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CHAPTER 3
Stoichiometry

Nothing can be more certain than this: that we are just beginning
to learn something of the wonders of the world on
which we live and move and have our being.
WILLIAM RAMSAY (1852-1916)

Chapter Outline:
Mole Concepts
Mole Conversion
Mole Ratio
Mole Relationships
Chapter 3
Module 1 Stoichiometry

Duration: 3 hours
INTRODUCTION
The identity of a substance is commonly defined by the types of atoms or ions
it contains. However, a quantitative approach is used to recognize what atom is
involved. How do we quantify atoms? Let’s take a look into the mole concepts - the
main subject in this module.

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. explore the concept of the mole;
2. explain and perform calculations in deriving the relationship between mass,
moles, and numbers of atoms or molecules; and
3. calculate volumes of gases consumed/produced in a reaction using gas
stoichiometry.

LESSON PROPER

The mole is a unit of the amount of substance similar to quantities such as dozen or
pair. Just as a dozen can mean 12 eggs, 12 pencils, 12 roses, or 12 of anything else.
How about mole?
A mole means…
A. According to the Mass in grams
1 mole of any substance = Formula mass of the substance

Examples: 1 mol of K = 39.10 grams

1 mol of H2 = 2(1.01) = 2.02 grams
1 mol of CO2 = 44.01 grams

B. According to the Number of Particles

1 mole of any substance = 6.022 x 1023 particles (atoms/ions/molecules)

Avogadro’s Number = 6.022 x 1023 , in honor to Amedeo

Avogadro, an Italian physicist known for his contributions on gases and concept of
the mole.

Examples: 1 mol of K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

1 mol of H2 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules
1 mol of CO2 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules

Mole Conversion
 ÷MM xn

Mass in Grams Moles No. of Particles

x MM ÷n

For example:

1. How many atoms are there in 0.500 mol of Al

0.500 mol Al x 6.022 x 1023 Al atoms
1 mol Al
ANSWER: 3.01 x 1023 Al atoms

2. How many moles of S are there if a sample of S contains 1.8 x 10 24 S atoms?

1.8 x 1024 S atoms x 1 mol S

6.022 x 1023 S atoms

ANSWER: 3.0 mole S atoms

3. The artificial sweetener aspartame (Nutri-Sweet) with the formula

C14H18N2O5 is used to sweeten diet foods and beverages. Compute for the
number of moles of aspartame contained in 225 g of aspartame sample?

Solution:

Molar mass of Aspartame C14H18N2O5

(14 x 12.01) + (18 x 1.01) + (2 x 14.01) + (5 x 16.0) = 294

g/mol
Setup
225 g aspartame x 1 mole aspartame
294 g aspartame
= 0.765 mol aspartame

Stoichiometry (stoy-key-ah-meh-tree) refers to the study of the quantitative,

or measurable, relationships that exist in chemical formulas and chemical reactions -
among reactants and products.
Stoichiometric problem-solving involves the computation of the masses of the
reactants consumed and the products formed with the aid of a balanced chemical
equation, given the mass of the reactant(s) or product(s) in a chemical reaction.
Mole Ratio is the ratio between the number of moles of any two substance involved
in the chemical reaction. For example, in the decomposition of water

2NH3 N2 + 3H2

2 mol 1 mol 3 mol

From the balanced equation, there are six mole ratios that can be
written:

2 mol NH3 2 mol NH3 1 mol N2

1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3

1 mol N2 3 mol H2 3 mol H2

3 mol H2 2 mol NH3 1 mol N2

Mole Relationships

Mole – Mole Calculations

The relation between the numbers of moles (the coefficients) of two
substances in a balanced equation.
Ex: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

For every 4 moles of Fe that react there are 2 moles of Fe 2O3 produced.
Problem:
How many moles of iron (III) oxide will be produced if 5 moles of O 2 are present?
4Fe + 3O2 → 2 Fe2O3

Mass - Mole and Mole - Mass Calculations

You can convert from grams of one molecule to grams, or moles of another
by making a multi-step t-chart:

Example: Using the following equation how many grams of Fe 2O3 would be
produced from 5.00 grams of Fe? 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

We need to convert:

gram Fe → moles Fe → moles Fe2O3 → grams Fe2O3

5.00 g Fe x 1 mol Fe x 2 mol Fe2O3 x 159 g Fe2O3 = 7.15 g Fe2O3

55.85 g Fe 4 mol Fe 1 mol Fe 2O3
Molar Mole ratio Molar
mass of of Fe and mass of

Volume – Volume Calculations

Volume relations can be determined when one or more reactants or products

are gases. Aside from mole relations, the coefficients can also be used for volume
relations, provided that the volume/s are measured at the same temperature and
pressure.

