Module 5

MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE

Module Introduction
Motivation is essentially about the drive and commitment to doing something. From the point of
view of business, motivation is somebody’s willingness to work. However, it’s just not about completing
a job or working hard but rather it comes from enjoying the work that one is doing and wanting to reach
certain goals that one has set for himself/herself like getting a promotion. Moreover, it might be
something where someone feels a sense of satisfaction from accomplishing something or having
successful results after a very challenging situation. In short, people's behavior can also be determined by
what motivates them. Since motivation is an integral part of human resource management, it plays a very
important role in the growth of the organization. Motivation is often used to lead employees to become
productive members of the organization because motivated employees are assets of the organization.

Topic Outcomes
After reading and understanding this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe the theories of motivation; and
2. Analyze how motivation plays a big role in organizational behavior.

THE MEANING AND NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation in the workplace is defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward
organizational goals conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs (Robbins in
Mobbs and McFarland, 2010). It has been a focus of research by experts for more than a century for the
very reason that knowing what drives people to do what they do because motivated employees results in
better organizational performance. Likewise motivated employees report to having higher levels of
customer satisfaction and employee retention (Campbell, n.d.).
Most HR and talent management professionals are aware of and have tried to apply many of the
motivation theories that have been introduced over the years. Most notable of them are Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, Locke’s goal-setting theory, Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Adam’s equity theory,
and Vroom’s expectancy theory, to name just a few, all made their way into management textbooks, all
speculating on how to best motivate employees to increase profits

Theories of motivation
MOTIVATION theories can be distinguished between content and process motivation theories.
Content theories which are also called the need theories focus on WHAT, while process theories focus on
HOW human behaviour is motivated. Within the work environment content theories which are the earliest
theories of motivation have had the greatest impact on management practice and policy, but are the least
accepted in the academic community. Though content theories cannot explain entirely what motivates and
demotivates people, it tries to identify what our needs are and relate motivation to the fulfillment of these
needs. Process theories are concerned with the occurrence of motivation and what influences the
occurrence of motivation.
The main content theories are: Maslow’s needs hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s
achievement motivation and Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
The main process theories are: Skinner’s reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom's expectancy
theory, Adam’s equity theory and Lock’s goal setting theory.
 No single motivation theory explains all aspects of people’s motives or lack of motives. Each
theoretical explanation can serve as the basis for the development of techniques for motivating.

Motivation
theories
Maslow hierarchy
of needs
This is the earliest
and most widely
known theory of
motivation, developed
by Abraham Maslow
(1943) in the 1940s and 1950s. According to Maslow, needs are classified into five basic categories
which are ordered in his hierarchy, beginning with the basic psychological needs and continuing through
safety, belonging and love, esteem and self-actualization In his theory, the lowest unsatisfied need is the
most significant needs and individuals seek a higher need when lower needs are fulfilled.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is always shown in the shape of a pyramid where physiological
needs are at the bottom of the pyramid and the need for self-actualization at the top.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

(Source: Author's own figure)
1. Physiological needs (e.g. food,
water, shelter, sleep)
Physiological needs are the most basic
needs of humans to survive like water, air
 and food. Maslow emphasized that our body and mind cannot function well if these needs are not
satisfied. A person who lacks food, safety, love (also sex) and esteem, would most probably
hunger for food (and also for money, salary to buy food) than for anything else.
2. Safety and security (secure source of income, a place to live, health and well-being) If the
physiological needs are relatively well contented, new needs will appear, the so called safety
needs. Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for security or protection. In reality, in real dangers
and traumas “ like war, murder, natural catastrophes, criminal assault, etc. -, the needs for safety
become an active, first-line and dominant mobilizer of human beings.
3. Belongingness and love (integration into social groups, feel part of a community or a group;
affectionate relationships) When both the physiological and the safety needs are fulfilled, the
affection, love and belongingness needs come next. Maslow claimed people need to belong and
be accepted among their social groups.
4. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful, honourable human being) Esteem means being valued,
respected and appreciated by others. People need to feel significant, useful, or valued by others.
People with low self-esteem often need respect from others.
5. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow and develop to his or her fullest potential) What
humans can be, they must be. (Maslow, 1954)

Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire to grow and develop to his/her fullest potential.
Maslow described this level as the need to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that
one can be. Maslow believed that people must overcome their other needs “ described above -, not only
achieve them. However as one satisfies one level, people will crave to satisfy the next level in the
hierarchy and the next higher level and so on and so forth.

