. Explain this statement.
3. Why is it desirable to have the modulation index of an AM signal as
large as possible, without overmodulating?
4. Describe what happens when a typical AM modulator is over-
modulated, and explain why overmodulation is undesirable.
5. How does the bandwidth of an AM signal relate to the information
signal?
6. Describe two ways in which the modulation index of an AM signal can
be measured.
7. By how much does the power in an AM signal increase with modula-
tion, compared to the power of the unmodulated carrier?
8. What two types of modulation are included in the term “angle modu-
lation”?
9. Compare, in general terms, the bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio of
FM and AM.
10. Describe and compare two ways to determine the practical bandwidth
of an FM signal.
11. What is pre-emphasis and how is it used to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio of FM transmissions?
12. For FM, what characteristic of the modulating signal determines the in-
stantaneous frequency deviation?
13. What is the capture effect?
14. Where is phase modulation used?
15. Explain why the signal-to-noise ratio of FM can increase with the band-
width. Is this always true for FM? Compare with the situation for AM.
16. Compare the effects of modulation on the carrier power and the total
signal power in FM and AM.
17. What is the threshold effect?
18. Explain how limiting reduces the effect of noise on FM signals.
19. Explain how noise affects FM signals even after limiting.
20. Explain the fact that there is no simple relationship between modulat-
ing frequency and bandwidth for an FM signal.
21. Why does limiting the receiver bandwidth to less than the signal band-
width cause more problems with FM than with AM?
78 ! CHAPTER 2

( Problems
1. An AM signal has the equation:

v(t) = (15 + 4 sin 44 × 103t) sin 46.5 × 106t volts

(a) Find the carrier frequency.
(b) Find the frequency of the modulating signal.
(c) Find the value of m.
(d) Find the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier.
(e) Sketch the signal in the time domain showing voltage and time
scales.
2. An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 3 MHz and an amplitude of 5 V
peak. It is modulated by a sine wave with a frequency of 500 Hz and a
peak voltage of 2 V. Write the equation for this signal and calculate the
modulation index.
3. An AM signal consists of a 10-MHz carrier modulated by a 5-kHz sine
wave. It has a maximum positive envelope voltage of 12 V and a mini-
mum of 4 V.
(a) Find the peak voltage of the unmodulated carrier.
(b) Find the modulation index and percent.
(c) Sketch the envelope.
(d) Write the equation for the signal voltage as a function of time.
4. An AM transmitter is modulated by two sine waves, at 1 kHz and
2.5 kHz, with a modulation due to each of 25% and 50% respectively.
What is the effective modulation index?
5. For the AM signal sketched in Figure 2.20, calculate:
(a) the modulation index
(b) the peak carrier voltage
(c) the peak modulating-signal voltage
6. For the signal of Figure 2.21, calculate:
(a) the index of modulation
(b) the RMS voltage of the carrier without modulation
7. An audio system requires a frequency response from 50 Hz to15 kHz for
high fidelity. If this signal were transmitted using AM, what bandwidth
would it require?
8. A transmitter operates with a carrier frequency of 7.2 MHz. It is ampli-
tude modulated by two tones with frequencies of 1500 Hz and 3000 Hz.
What frequencies are produced at its output?
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 79

FIGURE 2.20 FIGURE 2.21

9. Sketch the signal whose equation is given in Problem 1 in the frequency

domain, showing frequency and voltage scales.
10. An AM signal has the following characteristics:

ƒc = 150 MHz ƒm = 3 kHz Ec = 50 V Em = 40 V

For this signal, find:
(a) the modulation index
(b) the bandwidth
(c) the peak voltage of the upper sideband
11. An AM signal observed on a spectrum analyzer shows a carrier at +12
dBm, with each of the sidebands 8 dB below the carrier. Calculate:
(a) the carrier power in milliwatts
(b) the modulation index
12. An AM transmitter with a carrier power of 10 W at a frequency of 25 MHz
operates into a 50-Ω load. It is modulated at 60% by a 2-kHz sine wave.
(a) Sketch the signal in the frequency domain. Show power and fre-
quency scales. The power scale should be in dBm.
(b) What is the total signal power?
(c) What is the RMS voltage of the signal?
80 ! CHAPTER 2

13. A 5-MHz carrier is modulated by a 5-kHz sine wave. Sketch the result in
both frequency and time domains for each of the following types of
modulation. Time and frequency scales are required, but amplitude
scales are not.
(a) DSB full-carrier AM
(b) DSBSC AM
(c) SSBSC AM (USB)

14. If a transmitter power of 100 W is sufficient for reliable communication

over a certain path using SSB, approximately what power level would be
required using:
(a) DSBSC
(b) full-carrier AM

15. An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 50 W at a carrier frequency of

12 MHz. It is modulated at 80% by a 1-kHz sine wave.
(a) How much power is contained in the sidebands?
(b) Suppose the transmitter in part (a) can also be used to transmit a
USB signal with an average power level of 50 watts. By how much
(in dB) will the signal-to-noise ratio be improved when the trans-
mitter is used in this way, compared with the situation in part (a)?