The step for solving volume-volume problems is:

gas volume given → gas volume X(unknown)

Example: Consider the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen cases to form NO 2

N2(g) + 2O2 (g) → 2 NO2 (g)

For this equation 1 molecule (N2) 2 molecule (O2) 2 molecules (NO2)

1 mol 2 mol 2 mol
1 volume 2 volumes 2 volumes

Example : The reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen gives carbon
dioxide, based on the following equation:
2CO + O2 → 2CO2
How many liters of O2 are needed to produce 4.0 L of CO2? (at the same pressure
and temperature)
Conversion order:
volume CO2 → volume O2
Solution:

V O2 = 4.0 L CO2 x 1 L O2
= 2 L O2
2 L CO2

Mass – Volume Calculations

Chemical reactions usually involve solid substances and gases. For solid
substances, masses can be determined and be used for calculations while for gases
the use of volume measurement is likely more appropriate.

To convert: mass of given substance →moles of given substance →moles of unknown

substance →volume of unknown substance

Example: For the reaction: 2 Al (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → Al2 (SO4)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

what volume of hydrogen gas will be produced at STP if a 2.00 g piece of aluminum
is completely reacted with sulfuric acid.
Solution:
Condition at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
Temperature= 273 K
Pressure= 1 atmosphere
Volume at STP= 22.4 L (molar volume)

Given: mass of Al= 2.00 g

Molar mass Al= 26. 98 g/mol
Relationship from balanced equation: 2 mol Al= 3 mol H 2

Unknown: volume of H2
 Convert g Al → mol Al →mol H2 → volume (L) H2
To solve:

2.00 g Al x 1 mol Al x 3 mol H2 x 22.4 L H2 = 2.49 L H2

26.98 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol H 2

LEARNING INSIGHTS
1. Compare 1 mole of N2, 1 mole of H2, and 1 mole of Cl2.
a. Which has the greatest number of molecules? Why?.
b. Which has the smallest mass? Why?

2. Based on the following unbalanced equation: N 2O (g) + O2 (g) → NO2 (g)

a) Write the balanced equation:_____________________________________

b) What is the mole ratio of N2O to O2 __________________________

c) If 2.0 mol of NO2 form, how many moles of N2O must have been consumed?

_______________________________________________________
d) True or False: Twice as many moles of NO 2 form as moles of O2 are
consumed. __________________________________________________
e) True or False: Twice as many grams of O2 are consumed as grams of are
N2O consumed.
__________________________________________________

POSTTEST
Solve the following problems logically.
1. Given the chemical formula, determine the molar mass of each the following
substances:

a. a typical soap, C17H35CO2Na

b. malachite, Cu2(OH)2CO3

c. caffeine, C8H10N4O2

2. Diamond is a form (allotrope) of carbon. If an engagement ring contains a 1.25

carat diamond, that is, 1 carat = 200 mg. Determine the number of carbon atoms
present in that diamond.

3. A tube of 100 mL toothpaste contains 0.76 g of sodium monofluorophosphate

(Na2PO3F). (a)How many milligrams of fluorine atoms are present? and (b) How
many fluorine atoms are present?

4. The food we eat is broken down in simpler substances to be used by our body for
growth and function. A general reaction for this complex metabolic process shows
the decomposition of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
a. If a person consumed 850 g of glucose over a certain period, what is the
mass
of CO2 produced?

b. How many moles of water are formed?

5. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced from combustion of propane gas.

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)→ 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

What volume of oxygen is needed for the complete combustion of 0.650 L of

propane? What volume of carbon dioxide can be produced from the reaction?

6. Given the following unbalanced equation: N 2(g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)

a) What is the molar mass of each species?

______________________________________________________
b) Determine the mole ratio of the 3 species?

______________________________________________________

7. Given the following equation C3H4 (g) + X O2 (g) → 3 CO2(g) + 2 H2O (g)

a) Determine the value of the coefficient X in this equation.

_________________________________________________________

b) Determine the molar mass of all species in this equation.

_________________________________________________________

c) What is the mole ratio of O2 to CO2 in the above equation?

__________________________________________________________

a) For an 8.0 g sample of C3H4 , how many moles of the same substance are
present?

