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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

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DOI: 10.1080/1065657X.2005.10702215

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Compost Science & Utilization, (2005), Vol. 13, No. 1, 34-42

Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

Paul R. Adler*1 and Lawrence J. Sikora2
1. National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture,
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Kearneysville, West Virginia
2. Animal Manure and By-products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural
Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland

Manure in coldwater aquaculture production systems is typically settled in quiescent zones created with-
in raceways to concentrate it prior to being pumped to storage in off-line settling basins. As the water pass-
es through the off-line settling basins, the solids settle out and the excess water is discharged to surface
water. Since the basins are not frequently emptied, the organic solids mineralize and nutrients flow out of
the basins with the surface water discharge. A system was tested to remove solids from settling basins fre-
quently and treat by mesophilic composting. Two carbon (C) sources (wheat straw or oak sawdust) were
evaluated. Manure was applied to beds of carbon sources at a rate of about 1cm of arctic char manure (8%
solids) every 10 days using a vacuum tank spreader modified for side discharge over the plots. The open
and porous structure of wheat straw resulted in several advantages over the oak sawdust; there was not
runoff during application even during freezing winter temperatures when the oak sawdust compost was
frozen solid, aerobic conditions were maintained with lower amounts of C, and decomposition rates were
higher resulting in less time needed to reach stability (about 90d vs. 140d). Inorganic nitrogen (N) in-
creased as the organic matter decomposed with either C source. Mineralization and nitrification rates were
higher with wheat straw. Water-extractable P decreased as the organic matter from both C sources de-
composed. Land requirements are about 0.001 ha to compost the manure for each 1 Mg Arctic char pro-
duced annually, but could be significantly higher for the wheat straw since experimental loading rates
were limited by the reduced capacity of the oak sawdust compost. A layered mesophilic compost system
may be a viable manure management system to store and treat manure and replace long-term storage in
off-line settling basins for fish farmers. In this system, solids would continue to be settled in the off-line
settling basins but pumped onto straw nearby for storage and stabilization on land thereby minimizing
discharge of nutrients to surface water.

Introduction anaerobic (anaerobic digesters, lagoons, and wet-

lands) and others are aerobic (vermicomposting, com-
The goals of solids treatment systems in aquacul- posting, and land application) processing systems
ture and animal production, in general, are volume re- (Metcalf and Eddy 1991; Reed et al. 1995). Anaerobic
duction (e.g. thickening and dewatering) and stabi- storage of manure in settling basins has been the stan-
lization. Stabilization of solids reduces pathogens dard practice for liquid animal manure. However, the
(both human and animal) and eliminates offensive anaerobic storage of manure produces offensive odors
odors and the potential for putrefaction (Metcalf and and air pollutants and reduces the organic matter and
Eddy 1991). Stabilization achieves these objectives by nutrient content of manure. Land application and
biological reduction or chemical oxidation of volatile composting are the most common aerobic organic
solids, addition of chemicals to make solids unsuitable solids treatment systems. Land application of solids at
for survival of microorganisms, or heat disinfection or agronomic rates has beneficial use (Millner et al. 1998).
sterilization of the solids. Municipal biosolids treat- The value of land-applied solids is greatly reduced by
ment and management systems are typically capital anaerobic storage prior to land application. Although
intensive, whereas on farms, they are more land ex- land application of manure has a long history of being
tensive, relying more on natural ecological processes an effective and practical technology, since it cannot
to achieve the desired goals. occur year round, anaerobic storage when it is liquid
There are a number of natural biosolids treatment manure, is a necessary component of the whole sys-
and management systems currently in use; some are tem. Composting can be a practical system alternative

*Current address: USDA-ARS, Building 3702, Curtin Road, University Park, PA 16802-3702.

