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Mathematical Logic

Mathematical logic provides rules and techniques for determining the validity of arguments. It includes concepts like propositions, truth tables, logical connectives, and quantifiers. Propositions are statements that can be either true or false. Truth tables define the truth values of statements combined with logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, implication, biconditional. Quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists" are used to make statements about predicates over a domain. Logical equivalences and rules of inference allow manipulating and deriving conclusions from statements.

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82 views9 pages

Mathematical Logic

Mathematical logic provides rules and techniques for determining the validity of arguments. It includes concepts like propositions, truth tables, logical connectives, and quantifiers. Propositions are statements that can be either true or false. Truth tables define the truth values of statements combined with logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, implication, biconditional. Quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists" are used to make statements about predicates over a domain. Logical equivalences and rules of inference allow manipulating and deriving conclusions from statements.

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Jheann loja
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Mathematical Logic Definition: Methods of reasoning,

provides rules and techniques to determine whether an


argument is valid o Theorem: a statement that can be
shown to be
true (under certain conditions)
Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an odd
integer

o This statement is true under the condition that x is an


integer is true
Mathematical Logic
o Truth value
One of the values "truth" (T) or "falsity" (F)
assigned to a statement o Negation
The negation of P, written P, is the statement obtained by
negating statement P
o Example:
P: A is a consonant
P: it is the case that A is not a consonant o Truth Table
et
FIT
Mathematical Logic
A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative sentence that
is either true or false, but not both Uppercase letters denote
propositions
. Examples:
OP: 2 is an even number (true)
Q: 7 is an even number (false) OR: A is a vowel (true) The
following are not propositions:
OP: My cat is beautiful O Q: My house is big
Propositions

• A statement that has a truth value . Which of the following are propositions?
The Washington State flag is red It snowed in Whistler, BC on January 4, 2008. Hillary
Clinton won the democratic caucus in Iowa Space aliens landed in Roswell, New Mexico
Ron Paul would be a great president
Turn your homework in on Wednesday Why are we taking this class? If n is an integer greater
than two, then the equation an + bn = ch has no solutions in non-zero integers a, b, and c.
Every even integer greater than two can be written as the sum of two primes
This statement is false - Propositional variables: p, q, r, s, ... - Truth values: T for
true, F for false
Mathematical Logic Conjunction
Let P and Qbe statements. The conjunction of Pand Q,
written P Q , is the statement formed by joining statements
P and Q using the word "and" . The statement P^ Q is true
if both p and q are true;
otherwise P Q is false
• Truth Table for Conjunction:
I PAO
F I FT F
F
F
L
E
L

T
E

Mathematical Logic

o Disjunction
• Let P and Q be statements. The disjunction of P and
Q, written PVQ, is the statement formed by joining
statements P and Q using the word "or"
• The statement P v Q is true if at least one of the
statements P and Q is true; otherwise PV Q is false
• The symbol v is read "or" . Truth Table for Disjunction:
Р
Q
Pyo
F
т
LEE
ELE
FE

Mathematical Logic

Implication
Let P and Q be statements. The statement "if P then Q" is called
an implication or condition.
The implication "if P then Q" is written P→
• Pis called the hypothesis, Q is called the conclusion Truth Table
for Implication:
PO
o
LLEE
LELE
ELEE
Mathematical Logic

Implication
Let P: Today is Sunday and Q: I will wash the car. .
P→Q:
If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
• The converse of this implication is written Q→ P
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
• The inverse of this implication is P →-Q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
• The contrapositive of this implication is -Q -P
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday
Mathematical Logic Biimplication
Let P and Q be statements. The statement "Pif and only if
Q" is called the biimplication or biconditional of P and Q
The biconditional "P if and only if Q" is written P Q "Pif and
only if Q" Truth Table for the Biconditional:
LL
P
Q PAQ FT F TFF
т
T
F
E
10

Mathematical Logic

o Precedence of logical
connectives is:

o
highest

0 A second highest
o v third highest o fourth highest o fifth highest

11

English and Logic

o You cannot ride the roller coaster if


you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16
years old
• q: you can ride the roller coaster . r: you are under 4
feet tall
• s: you are older than 16