Alderfer ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs
According to Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) there are three classes of needs: existence , relatedness
and growth. Maslow’s physiological and safety needs belong together to existence needs. Relatedness can
be harmonised to belongingness and esteem of others. Growth is the same as Maslow’s self-esteem plus
self-actualization. Both Maslow and Alderfer tried to describe how these needs, more or less important to
individuals.

Existence Needs
These Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing, safety,
physical love and affection). Maslow's first two levels.
Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others like family, friends,
co-workers and employers . This also means to be recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family.
Maslow's third and fourth levels.

Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person to make creative or productive effects
on himself and the environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self). Maslow's fourth and fifth
levels. This includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete meaningful tasks.

Alderfer agreed with Maslow that unsatisfied needs motivate individuals. Alderfer also agreed
that individuals generally move up the hierarchy in satisfying their needs; that is, they satisfy lower-order
before higher-order needs. As lower-order needs are satisfied, they become less important, but Alderfer
also said: as higher-order needs are satisfied they become more important. And it is also said that under
some circumstances individuals might return to a lower need. Alderfer thought that individuals multiply
the efforts invested in a lower category need when higher categorized needs are not consequent.
McClelland Need for achievement, affiliation and power
In the early 1960s David McClelland built on Maslow’s work described three human motivators.
McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed that humans acquire, learn their motivators over time that is the
reason why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory. He concurred that people have
three motivating drivers, and it does not depend on our gender or age. One of these drives or needs will be
dominant in our behaviour and this depends on our culture and life experiences. Although each person has
all of these needs to some extent, only one of them tends to motivate an individual at any given time and
whichever this need is would characterize his or her behavior. This in turn results in diversified behavior
of employees.

These three motivators are:

1. Achievement
Achievement motivation refers to a person’s need for success or mastery of skills and is related with a
range of actions. Individuals seek achievement of challenging goals, and furtherance in their job.
Individuals with a high need for achievement like to receive regular feedback on their progress and
achievements; and often like to work alone; seek challenges and like high degree of
independence.Sources of high need for achievement can be: getting praise for success, goal setting skills,
one’s own competence and effort to achieve something,

2. Affiliation
Affiliation motivation is the need for love, belonging and relatedness. People with affiliation motivation
have a strong need for friendships and want to belong within a social group, need to be liked and held in
popular regard. They are team players, and they may be less effective in leadership positions. High-need-
for-affiliation persons mostly have warm interpersonal relationships.
3. Power
Power motivation is a need to control over one’s own work or the work of others. These persons have a
strong need to lead and to succeed in their ideas.Persons with this type would like to control and influence
others. McClelland argues that with a strong need for achievement people can become the best leaders.
The problem with this type of people is that they expect the other people around them to be as
achievement-focused and result-driven as they are.

Herzberg Two factor theory

Herzberg’s Two Factor theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory. This theory says that
there are factors (motivating factors) that cause job satisfaction, and motivation and some other also
separated factors (hygiene factors) cause dissatisfaction. That means that these feelings of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction to these factors are not opposite of each other, as it has always previously been believed.
The opposite therefore of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. According to
Herzberg (1987) the job satisfiers deal with the factors involved in doing the job, whereas the job
dissatisfiers deal with the factors which define the job context.
 Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

According to Herzberg’s there are five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors) which are
the only factors that can motivate. Likewise there are also five factors of job dissatisfaction that we need
to achieve more efficient work. These are shown in the table below:

Factors of Job Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are
needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher performance.