16. An FM signal has a deviation of 10 kHz and a modulating frequency of 2

kHz. Calculate the modulation index.

17. Calculate the frequency deviation for an FM signal with a modulating

frequency of 5 kHz and a modulation index of 2.

18. A sine-wave carrier at 100 MHz is modulated by a 1-kHz sine wave. The
deviation is 100 kHz. Draw a graph showing the variation of instanta-
neous modulated signal frequency with time.

19. A phase-modulated signal has a modulation index of 2 with a modulat-

ing signal having an amplitude of 100 mV and a frequency of 4 kHz.
What would be the effect on the modulation index of:
(a) changing the frequency to 5 kHz
(b) changing the voltage to 200 mV

20. An FM signal has a deviation of 10 kHz and is modulated by a sine wave

a frequency of 5 kHz. The carrier frequency is 150 MHz, and the signal
has a total power of 12.5 W, operating into an impedance of 50 Ω.
(a) What is the modulation index?
(b) How much power is present at the carrier frequency?
 ANALOG MODULATION SCHEMES ! 81

(c) What is the voltage level of the second sideband below the carrier
frequency?
(d) What is the bandwidth of the signal, ignoring all components
which have less than 1% of the total signal voltage?
21. An FM transmitter operates with a total power of 10 watts, a deviation of
5 kHz, and a modulation index of 2.
(a) What is the modulating frequency?
(b) How much power is transmitted at the carrier frequency?
(c) If a receiver has a bandwidth sufficient to include the carrier and the
first two sets of sidebands, what percentage of the total signal power
will it receive?
22. An FM transmitter has a carrier frequency of 220 MHz. Its modulation
index is 3 with a modulating frequency of 5 kHz. The total power output
is 100 watts into a 50 Ω load.
(a) What is the deviation?
(b) Sketch the spectrum of this signal, including all sidebands with
more than 1% of the signal voltage.
(c) What is the bandwidth of this signal according to the criterion used
in part (b)?
(d) Use Carson’s rule to calculate the bandwidth of this signal, and
compare with the result found in part (c).
23. An FM transmitter has a carrier frequency of 160 MHz. The deviation is
10 kHz and the modulation frequency is 2 kHz. A spectrum analyzer
shows that the carrier-frequency component of the signal has a power
of 5 W. What is the total signal power?
24. Use Carson’s rule to compare the bandwidth that would be required to
transmit a baseband signal with a frequency range from 300 Hz to 3 kHz
using:
(a) narrowband FM with maximum deviation of 5 kHz
(b) wideband FM with maximum deviation of 75 kHz
25. An FM receiver operates with a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB at its detec-
tor input and is operating with mƒ = 10.
(a) If the received signal has a voltage of 10 mV, what is the amplitude
of the noise voltage?
(b) Find the maximum phase shift that could be given to the signal by
the noise voltage.
(c) Calculate the signal-to-noise ratio at the detector output, assuming
the detector is completely insensitive to amplitude variations.
82 ! CHAPTER 2

26. A certain full-carrier DSB AM signal has a bandwidth of 20 kHz. What

would be the approximate bandwidth required if the same information
signal were to be transmitted using:
(a) DSBSC AM
(b) SSB
(c) FM with 10 kHz deviation
(d) FM with 50 kHz deviation
27. Using the table of Bessel functions, demonstrate that the total power in
an FM signal is equal to the power in the unmodulated carrier for m = 2.
Compare with the situation for full-carrier AM and for SSBSC AM.
28. Suppose you were called upon to recommend a modulation technique
for a new communication system for voice frequencies. State which of
the techniques studied so far you would recommend, and why, in each
of the following situations:
(a) simple, cheap receiver design is of greatest importance
(b) narrow signal bandwidth is of greatest importance
(c) immunity to noise and interference is of greatest importance