34 Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005

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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

to storage in a lagoon and gives the farmer more flex- basins, the solids settle out and the excess water is dis-
ibility in time of application. The compost systems charged to surface water. Since the basins are not fre-
most likely to be used on farms are windrows and aer- quently emptied, the organic solids mineralize and
ated piles (Rynk 1992). nutrients flow out of the basins with the surface water
Composting manure typically requires the addi- discharge. Although most P is initially associated with
tion of a carbon source either to meet microbial the solids (Heinen et al. 1996), it has been shown that
process needs or reduce the moisture content of the significant amounts of P are lost in this system with
mixture to help maintain aerobic conditions. Com- the P content of rainbow trout manure collected in the
posting is an aerobic process and in order to compost raceway decreasing by 50% while stored in the off-line
manures with low solids content, materials must be settling basin (IDEQ 1996). Reducing the loss of P from
added to absorb the liquid and provide sufficient solids can significantly reduce the amount of P lost to
porosity to allow gas exchange. Composting of the water environment. Decreasing the loss of P from
biosolids requires addition of carbon sources to re- the solids could be achieved by reducing the amount
duce the moisture content from 80 to 60% (Willson et of time they are stored in the water within the off-line
al. 1980). Fish manure has even higher moisture con- settling basins. Our objective was to develop the pro-
tent (2-10% solids after initial primary treatment, tocol for a land-based aquaculture solids management
Chen 1998; Summerfelt 1999) requiring a greater system that minimizes leaching of P to the surface wa-
amount of carbon source to achieve porosity required ter environment by storing solids on land rather than
for aerobic decomposition with thermophilic com- in water in off-line settling basins. In this system,
posting. Composting methods also recommend that solids would continue to be settled in the off-line set-
the C:N ratio of mixtures be adjusted to 25:1 or higher tling basins but pumped onto straw (or another car-
to stimulate decomposition and preserve N in the sys- bon source) nearby for storage and treatment. A lay-
tem. Carbon sources are abundant and selection is ered mesophilic compost system was developed to
based on cost and availability (Rynk 1992). provide fish farmers with an alternative to expensive
Like all decomposition processes, heat is generat- solids removal technology; it uses resources and
ed during composting. This heat can be harnessed to equipment that are readily available and fit within
kill human, plant, or animal pathogens by making current management operations.
piles large enough to self insulate and raise the tem-
perature to thermophilic levels. However, large com- Materials and Methods
post piles need to be aerated either by turning the ma-
terial like in windrow systems or injecting air as used A farm-scale study was conducted to design a lay-
in aerated piles to prevent them from becoming anaer- ered mesophilic composting system and to determine
obic. Aerobic decomposition under ambient tempera- the effect of carbon source on the operating parame-
ture can be a less resource intense management alter- ters. Field plots (about 13.4m2, 3.66m x 3.66m) were es-
native to thermophilic composting. tablished at The Conservation Fund’s Freshwater In-
Mesophilic temperatures (10-40ºC) and aerobic stitute in Shepherdstown, West Virginia with two
conditions can be maintained during decomposition carbon sources (wheat straw or oak sawdust) and three
without mechanically mixing or injecting air, as is nec- replicates. Plots were laid out in a straight line to facil-
essary with thermophilic composting. These condi- itate manure application with treatments randomly
tions can be maintained by either ensuring that the aligned in blocks resulting in a randomized complete
surface area to mass ratio is large enough so that heat block statistical design. A 15 cm layer of course wood
can be dissipated rapidly or the highly reactive mate- chips was used as a base layer to facilitate passive oxy-
rial is close enough to the surface so passive gas ex- gen transfer from the base and drainage. Arctic char
change can meet the high oxygen requirements of the (Salvelinus alpinus) manure was applied to a layer of ei-
decomposing material. As the material decomposes ther wheat straw or oak sawdust at a loading rate of
and becomes more stable, it has a lower requirement about 1cm (8% solids) approximately every 10 days us-
for oxygen and can be buried because the reduced ing a vacuum tank spreader modified for side dis-
passive gas exchange with depth is sufficient to meet charge over the plots. The rate of application was de-
the lower needs of the more stable material. termined by dividing the total volume of manure
Manure in coldwater aquaculture production sys- applied by the total area covered during application.
tems is typically settled in quiescent zones created Prior to calculating the loading rate by this method, the
within raceways to concentrate it prior to being application profile was characterized over the length
pumped to storage in off-line settling basins (IDEQ and width of the experimental plots. Tubs (0.277 m2)
1996). As the water passes through the off-line settling were placed between each adjacent plot in the center

Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005 35

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Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora

along the length of the study area and side-by-side stability was determined using the Dewar self-heating
across the width between the two center plots. After test. The Dewar self-heating test (Niese 1963; Brinton et
application, the amount and percent solids was deter- al. 1995) was performed in 2-L insulated Dewar flasks.
mined in each tub. From this initial work, it was deter- Temperatures of mixtures were recorded using mini-
mined that the loading rate was relatively uniform be- mum-maximum thermometers. The percent ash and
tween plots (cv = 17.7%) and that the center of the plots carbon, and the amount of nitrogen, ammonium, ni-
received more and the rate decreased with increasing trate, and phosphorus were determined. The samples
distance from the center towards the plot edges. Car- were dried at 105°C to a constant weight, ground
bon was added after each application at an initial rate through a 20-mesh (0.85 mm) screen in a Wiley mill.
to maintain a C:N ratio of about 25. After the first ap- The percent ash was determined by heating the sam-
plication, it was determined that the carbon rate for ples at 550°C for 24h (APHA 1992 Method 2540G). The
wheat straw could be cut in half due to its very low percent carbon was calculated from the percent ash
density nature compared to the oak sawdust, leading [(100-%ash)/1.8] (Rynk 1992). Total N was determined
to a C:N ratio of about 16. The oak sawdust was ap- with a FP-428 LECO nitrogen determinator (TMECC
plied at a rate to maintain a C:N ratio of about 25 4.02-D) (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, Michigan). To-
throughout the study. tal P was determined by digesting the samples with
Oxygen within the most active zone of the compost HClO4 (Adler 1995) followed by measurement of the P
was measured, using an Oxor® II portable oxygen ana- concentration (Murphy and Riley 1962). Duplicate sam-
lyzer (Bacharach, Inc. New Kensington, Pennsylvania), ples were taken and stored frozen (-20°C) for subse-
in four quadrants in each plot before the manure was quent analysis of ammonium, nitrate, and water-ex-
applied on the day of application, the next two days af- tractable P. Ammonium and nitrate were extracted by
ter application, and then periodically until the oxygen shaking 2.5 g of compost with 25 ml of 2M KCl for 1h in
content recovered. The most active zone of the compost 50 ml graduated conical-bottom polypropylene cen-
was where there was the greatest chance of anaerobic trifuge tubes on an end-over-end shaker, centrifuged
conditions being present; below and above this zone, (3570xG for 15 min), and a subsample of supernatant
oxygen levels were higher. The most active zone was the was analyzed (Mulvaney 1996). Water-extractable P
most sensitive zone in the compost to measure to deter- was determined by shaking 1 g of compost with 25 ml
mine if the loading rate was appropriate and ensure the of double deionized water in 50 ml graduated conical-
system was not being overloaded. The temperature was bottom polypropylene centrifuge tubes for 1h (Kuo
measured continuously in each plot using a HOBO® H8 1996) on an end-over-end shaker, centrifuged (3570xG
Outdoor/Industrial, 4-Channel External Logger with for 15 min), and a subsample of supernatant was ana-
TMCx-HA series temperature sensors (Onset Computer lyzed (Murphy and Riley 1962). The pH was deter-
Corporation, Bourne, Massachusetts). The temperature mined on moist samples by mixing equal volumes of
sensors were placed in the center of the lowest layer in double deionized water and sample (APHA 1992
each plot; the ambient temperature sensor was placed Method 4500-H+).
under a solar radiation shield. Precipitation at the site Data were analyzed using the ANOVA procedure
was measured using a nonrecording gauge. for a split plot design in SAS (SAS Institute 1999) with
Samples were taken from layers that represented carbon source as the main plot and compost age
three stages of compost age. Manure and carbon were (depth within pile) as the subplot. The interaction of
applied in alternating layers approximately every 10 carbon source and compost age was significant for all
days. At the completion of the study, the surface layer dependent variables and their means were separated
represented “time zero” with age of compost increasing by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).
with depth. The top layer extended from 0-63 days, the
middle layer from 63-118 days, and the bottom layer Results and Discussion
from 118-167 days. To delineate the three layers, at 49
and 104 days after the first application, which corre- The concentration of ash, C, N, and P within Arc-
spond to the last days when amendments were added tic char manure, oak sawdust, and wheat straw are
to the oldest and second oldest layer, respectively, a given in Table 1. The ash, N, and P content of arctic
plastic ribbon was placed on the surface in the center of char manure was higher than in either carbon source.
the plots. At 167 days after the initial application began, In comparing the carbon sources, wheat straw had
a transect was cut through the center of each plot with higher ash, N, and P content than oak sawdust. The
a shovel and two composite samples from each of the average loading rate of Arctic char manure, oak saw-
three layer depths were taken. The layers represent 0- dust, and wheat straw and the ash, C, N, and P con-
63, 63-118, and 118-167 days after application. Compost tained in them over the experiment are given in Table