The Motivating and

Hygeine Factors

Hygiene factors are needed to

ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed to ensure employee's
satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher performance.
Skinner's reinforcement theory
Behavior can be formed by its consequences (Gordon, 1987) according to Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory. Positive reinforcements , for example verbal praise, appreciation, extra vacation
days, stock options or any other reward can increase the possibility that the rewarded behaviour will
happen again. Positive verbal feedback and high grade on examination that a student receives will
encourage the recurrence of the behavior that caused the rewards. Negative reinforcement occurs for
example when we try to reduce stress by altering employee hours. In this case altering employee hours is
a negative reinforcement because it reduces the unpleasant state (state). Contrary to positive and negative
reinforcement, punishment can be undesired reinforcement, or reinforce undesired behaviour.
The reinforcement theory is included in many other motivation theories. Reward must meet
someone's needs, expectations, must be applied equitably, and must be consistent. The desired behaviour
must be clear and realistic, but the issue remains: which reinforcements are suitable and for which
person?

Vroom's expectancy theory

The expectancy theory places an emphasis on the process and on the content of motivation as
well, and it integrates needs, equity and reinforcement theories.
Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to explain how people choose from the available
actions. Vroom defines motivation as a process that governs our choices among alternative forms of
voluntary behaviour. The basic rationale of this theory is that motivation comes from the belief that
decisions will have their desired outcomes.
The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising three factors. These three
factors are the following (Figure 4):
• Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success. This means that better
performance will result if someone works harder.
• Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection between activity and goal. If
you perform well, you will get reward.
• Valence – the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of success.
The expectancy theory highlights individual differences in motivation and contains three useful
factors for understanding and increasing motivation. This theory implies equity and importance of
consistent rewards as well (Konig & Steel 2006).
The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be
motivated if they believe that:
1. There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
2. Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
3. The reward will satisfy an important need,
4. The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

Adams' equity theory

The equity theory states that people are motivated if they are treated equitably, and receive what
they consider fair for their effort and costs.
The theory was suggested by Adams (1965) and is based on Social Exchange theory.
According to this theory, people compare their contribution to work, costs of their actions and the
benefits that will result to the contribution and benefits of the reference person. If people perceive that the
ratio of their inputs-outputs to the ratio of referent other's input-output is inequitable, then they will be
motivated to reduce the inequity
workers put inputs into the job, such as education, experience, effort, energy, and expect to get some
outcomes such as salary, reward, promotion, verbal recognition, and interesting and challenging work
each in equal amounts.

Examples for the inputs

and outcomes in
the equity theory
(Source: Author's own
figure
When inequity
exists, a person might …
• reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of his/her work
• try to increase his/her outputs
• adjust his/her perception of reference person or his/her outcomes or inputs
• change the reference person
• quit the situation.

Locke's goal-setting theory

Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative model of motivation just like the expectancy
theory. It emphasizes that setting specific, challenging performance goals and the commitment to these
goals are key determinants of motivation. Goals describe a desired future, and these established goals can
drive the behaviour. Achieving the goals, the goal accomplishment further motivates individuals to
perform. Goals should be specific so they can be measured, challenging so they would be more
motivational and should require involvement so it would be accepted.
The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting :
• Set challenging but attainable goals .
• Set specific and measurable goals .
• Goal commitment should be obtained .
• Support elements should be provided .
• Knowledge of results is essential
 Locke's goal-setting theory

Alienation at work
Alienation in the workplace happens when a worker can express individuality only when they are
producing work. Feelings of alienation can happen without the employee or employer even realizing it.
When they lose their independence and become just another part of a bigger picture they feel emotionally
separated from others and this is when they feel alienated. When they begin to have this feeling from
managers, co-workers and peers, they feel like they are just objects of the organizations. As a
consequence, since they do not feel appreciated and are not needed in their jobs, they lose their loyalty to
their company and are eager to look for other jobs.