CHAPTER 4
Solution
 The physical chemists never use their eyes and are most lamentably
lacking in chemical culture. It is essential to cast out from our midst, root
and branch, this physical element and return to our laboratories.
HENRY EDWARD ARMSTRONG (1848-1937)

Chapter Outline:
Components of Solution
Types of Solution
Solubility
Concentrations of Solution
Dilution
Chapter 4
Module 1 Nature of Solutions

Duration: 1.5 hours

INTRODUCTION

Most household chemicals we encounter in our daily lives are mixtures. Often
they are solutions, a homogeneous mixture. Some solutions that we use are vinegar,
shampoo, bleach, carbonated beverages, and more. What are the components of
the solution? Why do other substances dissolve while others are not? Answering
these questions is the basic premise of this module. 

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:
1. distinguish between solute and solvent;
2. identify the different types of solution and give examples;
3. discuss the limits of solubility; and
4. explain the factors that affect solubility and the rate of dissolving.

PRETEST
Direction: Write the letter corresponding to the best answer.
___ 1. The process by which dissolved solute particles become surrounded by
solvent particle is called
[A] osmosis [B] solvation [C] crystallization [D] molarity
___ 2. Which of the following is not a solution?
[A] brass [B] blood [C] sterling silver [D] syrup
___ 3. Which of these is a solution?
[A] water [B] stainless steel [C] mayonnaise [D] cheese
___ 4. Which of these solutions is completely miscible?
[A] alcohol and water [C] kerosene and water
[B] salt in water [D] ether and water
___ 5. The following are ways of expressing concentration of solution except
[A] percent by mass [C] molarity
[B] mole fraction [D] molecular mass
___ 6. An aqueous solution
[A] has alcohol as the solvent [C] is a heterogeneous mixture
[B] has water as a solvent [D] exhibits Tyndall effect
___ 7. Solution is
[A] compound [C] homogeneous mixture
[B] pure substance [D] two-phase system
___ 8. Identify from the following which will more likely to dissolve a substance
faster in a solvent?
[A] agitating the solution
[B] increasing the particle size of the solute
[C] lowering the temperature
[D] decreasing the number of particles
___ 9. Identify from the following the pair of factors that can affect the solubility of a
particular substance?
 [A] particle size and degree of mixing

[B] temperature and degree of mixing

[C] the nature of solute and solvent and temperature
[D] size of particle and temperature
___ 10. Which will evaporate faster under the same conditions, 50 mL distilled water
or 50 mL of seawater?
[A] 50 mL distilled water [C] 50 mL of seawater
[B] will evaporate at the same time [D] will not evaporate at all

LESSON PROPER

To start your journey with solutions, set up two glasses half-filled with water.
Add powdered coffee in the first glass and granular coffee on the second. Observe
how the two samples of coffee dissolved in water. Which do you think is the solute?
Which one is the solvent? What can you say about the solution formed? What can
you conclude about the rate of dissolving of coffee?

A solution is a mixture of two or more substances with a uniform appearance

or homogeneous. Its two components are the solute, the substance that is dissolved
or is the least abundant component in the solution, and the solvent which is the
dissolving agent or the most abundant component in the solution. For the different
types of solutions refer to the table below.
Table 4.1 Types of Solution
Component Component Type of Examples
1 2 solution
gas gas gas Air
gas liquid liquid Soda water ( CO2 in
water), softdrinks
gas solid solid H2 in Palladium
liquid liquid liquid Ethanol in water
liquid solid solid Mercury in gold
liquid gas gas Water vapor in air
solid solid solid Solder (Sn/ Pb),
Brass(Cu/Zn),
solid liquid liquid NaCl in water
solid gas gas Sulfur vapor in air

Some solutions are common with their unique name. Examples are: a solution
of water and sugar is known as syrup; a solution of sodium chloride (common table
salt) in water is known as brine; a sterilized 0.15 molar concentration of sodium
chloride in water is known as saline; a solution of carbon dioxide in water is known
as seltzer; and a solution of ammonia gas in water is known as ammonia water.
Classification of solutions can also be made according to the amount of solute
present. A dilute solution contains a relatively small amount of dissolved solute while
concentrated solution has a higher amount of dissolved solute.
Moreover, the amount of solute that will be dissolved in a specific amount of
solvent at a given temperature is called solubility.

1.Terms used to describe solubility

a. soluble - when a given solute is soluble in a given amount of solvent
 insoluble - when a given solute does not dissolve in a given amount of
solvent

b. miscible – two liquids are completely mix in all proportions

immiscible – two liquids which are not soluble in each other.