36 Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005

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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

2. At these loading rates, about 0.001 ha of land As organic matter decomposes, it becomes more
would be required to compost the manure for each 1 stable and less susceptible to change. The Dewar self-
Mg Arctic char produced annually (IDEQ 1996). The heating test was used to determine compost stability. It
application rate of wheat straw was about 30% lower records the reheating capacity of composts placed in an
than for oak sawdust. As described earlier, the load- insulated container at optimal moisture. The less stable
ing rate of wheat straw was reduced in half from the compost is, the greater the temperature will rise over
initial rate needed to give a C:N ratio of about 25. The the five-day incubation period. According to Brinton et
concentration of ash, C, N, P and the C:N ratio in the al. (1995), composts that rise 10°C or less above starting
initial compost mixture averaged over the three time temperatures are classified as stable. The oak sawdust
periods is presented in Table 3. compost mixture did not reach this stable stage until
some time during the 118-167 day period of composting
TABLE 1. (Table 4). However, the wheat straw compost mixture
Average concentration of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and reached stability during the 63-118 day period in about
phosphorus in the initial compost components. 50 d less time than the oak sawdust. The ash content in-
Values are means ± SD. creased and percent carbon decreased with age (Table
Compost Ash C N P 5); both are expected to occur as organic matter decom-
Components (%) (%) (%) (%) poses. Although both the oak sawdust and wheat straw
Arctic char manure 22.2±9.6 43.2±5.3 6.64±1.25 2.04±0.61 initially had similar % carbon, the rate of loss of carbon
Oak sawdust 1.74±0.24 54.6±0.1 0.361±0.117 0.006±0.005 was greater in the wheat straw compost having signifi-
Wheat straw 5.13±1.63 52.7±0.9 0.834±0.174 0.106±0.071 cantly lower % carbon at the end, indicating a more
rapid rate of decomposition. These data are consistent
with the observation that the wheat straw compost sta-
TABLE 2. bilized more rapidly than the oak sawdust compost.
Average loading rates of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and Oxygen concentration was measured in each of
phosphorus from compost components applied about the plots over time between manure applications. The
every 10 days. Values are means ± SD. wheat straw compost was more aerobic than the oak
Application sawdust compost (Figure 1). Oxygen levels recovered
Compost Ratex Ash C N P after less than five days; however oxygen dropped to
Components (kg/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) (g/m2) lower levels and recovered to lower levels in oak saw-
Arctic char manure 1.01±0.65 236±210 429±281 65.3±44.0 21.07±15.76 dust. Since there were only small decreases in oxygen
Oak sawdust 1.73±0.45 30±8 943±246 6.2±1.6 0.11±0.03
Wheat straw 1.22±0.75 63±39 644±398 10.2±6.3 1.29±0.80
TABLE 4.
x
Expressed on a dry weight basis. Determination of compost stability using the Dewar self-
heating test. Compost mixture contained arctic char
manure and either oak sawdust or wheat straw. Layers
TABLE 3. represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over
Average concentration of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and stated period after day of application.
phosphorus in initial compost mixture of arctic char
Compost
manure and either oak sawdust or wheat straw. Layers Layer Age Temperature (°C)
represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over (Days)x Ambient Maximum Differencey
stated period. Values are means ± SD.
Oak sawdust
Compost
0-63 23 43.7az 20.7a
Layer Age Ash C N P
(Days) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) C:N (g/kg) 63-118 23 40.0a 17.0a
118-167 23 28.3b 5.3b
Oak sawdust
0-63 61±14 522±8 18.9±3.4 28.7±6.7 4.1±1.5 Wheat straw
63-118 106±61 496±34 34.1±10.4 16.3±7.5 8.4±2.9 0-63 23 38.9a 15.9a
118-167 114±80 492±45 23.8±9.9 23.3±8.4 9.5±3.4 63-118 23 29.7b 6.7b
Average 90±57 506±32 24.8±9.9 23.4±8.7 7.0±3.5 118-167 23 23.8b 0.8b
x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
Wheat straw y
the compost. The difference between the starting ambient temperature and
0-63 102±16 499±9 28.6±3.8 17.8±3.0 6.6±2.1 the maximum temperature are an indication of the stability level of the
compost: very stable, well-aged compost (0-10°C), moderately stable,
63-118 144±70 475±39 44.3±10.9 11.4±3.8 11.1±2.9
curing compost (10-20°C), material still decomposing, active compost (20-
118-167 132±46 482±25 30.2±11.0 18.3±8.3 11.6±5.7 30°C), very unstable, young or very active compost (30-40°C), fresh, raw
z
Average 123±47 487±26 33.7±10.8 16.1±5.8 9.4±4.2 compost, just mixed ingredients (40-50°C) (Brinton et al. 1995). Least
square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).

Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005 37

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Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora

TABLE 5.
Ratios of ash, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in
compost mixture of arctic char manure and either oak
sawdust or wheat straw as it stabilized over time. Layers

Temperature (°C)
represent averages of cumulative 10-day additions over
stated period.
Compost
Layer Age Ash C C/Ash
(Days)x pH (%) (%) (%) C:N C:P N:P

Oak sawdust
0-63 7.91ay 10.1f 50.0a 501a 16.1a 128.3a 7.98a
63-118 7.63ab 13.6d 48.0c 359c 16.7a 68.0b 4.21bc
118-167 6.17c 31.8b 37.9e 121d 10.1c 52.4c 5.22b Time (days)
Wheat straw FIGURE 2. Temperature profile within the compost layers and
0-63 8.04a 12.3e 48.8b 407b 14.2b 41.7c 3.08d surrounding environment over a 14-day period following the ap-
63-118 7.02bc 30.5c 38.6d 127d 13.4b 26.4d 2.01e plication of arctic char manure. The application cycle varied, but
118-167 6.25c 46.4a 29.8f 65e 7.6d 25.6d 3.45cd averaged 10 days over the entire experiment.
x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
y
the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).
temperature because the greatest biological activity
occurs the first two weeks and then decreases. The
surface to mass ratio decreases over time as the pile
height increases, however, by the time significant
mass is present, the lower layers have low biological
activity and generate little heat. At the end of the ex-
periment (167 days and 17 applications), the depth of
Oxygen (%)

the compost pile was 41.9±4.0cm (oak sawdust) and

83.8±5.0cm (wheat straw).
The structure of carbon source affected both the
potential for runoff and the oxygen content. The
wheat straw’s open structure made it possible for it to
absorb liquid manure without runoff during both the
Time (days) summer and winter season. The particle size of the
oak sawdust, however, was too fine and the surface
FIGURE 1. Oxygen levels within the compost layers over a 14-day
layer would crust over between applications thereby
period following the application of arctic char manure to wheat inhibiting infiltration, and runoff often resulted dur-
straw or oak sawdust. The application cycle varied, but averaged ing application. If sawdusts were used, some mechan-
10 days over the entire experiment. Day 0 is the oxygen level just
prior to manure application. Vertical bars denote ± SD (n = 12).
ical breakup of the surface would be required so that
the liquid would be readily absorbed. Higher rates of
carbon would not have prevented the sealing of the
levels in wheat straw after manure application, load- surface from occurring. During the winter, the saw-
ing rates could have been significantly higher com- dust was frozen solid and even less permeable to infil-
pared to oak sawdust. Particle size of wheat straw was tration, whereas the structure of wheat straw contin-
greater allowing higher levels of gas exchange and ued to be open enough to accept application even
therefore oxygen to meet the higher demands in the during freezing temperatures. Higher oxygen content
wheat straw compost due to the higher rate of decom- was maintained in the wheat straw compost through-
position. In general, grass has more labile carbon than out the study.
trees leading to increased rates of decomposition as Carbon source affected the form and quantity of N
was observed in this study. in the compost. The total percent N was higher in the
There were greater ambient temperature fluctua- most stable compost (Table 6), an observation consis-
tions, than within the compost (Figure 2). The oak tent with conservation of N, but not verified with a N
sawdust compost was generally warmer than the mass balance. Losses of N would be expected to be
wheat straw, and both were warmer than ambient, but lower in a mesophilic compost system compared to a
generally stayed between 15-25°C. The compost pile is thermophilic compost system because the volatile loss
not expected to heat up significantly above ambient of N during composting increases with temperature