Types of Alienation
1. Alienation from production.
This type of alienation happens when the worker does not see the final product they
produce; rather, they focus only on a piece of what they are producing. As a result,
workers don't understand what role they play in the entire process.
2. Alienation from the act of production.
This happens when an employee is only given a set of instructions to complete;
they do not get the instructions for the entire process. The employee never has a
role in the whole vision or planning, and they are made to feel that those who create the
vision are an elite class.
3. Alienation from themselves.
By nature, people want to be creative and then implement those ideas. This type
of alienation happens when people cannot maintain that part of their humanity;
they feel as though they cannot be themselves. They may even begin to feel like
they are not human
4. Alienation from others.
This type of alienation tends to happen when workers specialize in a small piece
of a larger whole. While it may be good for employees to have a specialty, these
employees begin to feel like they are in a thankless job, and they also may feel like
they're missing out on bonding with others.

HOW EMPLOYEES FEEL ALIENATION

There are many ways companies alienate employees, sometimes without even realizing it. That's why it's
important to pay attention to the signs your employees are giving you .Here are some ways you may be
alienating your employees
1. Keeping them in the dark.
2. Not asking for their input.
3. Keeping them boxed in.
4. Ignoring their goals.
5. Working them too hard.
6. Playing favorites. Instead.
7. Not valuing them.

Creating a motivating work setting

To some extent, a high level of employee motivation is derived from effective management
practices. To develop motivated employees, a manager must treat people as individuals, empower
workers, provide an effective reward system, redesign jobs, and create a flexible workplace.
1. Empowering employees
Empowerment is based on the idea that providing employees with the resources, authority, opportunity,
and motivation to do their work, as well as holding them accountable for their actions, will make
employees happier and more proficient. Empowering employees through the use of resources, extending
authority, providing opportunities and creating an environment with a sense of ownership and
responsibility will make employees motivated.
2. Providing an effective reward system
Studies have shown that employees are ultimately motivated by two goals, earning money and being
fulfilled within their job. By putting an effective employee reward system both extrinsic and intrinsic in
place to increase motivation, you are making sure that they deserve to earn the rewards for their hard
work and in turn you will have no problem with their performance.
3. Redesigning jobs
The concept of job redesign, which requires a knowledge of and concern for the human qualities
people bring with them to the organization, applies motivational theories to the structure of work
for improving productivity and satisfaction. When redesigning jobs, managers look at both job
scope and job depth.

Redesign attempts may include the following:

● Job enlargement. Often referred to as horizontal job loading, job enlargement increases the
variety of tasks a job includes. Although it doesn't increase the quality or the challenge of those tasks, job
enlargement may reduce some of the monotony, and as an employee's boredom decreases, his or her work
quality generally increases.
● Job rotation. This practice assigns people to different jobs or tasks to different people on a
temporary basis. The idea is to add variety and to expose people to the dependence that one job has on
other jobs. Job rotation can encourage higher levels of contributions and renew interest and enthusiasm.
The organization benefits from a cross-trained workforce.
● Job enrichment. Also called vertical job loading, this application includes not only an increased
variety of tasks, but also provides an employee with more responsibility and authority. If the skills
required to do the job are skills that match the jobholder's abilities, job enrichment may improve morale
and performance.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM) by Hackman and Oldham

According to The Job Characteristics Model the presence of five core job dimensions ensures three
psychological states. These psychological states in turn influence desirable work outcomes like quality of
work, job satisfaction etc. Below is the Job Characteristic Model as presented by Hackman and Oldham.
 JCM by Hackman
and Oldham

Critical

Psychological States
The five core job dimensions stated below result in three different psychological states.
1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent to which people believe that their job is
meaningful, and that their work is valued and appreciated.
2. Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work: The extent to which people feel
accountable for the results of their work, and for the outcomes they have produced.
3. Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity: The extent to which people know how
well they are doing.

Core Job Dimensions

1. Skill variety: This refers to the range of skills and activities necessary to complete the job.
2. Task identity: This dimension measures the degree to which the job require completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work.
3. Task significance: This looks at the impact and influence of a job.
4. Autonomy: This describes the amount of individual choice and discretion involved in a job.
5. Feedback: This dimension measures the amount of information an employee receives about his
or her performance, and the extent to which he or she can see the impact of the work.