2. Limits of Solubility
A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum amount
of a solute in a particular solvent, at a certain temperature. Before reaching
the saturation point, the solution is determined to be unsaturated; that is, it
contains less solute than its solvent capable of dissolving.
On the other hand, if there is more solute present, more than what is in
a saturated solution, the said solution is identified as a supersaturated
solution. This solution is not very stable, and in time, some solute forms
crystals in a process called crystallization.

The solubility curve shows the relationship between solubility and

temperature. It indicates what maximum amount of the solute that a 100-gram
amount of water can dissolve at a specified range of temperatures.

Table 4.2 Saturated Solution at 20 °C and 50 °C

Solute Solubility ( g solute/100 g H2O )
20 °C 50 °C
NaCl 36.0 37.0
KCl 34.0 42.6
NaNO3 88.0 114.0
KClO3 7.4 19.3
AgNO3 222.0 455.0
C12H22O11 203.9 260.4
3. Factors Affecting Solubility

a. Nature of solute and solvent

- It involves the “Like dissolves Like” Principle. It means a polar solute
dissolved in polar solvent; nonpolar solute dissolved on the nonpolar solvent.
For example, NaCl (polar solute) dissolves in water (polar solvent).

b. Temperature
- Solubility for most solids increases as the temperature increases. For some
solids, an increase in temperature results in a slightly increased solubility. For
few solids, solubility decreases as the temperature increases.
- For the solubility of gases in liquids, increasing the temperature decreases
their solubility.

c. Pressure
- The solubility of gases in comparison with solids is greatly affected by
pressure. In liquids the solubility of gases increases as the pressure
increases.

4. Factors that affect the rate of dissolving

a. Surface Area. The smaller the particle is, the greater is the surface area and
the more exposed the particle is to the solvent, thus increasing the rate of
dissolving of solute to the solvent.
b. Agitation/stirring. Stirring and its rate allow solvent molecules to be
continually in contact with the solute particles, making the rate of dissolving
faster.
c. Temperature. Heating increases the rate of dissolving of a solid due to
kinetic effects.

LEARNING INSIGHTS
Provide a reason why kerosene can dissolve naphthalene but not sodium chloride
or table salt.

POSTTEST
A. Match each item with the statement below.
A. miscible C. saturated solution E. supersaturated solution
B. immiscible D. concentration F. Henry's law

____ 1. It is a term used to describe liquids that are insoluble in one another
____ 2. It is a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute
____ 3. It is a solution that contains more solute than can theoretically be dissolved
at a given temperature
____ 4. The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly related to the pressure of the gas
above the liquid at a certain temperature.
____ 5. It refers to the measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a particular
quantity of solvent
B. Briefly explain the following statements.
1. Give the reason why ethanol (C2H5OH) is insoluble in cyclohexane (C6H12).

2. A man brought home a goldfish from the pet shop. In a fishbowl, with allowed
to cool down boiled water, the man put his goldfish. However, a few minutes
later the fish died. How would you relate what happened to the fish to
solubility?

Chapter 4
Module 2 Concentrations of Solutions

Duration: 3 hours

INTRODUCTION
In the previous module, you already know what concentration is. When there
is too much sugar in your coffee, you say that it is “too sweet”. But there is nothing
like “too” in the field of chemistry. There are different ways to express it. That is why
we are going to study all about the concentration of solutions in this module. We will
look at several methods of calculating the concentration of solutions. So, let us
begin!

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

1. calculate various concentration units of measurements. (%m/m, %m/v, % v/v,

 ppm, ppb, molarity, molality, and normality;
2. explain how concentrations of solutions change with varying degrees of
solutes and solvents; and
3. calculate the concentration of a diluted solution.

PRETEST
Multiple Choice. Write the letter corresponding to the best answer.
____1. Expresses the number of moles of solute in one liter solution
[A] normality [B] molality [C] percent by volume [D] molarity
____2. An alcoholic beverage is 90% proof. Its alcohol content is
[A] 30% [B] 45% [C] 90% [D] 180%
____3. The following are ways of expressing concentration of solution except
[A] percent by mass [C] molarity
[B] mole fraction [D] molecular mass
____4. To determine the number of moles of solute, which of the following
operations should be used?
[A] molarity x liters of solution [C] molarity x mass of solution
[B] molarity x moles of solution [D] moles of solution x volume of solution
____5. The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent is known as
[A] formality [B] molarity [C] molality [D] normality
____6. When a solution is diluted by the addition of solvent, what will NOT change?
[A] molarity of solution [C] number of moles of solute
[B] mass of solvent [D] volume of solvent