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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

(Kuroda et al. 1996) and air flow (Hong et al. 1998; El- mation that took place. It appears that compost made
well et al. 2002). Nitrogen can be lost as ammonia from arctic char manure would need to stand for at
(Hong et al. 1998; Elwell et al. 2002) and nitrous oxide least 63 days before it is considered stable. The rate of
(Czepiel et al. 1996; Hao et al. 2001), a greenhouse gas. decomposition varies based on a number of factors re-
However, the amount of N lost as nitrous oxide, is a lated to the environment, such as aeration, tempera-
small fraction of the total N lost (Kuroda et al. 1996; He ture, and moisture, and those that relate to the com-
et al. 2001). Loss of N has been observed to be highly position of the starting materials like composition of
and negatively correlated with C loss (Barrington et al. the carbon (Komilis and Ham 2000) and availability of
2002); in this study the loss appeared to be similar be- limiting nutrients. Organic matter quality decreases as
tween the two carbon sources. Leaching losses of N C:N ratio, lignin, and polyphenol content increase
during composting have been measured (Eghball et al. (Harborne 1997; Heal et al. 1997; Northup et al. 1998;
1997; Zebarth et al. 1999; Sommer 2001), and may have Northup et al. 1999). The composition of carbon can
been a source of possible loss in this study. However significantly affect the rate of decomposition and this
>80% of N lost in these studies was due to ammonia along with the more aerobic environment may have
volatilization (Eghball et al. 1997; Sommer 2001). lead to the greater rate of decomposition with wheat
Mineralization and nitrification rates were higher straw. With a C:N ratio of 20-30, water soluble N
with wheat straw as indicated by the higher levels of should be minimized (Stevenson and Cole 1999) and
both ammonium and nitrate probably due to the high- leaching losses minimal. Adding less C can have an
er rates of decomposition. Mineralization and nitrifi- economic advantage if the C source needs to be pur-
cation generate acidity thereby decreasing compost chased and it was observed that as the C:N ratio de-
pH as observed in this study (Table 5). The quantity of creased, more inorganic N was present.
NH -N remained constant during composting with Phosphorus content and form varied with C
4
oak sawdust (Table 6), whereas it increased about source. Although the amount of P added per plot was
600% with the wheat straw compost ending up about similar with both carbon sources, the P concentration
50% higher than the oak sawdust. The quantity of in the wheat straw compost was about two times high-
NO3-N increased with both C sources, but was about er (Table 7) because about half the amount of biomass
three times higher with wheat straw compost. High was added compared with the oak sawdust. Some P in
nitrate content of the compost would suggest that the the oak sawdust compost was also lost due to runoff
compost is a readily available form of N to crops. The during application. Although the inorganic fraction of
NH4/NO3 ratio decreased in both the oak sawdust total P is consistently high in composts, about 70-
and wheat straw compost; a decreasing NH4/NO3 ra- 95+% (Traore et al. 1999; Sharpley and Moyer 2000;
tio is considered another indicator of compost stabili- Frossard et al. 2002; Eghball 2003), the fraction of total
ty (Chefetz et al. 1996). inorganic P which is water-extractable range from be-
The bottom layer is considered stable by both the ing relatively low 1-12% (Frossard et al. 2002; Eghball
Dewar self-heating test and the increase in nitrate for- 2003; Leytem et al. 2004), to high 15-40% (Sharpley and

TABLE 6. TABLE 7.
Nitrogen quantity and form in compost mixtures Phosphorus quantity and form in compost mixtures
containing arctic char manure and either oak sawdust or containing arctic char manure and either oak sawdust or
wheat straw. Layers represent averages of cumulative 10- wheat straw. Layers represent averages of cumulative 10-
day additions over stated period after day of application. day additions over stated period after day of application.
Compost Total Inorganic Compost Total Water
Layer Age N NO -N NH4-N N Layer Age P Extractable P WEP/TP
3
(Days)x (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (%) NH4/NO3 (Days)x (g/kg) (g/kg) (%)