(r^- s) →-9 - $ (r 1-9)


Mathematical Logic A compound proposition is a
• Tautology if it is always true
• Contradiction if it is always false
• Contingency if it can be either true or false
Mathematical Logic

o Logically Implies
• A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A B is a tautology. If
A logically implies B, then symbolically we
write A + B o Logically Equivalent
A statement formula A is said to be logically equivalent to a
statement formula B if the statement formula
A + B is a tautology. If A is logically equivalent to B,
then symbolically we write A B

14
Fundamental Logical Equivalences

Idempotence (PVP) - P (PAP) e P

Associativity [(PVO) VR] [


POVR] [CP AQ) AR] [PA(QAR Commutativity (PVO) e (QV P) (PAO) = (QAP)
Distributivity (A over V) [PA(QVR)] [(PAQ) V(PAR) [(PVO) AR] [(PAR) V(QAR)| Law of
the Excluded Middle [PV(-P)] -T Law of Double Negation (Involution)
( P) = P Law of Simplification [(PAO) - P] - T (PAQ) - 0 -T
Domination (PVT) T (PAF) 4F

Identity (PvF) P (PAT) + P

De Morgan's Laws
PVO [(-) A(-01
PAQ] - [(-) V(-01 Distributivity (Vover ) [P (QAR)] - [(PVO) (PVR)] [(PAO) VR]
[(PVR) AO VR)] Law of Contradiction [PA(P)] of Law of Addition [P (PVO) →T
"Am aleinpotentiam algehac ekment (or which
Logical Equivalences and Rules of Inference for Implication and the Biconditional

Implication (P-0)-((PA(-0)] = [(-P) v Ql The Biconditional (P = 0) [(P = 0) A(


O P ) (P = 0) = (P= 0) (P = 0) = (
OP)
Negation Of An Implication [-(P +0] [PA(-01 Transitivity of Biconditional [(P = St)
A (S1 S) A---A(S= 0) - (P=0)

Logical Equivalences and Rules of Inference Related to Theorems

Modus Ponens (Law of Detachment) [PA(P = 0 =0 Contrapositive (Indirect Proof) [P-01


[(-2) + (-2)]
Law of Hypothetical Syllogism [(P + O) A(
OR)] (
PR) Proof by Contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) [P 01 [(PA(-2)) → (RA(R))] [P
Q1 = [(PA(-2)) + (-P)] [ P O] + [(PA(-2)) → Q1

Proof by Cases [( P R) (O+B)] = [(PVO) → RI (P = 0) A(


P )] = [P - (QAR)]
Laws of Disjunction [(PVO) A(-2)] = 0
(PVO) A(PA(-2))] → P

16

Quantifiers and First Order Logic

o Predicate or Propositional Function


. Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x)
is a sentence

. Then P(x) is called a predicate or


propositional function with respect to the set D if for each
value of x in D, P(x)
is a statement; i.e., P(x) is true or false . Moreover, D is
called the domain
(universe) of discourse and x is called the free variable
Quantifiers and First Order Logic

o Universal Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of
the discourse. The universal quantification of P(x) is the
statement:
o For all x, P(x) or o For every x, P(x) o The symbol is read
as "for all and every"
Vx, P(x) or Vxe D, P(x) o Two-place predicate: Vx, Vy,
P(x, y)
Quantifiers and First Order Logic

o Existential Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the universe of
discourse. The existential quantification of P(x) is the statement:
o There exists x, P(x) - The symbol 3 is read as "there
exists" o 3xED, P(x) or 3x, P(x) o Bound Variable
The variable appearing in:Vx, P(x) or 3x, P(x)
Quantifiers and First Order Logic

o Negation of Predicates (DeMorgan's Laws)


• Vx, P(x) 3x, P(x) . Example:
o If P(x) is the statement "x has won a race" where the
domain of discourse is all runners, then the universal quantification of P(x) is Vx, PC),
i.e., every runner has won a race. The negation of this statement is "it is not the case
that every runner has won a race.
Therefore there exists at least one runner who has not
won a race. Therefore: 3x,-P(x) 3x, P(x) = Vx, -P(x)

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