For numbers 7-10, match each item below with each of the given statement.
a. diluted solution c. solute e. Normality
b. concentrated solution d. dilutions

____ 7. Decreasing the concentration of a solute

____ 8. Number of equivalent weight per one liter of solution
____ 9. Small amount of dissolved solute in the solution
____ 10. Large amount of dissolved solute in the solution

LESSON PROPER

Do the activity entitled “Drink Comparison”. Get two plastic cups half-filled
with water. In cup A, add one tablespoon of powdered juice (any brand) and one
teaspoon at cup B. Mix and taste.
“Which drink tastes stronger?” 
“Which one is the solute?”
“Which one is the solvent?” 
“Which drink has more solute in the solution?” 
“Which drink has a higher concentration of solute?” 

As for the aforementioned activity, the concentration of the solution tells you
how much powder juice has been dissolved in the water. Thus, concentration of a
solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved into a specific amount of solvent or
solution. Expressing the concentration of solution can be made in different ways as
given below:

Table xx Units of Concentrations

Unit Symbol
 % mass gram solute /gram solution % m/m or %
w/w

% volume ml solute/ 100 ml solution % v/v

% wt./volume gram solute/ 100 ml solution % w/v

molarity mole solute / liter solution M

molality mole solute / kilogram solvent m

normality number of equivalent weight /liter solution N

Mole fraction Mole solute/ mole of solution XA

solute

Mole fraction Mole solvent/ mole of solution XB

solvent

parts per million gram solute/ 1,000,000 gram solution ppm

parts per billion gram solute/1,000,000,000 gram solution ppb

a. Percent by Mass
% m = grams of solute x 100
grams of solution

- grams of solution = gram of solute + gram of solvent

For example:
1. For an aqueous solution of 27.20 g ethanol in 230.0 g of total solution (after
mixing the ethanol and water), determine the percent by mass of the solute.

Solution: % m = 27.20 g x 100 = 11.83%

230.0 g

2. Calculate the amount in grams of glucose and water present in a 500 g of 5.3 %
M of glucose solution?

As we know that 5.3 % of the solution is glucose = 5.3 g/100 g solution

5.3 g glucose x 500 g solution = 26. 5 g glucose

100 g solution

Solution: = 500 grams

- 26.5 grams glucose
= 437.5 g water
b. Percent by Volume
% v = ml solute x 100
ml solution
Volume solution = vol solute + volume solvent

For example:
1. In preparing 250 mL of 70 % (v/v) of rubbing alcohol solution, what volume of
water must be added?

Solution: 70% = ml solute x 100

250 ml solution
= 175 ml of alcohol
To prepare a 70% rubbing alcohol

250 ml – 175 ml = 75 ml water

c. Percent by mass/volume
% w/v = gram solute x 100
ml solution
For example:
1. Calculate the percent by mass of the solute in an aqueous solution of 6.50 g
NaCl in 95 ml of solution.

Solution: % w/v = 6.50 g x 100

95 ml
= 6.84 %

d. Molarity(M)

Mole of solute = mass in grams of solute

Molar mass of solute
For example:
1. Seawater contains about 28.0 g of NaCl per liter. Calculate the molarity of
sodium chloride in seawater.
Solution:
Step 1: find the molar mass
Molar mass NaCl= 58.44 g/mol ( Na= 22. 99 + 35.45 =Cl)
Step 2: calculate the number of moles of NaCl
Mole of solute = 28 g NaCl / 58. 44 g /mol
= 0.48 mol
Step 3: calculate the molarity

M = 0.48 mol
1.00 liter

= 0.48 mol/liter or 0.48 M

e. Molality (m)
 For example:
1. What is the molality of a solution that contains 13.4 grams of calcium chloride
dissolved in 655 mL of water?

Solution:
Step 1: find the molar mass
Molar mass CaCl2 = 110.96 g/mol [Ca= 40.07 + ( 35.45 x 2) Cl]
Step 2: calculate the number of moles of CaCl 2
Mole of solute = 13.4 g CaCl 2 / 110.96 g/mol
= 0.120 moles CaCl 2
Step 4: convert 655 ml into kg
Density H2O= 1 g/ml and 1 kg = 1000 g
655 ml x 1 g H2O x 1 kg = 0.655 kg H2O
1 ml H2O 1000 g
Step 3: calculate the molarity

= 0120 mole CaCl2

1. 655 kg H2O
= 0.184 m CaCl2

f. Normality (N)