Oak sawdust Oak sawdust

0-63 31.3cy 11d 577b 1.90d 66.8a 0-63 3.96cy 0.64c 16.57a
63-118 30.1c 25d 459c 1.71d 19.5b 63-118 7.19b 0.61c 8.53bc
118-167 37.4ab 809b 591b 3.75b 0.7c 118-167 7.49b 0.35d 4.76d

Wheat straw Wheat straw

0-63 34.9b 110d 151e 0.75e 3.2c 0-63 14.96a 1.10b 9.11bc
63-118 28.9c 359c 365d 2.48c 1.3c 63-118 15.64a 1.45a 9.60b
118-167 39.2a 2410a 903a 8.47a 0.4c 118-167 14.16a 0.67c 5.59cd
x x
Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within Composite samples taken from zones of increasing depth and age within
y y
the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05). the compost. Least square means were separated by Tuky’s HSD (P ≤ 0.05).

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Paul R. Adler and Lawrence J. Sikora

Moyer 2000; Eneji et al. 2003). In contrast to inorganic Adler and Sikora (2003) followed water-extractable P
N, water-extractable P decreased as the organic matter levels during 8 weeks of composting of poultry litter
decomposed with either carbon source. The percent of by a windrow method. At two weeks, water-ex-
total P that was water-extractable decreased over time tractable P was higher than at any other time suggest-
in this study from 16.6 to 4.8% in the oak sawdust and ing that immature composts may have plant-available
9.1 to 5.6% in the wheat straw compost (Table 7). or water-soluble P contents equal to or in excess of
There were also higher amounts of water-extractable those found in the original litter. The mesopholic com-
P in the wheat straw (0.67 to 1.45 g/kg) than in the oak posting process tested here showed that water-ex-
sawdust compost (0.35 to 0.64 g/kg). These values tractable P decreased with stability which could re-
were similar to those measured in other studies (Tra- duce the P fertility of the compost, but also reduce the
ore et al. 1999; Sharpley and Moyer 2000; Frossard et al. risk of runoff P from the area where compost was ap-
2002; Eghball 2003; Eneji et al. 2003; Leytem et al. 2004). plied. Although agricultural fields are the primary
Others have also observed a decrease in water-ex- sources of nonpoint P pollution, only those fields that
tractable P over time with different types of composts are highly erodible, near water, and high in P become
(Traore et al. 1999). When P was fractionated, it was major sources of P enrichment (Sharpley et al. 1996).
found that other forms of inorganic P such as HCl-sol- Preventing P loss from surface soil focuses on defin-
uble P increased and water-extractable P decreased ing, targeting, and remediating those areas with high
(Traore et al. 1999; Eneji et al. 2003). This trend suggests soil P levels and with high runoff potential (Gburek
the possible transformation of water-extractable P to and Sharpley 1998).
more stable forms which would reduce the potential Standard practices have been defined to achieve
for runoff losses. pathogen reduction for thermophilic composting sys-
Water soluble P can be sequestered by having a tems. Pathogen survival in raw manure and the soil
higher C:P ratio. Net immobilization of P occurs when environment has been studied (Guan and Holley
the C:P ratio is >300 and net mineralization when <200 2003). Until more information is available on pathogen
(Stevenson and Cole 1999). The average C:P ratio of survival in mesophilic compost, standards used for
the initial compost mixture ranged about 63 for wheat application of raw manure at organic farms should be
straw to 98 for oak sawdust compost (Table 5), so followed (Riddle et al. 2003), where it is not applied
would not be expected to biologically immobilize P. within 90 to 120 days before harvest, depending on the
Although organic matter decomposition has a signifi- type of crop.
cant impact on P cycling in soils (Gressel and McColl
1997), inconsistency in use of the C:P ratio as an index Conclusions
of immobilization or mineralization has been suggest-
ed to possibly be due to variable amount of inorganic Although storage and land application of liquid
P in organic materials, presence of limiting nutrients manure has a long history of being an effective and
(e.g. N, S), and quality of the carbon (Dalal 1977). practical technology, since it cannot occur year round,
Both the type of manure and stability of the com- anaerobic storage is a necessary component of the
post have been shown to affect P form and quantity in whole system. Composting increases the value of ma-
compost. Sharpley and Moyer (2000) found that com- nure and can be a practical system alternative to stor-
posting did not consistently affect inorganic P of ma- age in a lagoon, giving the farmer more flexibility in
nure; in dairy compost, inorganic P increased, where- time of application. Currently manure from fish grown
as in poultry compost it decreased. Working with in raceway systems is settled and stored in basins. Dur-
immature and mature beef, horse or dairy manure ing storage, phosphorus and other nutrients are con-
composts, Gagnon and Simard (1999) found that tinually released from the manure into the surround-
Mehlich-3 extractable-P levels were higher after 13 ing water in the basin. Because of how manure is
weeks of incubation in soil amended with immature managed on farms, water flows through these basins
composts. They suggested that organic acids generat- daily carrying these released nutrients to surface wa-
ed by the higher microbial activity associated with im- ter. The layered mesophilic compost system described
mature composts reduced P adsorption sites and in- in this study allows the manure to be stored and treat-
creased Mehlich-3 P content in the soil-compost ed on land after it has been settled in the basins, great-
mixture. Preusch et al. (2002) observed that although ly reducing the potential discharge of phosphorus to
composting yielded a more predictable and reliable surface waters. Since building infrastructure, such as a
source of mineralizable N than fresh litter, compost- pad, are not necessary to the success of this system, it
ing did not consistently affect P, possibly due to added can be readily moved to utilize any leached nutrients
amendments or stability level in the final product. for crop growth rather than allow them to build up to

