Flowering plant reproduction

Male Gametophyte (The Pollen Grain)

The male gametophyte develops and reaches maturity in an immature anther. In a plant’s
male reproductive organs, development of pollen takes place in a structure known as the
microsporangium. The microsporangia, which are usually bi-lobed, are pollen sacs in which
the microspores develop into pollen grains. These are found in the anther, which is at the
end of the stamen—the long filament that supports the anther.

Figure.1: Shown is (a) a cross section of an anther at two developmental stages. The
immature anther (top) contains four microsporangia, or pollen sacs. Each microsporangium
contains hundreds of microspore mother cells that will each give rise to four pollen grains.
The tapetum supports the development and maturation of the pollen grains. Upon
maturation of the pollen (bottom), the pollen sac walls split open and the pollen grains
(male gametophytes) are released. (b) In these scanning electron micrographs, pollen sacs
are ready to burst, releasing their grains.

Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise to
four haploid microspores, each of which will ultimately form a pollen grain (Figure 2). An
inner layer of cells, known as the tapetum, provides nutrition to the developing
microspores and contributes key components to the pollen wall. Mature pollen grains
contain two cells: a generative cell and a pollen tube cell. The generative cell is contained
within the larger pollen tube cell. Upon germination, the tube cell forms the pollen tube
through which the generative cell migrates to enter the ovary. During its transit inside the
pollen tube, the generative cell divides to form two male gametes (sperm cells). Upon
maturity, the microsporangia burst, releasing the pollen grains from the anther.
Figure 2: Pollen develops from the microspore mother cells. The mature pollen grain is
composed of two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell, which is inside the tube
cell. The pollen grain has two coverings: an inner layer (intine) and an outer layer (exine).

Each pollen grain has two coverings: the exine (thicker, outer layer) and the intine (Figure
2). The exine contains sporopollenin, a complex waterproofing substance supplied by the
tapetal cells. Sporopollenin allows the pollen to survive under unfavorable conditions and
to be carried by wind, water, or biological agents without undergoing damage.
Female Gametophyte (The Embryo Sac)

First, in the process of megasporogenesis, a single cell in the diploid megasporangium—an

area of tissue in the ovules—undergoes meiosis to produce four megaspores, only one of
which survives. The surviving haploid megaspore undergoes mitosis to produce an eight-
nucleate, seven-cell female gametophyte, also known as the embryo sac. Two of the nuclei
—the polar nuclei—move to the equator and fuse, forming a single, diploid central cell. This
central cell later fuses with a sperm to form the triploid endosperm. Three nuclei position
themselves on the end of the embryo sac opposite the micropyle and develop into the
antipodal cells, which later degenerate. The nucleus closest to the micropyle becomes the
egg cell, and the two adjacent nuclei develop into synergid cells (Figure 3). The synergids
help guide the pollen tube for successful fertilization, after which they disintegrate. Once
fertilization is complete, the resulting diploid zygote develops into the embryo, and the
fertilized ovule forms the other tissues of the seed.

A double-layered integument protects the megasporangium and, later, the embryo sac. The
integument will develop into the seed coat after fertilization and protect the entire seed.
The ovule wall will become part of the fruit. The integuments, while protecting the
megasporangium, do not enclose it completely, but leave an opening called the micropyle.
The micropyle allows the pollen tube to enter the female gametophyte for fertilization.

Figure 3: As shown in this diagram of the embryo sac in angiosperms, the ovule is covered
by integuments and has an opening called a micropyle. Inside the embryo sac are three
antipodal cells, two synergids, a central cell, and the egg cell.

Double Fertilization

After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow through the style to
reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen, contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and
the generative cell. The pollen tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the
generative cell travels. The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and
certain chemical signals. As it travels through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen
tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of the style. During this process, if the generative
cell has not already split into two cells, it now divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen
tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the embryo sac; it
enters the ovule sac through the micropyle. Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the
egg cell, forming a diploid zygote; the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming
a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm. Together, these two fertilization events in
angiosperms are known as double fertilization. After fertilization is complete, no other
sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary
become the fruit, usually enveloping the seed.

Figure 4: Double fertilization: In angiosperms, one sperm fertilizes the egg to form
the 2n zygote, while the other sperm fuses with two polar nuclei to form the 3n
endosperm. This is called a double fertilization.

After fertilization, embryonic development begins. The zygote divides to form two
cells: the upper cell (terminal cell) and the lower cell (basal cell). The division of the
basal cell gives rise to the suspensor, which eventually makes connection with the
maternal tissue. The suspensor provides a route for nutrition to be transported from
the mother plant to the growing embryo. The terminal cell also divides, giving rise to
a globular-shaped proembryo. In dicots (eudicots), the developing embryo has a
heart shape due to the presence of the two rudimentary cotyledons. In non-
endospermic dicots, such as Capsella bursa, the endosperm develops initially, but is
then digested. In this case, the food reserves are moved into the two cotyledons. As
the embryo and cotyledons enlarge, they become crowded inside the developing
seed and are forced to bend. Ultimately, the embryo and cotyledons fill the seed, at
which point, the seed is ready for dispersal. Embryonic development is suspended
after some time; growth resumes only when the seed germinates. The developing
seedling will rely on the food reserves stored in the cotyledons until the first set of
leaves begin photosynthesis.
Development of the Seed

Monocot and dicot seeds develop in differing ways, but both contain seeds with a seed coat,
cotyledons, endosperm, and a single embryo.