Example:
 Acid Base Salts

HCl f=1 NaOH f= 1 K2SO4 f=2

K +1 x 2=2

Where +1 is charge

2 subscript

H3PO4 f=3 Ca(OH) 2 f=2 Al2(CO3)3 f= 6

Al + 3 x 2 = 6

Where: + 3 is charge

2 is subscript

Total positive charge is 6

For example:
1. What is the normality of the following?
            a. 0.1481 M KOH
            b. 0.0821 M H3PO4

Solution: conversion of M to N
N= f M
a) 0. 1481 M (mol/L) NaOH
f= 1
N= 0. 1381 mol/L x (1 eq/1mol) = 0.01481 eq/L = 0.1481 N

b) 0.0821 mo/L H3PO4

f= 3
N = 0.0821 mol/L x ( 3 eq/ 1 mol)= 0.156 eq /L= 0.246 N

g. Mole Fraction

For a solution with two components, A (solute) and B (solvent):

X A = moles solute
moles solution
X B = moles solute
moles solution

mole of solution= moles solute + moles solvent

For example:

What is the mole fraction of the solute and solvent in a solution that contains
12.0 grams of silver nitrate (AgNO3) that has been dissolved in 770.0 mL of
water?

Solution:

Step 1: Find the molar mass of AgNO3

107.87= 107.87
14 = 14
16 x 3 = 48
169.87g/mole

H 2O
2x1 =2
16 x 1 = 16
18 g/mole

Step 2: Convert both solute and solvent into mole

AgNO3 = 12.0 g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 = 0.0706 mol AgNO3
169. 87g AgNO 3

H2O = 770.0 ml H2O x 1 g H2O x 1 mol H2O = 42.7 mol H2O

1 mL H2O 18 g H2O

X A = moles solute = 0.0706 mol AgNO3 = 0.00165 solute

moles solution (0.0706 moles AgNO3+ 42.7 mole H2O )

XB = mole solvent = 42. 7 mole H2O = 0.99835 solvent

moles solution (0.0706 moles AgNO + 42.7 mole H O )
3 2

Preparation of Solution
Dilution is the method of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a
solution.
This is made through the addition more solvent like water into a solution. Diluting a
solution means adding more solvent without adding more solute. In this process,
the amount of solute is kept constant, thus decreasing its final concentration.

Dilution calculations can be performed using the formula

M1V1  = M2V2.
(before dilution = after dilution)

where:
M1 = the concentration of the original solution
V1 = the volume of the original solution
M2 = the concentration of the diluted solution
V2 = the final volume of the diluted solution.

For example:
How would you prepare 3L of 3 M HCl solution from a 12 M solution?
M1V1  = M2V2.
3 M (3L) = 12M ( V 2)
Volume of 12 M = 0.75 L

This means that in order to prepare a 3L of 3M HCl solution, you have to add 0.75 L
of 12 M HCl to 2.25 L of solvent.

Watch the video at the link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2YyIo8vSCA

for the preparation of a solution.

Diluting a solution is an essential process in the laboratory. Stock solutions

are usually in very concentrated forms. These concentrated solutions are usually for
use in laboratory methods like titration, chemical tests, and others. Accuracy in the
dilution of a solution to a known lesser concentration is required.

LEARNING INSIGHTS
Make your own disinfectant household cleaning solution by mixing the following:
● 5 mL (1 teaspoon) bleach in 250 mL (1 cup) of water, or
● 20 mL (4 teaspoons) bleach in 1 liter of water (4 cups)
Note: This applies to bleach that is 5 % sodium hypochlorite (Zonrox/ Chlorox), to
give a 0.1 % sodium hypochlorite solution.

POSTTEST
Solve the following problems logically.

1. 32 g of ethyl alcohol (molar mass 46 g mol-1) is dissolved in 54 g of water (molar

mass 18 g mol-1). What is the mole fraction of ethyl alcohol and water in solution?

2. The molality of a solution of chlorine and water is 0.0362 m. This solution contains
3500 g of water. How many grams of chlorine was used in preparing the solution?

3. How many liters of 0.50 M glucose, C6H12O6, solution will contain exactly 100 g of
glucose.
4. To prepare a solution, 2.0 grams of I2 was dissolved in 125 g methanol (CH3OH).
Determine the percent by mass of I2 in the solution.

5. What is the normality of the following?

a) 0.5781 g acid (eq wt = 187.3) in 250.0 mL of solution
b) 0.321 g sodium carbonate in 250.0 mL of solution