40 Compost Science & Utilization Winter 2005

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Mesophilic Composting of Arctic Char Manure

high levels in the soil. Land requirements are about trient, carbon, and mass loss during composting of beef
0.001 ha to compost the manure for each 1 Mg Arctic cattle feedlot manure. J. Environ. Qual., 26:189-193.
char produced annually, but could be significantly Eghball, B. 2003. Leaching of phosphorus fractions follow-
ing manure or compost application. Commun. Soil Sci.
higher for the wheat straw since experimental loading Plant Anal., 34(19-20):2803-2815.
rates were limited by the reduced capacity of the oak Elwell, D.L., J.H. Hong, and H.M. Keener. 2002. Composting
sawdust compost. Mesophilic composting of high liq- hog manure/sawdust mixtures using intermittent and
uid content manures does not require excess carbon to continuous aeration: ammonia emissions. Compost Sci.
reduce its water content as is needed with ther- Util., 10:142-149.
Eneji, A.E., T.Honna, S. Yamamoto, T. Masuda, T. Endo, M.
mophilic composting because oxygen demands are Irshad. 2003. Changes in humic substances and phos-
lower and the layer that has the highest requirement phorus fractions during composting. Commun. Soil Sci.
for oxygen is near the surface. It is a less resource in- Plant Anal., 34(15-16):2303-2314.
tense system than standard composting technology Frossard, E., P. Skrabal, S. Sinaj, F. Bangerter, and O. Traore.
and is a practical technology that could be readily 2002. Forms and exchangeability of inorganic phos-
phate in composted solid organic wastes. Nutr. Cycl.
adopted on fish farms, and other farms with liquid ma-
Agroecosyst., 62:103-113.
nure systems, using current equipment. Gagnon, B. and R. R. Simard. 1999. Nitrogen and phospho-
rus release from on-farm and industrial composts. Can.
Acknowledgements J. Soil Sci., 79:481-489.
Gburek, W. J. and A. N. Sharpley. 1998. Hydrologic controls
on phosphorus loss for upland agricultural watersheds.
We thank Holly Lohman, Renee Yost, and Sarah J. Environ. Qual., 27:267-277.
Ogden for their technical assistance in chemical analy- Gressel, N. and J.G. McColl. 1997. Phosphorus mineraliza-
sis of samples and Fred Ford and Brian Mason at The tion and organic matter decomposition: A critical re-
Conservation Fund’s Freshwater Institute for their as- view, p. 297-309. In: Cadisch, G. and K.E. Giller (eds.).
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