Development of the Seed

Parts of a Seed

The seed, along with the ovule, is protected by a seed coat that is formed from the
integuments of the ovule sac. In dicots, the seed coat is further divided into an outer coat,
known as the testa, and inner coat, known as the tegmen. The embryonic axis consists of
three parts: the plumule, the radicle, and the hypocotyl. The portion of the embryo
between the cotyledon attachment point and the radicle is known as the hypocotyl node.
The embryonic axis terminates in a radicle, which is the region from which the root will
develop.
Questions [30]
1. What happens to the four megaspores produced during ovule formation? What
happens to the four microspores produced during pollen grain formation? (2)
2. What is the function of endosperm? (1)
3. Define 'micropyle'. (1)
4. Define chalazal. (1)
5. Define triple fusion. (1)
6. In Angiosperms, the functional megaspore gives rise to; (a) ovule (b) embryo (c)
embryo sac (d) endosperm. (1)
7. The embryo sac occurs in; (a) endosperm (b) ovule (c) axis part of embryo (d)
embryo
(1)

8. Pollen grains are produced inside the; (a) stamen (b) pistil (c) anther (d) pollen sacs
(1)
9. During ovule formation in a flowering plant, the resulting structure contains; (a) four
megaspores (b) one megaspore mother cell with four nuclei (c) one egg cell and two
polar nuclei (d) four megaspores and four egg cells. (1)
10. During pollen formation in a flowering plant, the resulting structure contains; (a) two
sperm cells (b) a generative cell and a tube cell (c) one microspore mother cell (d)
four microspores. (1)
11. What is another name for the microsporangia? (1)
12. Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploids__________. (1)
13. The male gametophyte is composed of only two cells. Name each cell and tell what
will come from each of them. (2)
Male Gametophyte Cells What does cell produce?

14. Meiosis in the female part of the plant produces four megaspores. How many
survive? (1)
15. After double fertilization, what does each ovule become? (1)
16. When the polar nuclei are fertilized, what is formed? (1)
17. The chromosome number of endosperms is __________. (1)
18. The chromosome number of the zygote is ____________. (1)
19. What is the role of the endosperm? (1)
20. After double fertilization, what does each ovule become? (1)
21. The seven-celled and eight nucleated female gametophytes of an angiospermic plant
is produced as a result of divisions of functional megaspore. (a) three mitotic (b) one
meiotic and two mitotic (c) two mitotic (d)one meiotic and four mitotic (1)
22. Study the section in this concept under the heading “Double Fertilization” very
carefully. Label the figures below to show two sperm nuclei, pollen tube, female
gametophyte, ovule, synergids, polar nuclei, egg, and zygote. Describe what is
happening in each sketch. (5)
 23. Study the figure on the left above. You should be able to count a total of 7 cells and 8
nuclei. Which of these are fertilized in double fertilization?

When sodium hydroxide and ammonia were added to unknown A, no cations were found
(both in a few drops and in excess ). The results indicated that when a few drops of sodium
hydroxide were added to an unknown B calcium (Ca2+) cation was present. When a few drops
or an excess of ammonia were added to unknown B, no cations were found. When a few
drops of sodium hydroxide were added to unknown C, the cation present was iron (Fe2+), and
when it was added in excess, the cation present was still (Fe2+), when a few drops of ammonia
were added, iron (Fe2+) was created, and when it was added in excess, manganese (Mn2+) was
formed. When a few drops of sodium hydroxide were added to unknown solution D, a
reddish brown precipitate was produced, and the cation present was iron (Fe3+), and no
change was seen when it was added in excess. When a few drops of ammonia were added to
the unknown D, a reddish brown precipitate was produced, which was recognized as iron
(Fe3+) cation; however, when more ammonia was added, the precipitate did not dissolve and
there was no change in color, indicating that the cation stayed as iron (Fe3+).
When a few drops of sodium hydroxide were added to the unknown E solution, a light blue
precipitate was produced that was recognized as copper (Cu2+) cation, but when it was added
in excess, no color change occurred and the precipitate did not dissolve, thus it stayed as
copper (Cu2+) cation. When a few drops of ammonia were added to an unknown E solution,
no precipitate was produced, but the solution was dark blue, creating a copper (Cu2+) cation;
when more ammonia was added, no change occurred, and the solution stayed as copper
(Cu2+) cation. When a few drops of solution F solution were added, a greenish precipitate
developed, which was recognized as chromium (Cr3+) cation; however, when the solution was
added in excess, there was no change in color and the precipitate remained insoluble, creating
chromium (Cr3+) cation. When a few drops of sodium hydroxide were added to an unknown
G solution, a white precipitate developed that was recognized as calcium ( Ca2+) cation, and
the precipitate was insoluble in excess. When a few drops of ammonia were added to an
unknown G solution, no precipitate was produced, nor was there any precipitate in excess.
When a few drops of sodium hydroxide and ammonia were added to the unknown H solution,
no precipitate developed and no color change occurred, resulting in no cations being seen