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1. INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENT ENGINEERING

1.1. Introduction

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics,
and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to
wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-
grade.
The goal of pavement design is to determine the number, material composition and thickness
of the different layers within a pavement structure required to accommodate a given loading
regime. This includes the surface course as well as any underlying base or sub-base layers.
Structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer thickness and
material composition. Calculations are chiefly concerned with traffic loading stresses; other
environmentally related stresses (such as temperature) are accounted for in mix design and
asphalt binder selection. The principal methods of structural design in use today are (from
simplest to most complex) design catalogs, empirical and mechanistic-empirical design
procedures.
For rigid pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with determining the appropriate
slab thickness based on traffic loads and underlying material properties, and joint design.
This is done by considering a variety of stresses which affect rigid pavement performance:
curling (temperature stresses), warping (moisture stresses), wheel load and
shrinkage/expansion. The two principal methods of rigid pavement structural design in use
today, empirical and mechanistic-empirical, are covered in the course
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
i. Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
ii. Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
iii. Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
iv. Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
v. Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
vi. Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
vii. Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
viii. Long design life with low maintenance cost.
1.2. Types of pavements

The pavements can be classified based on the structural mechanism into three, flexible
pavements, rigid pavements and composite pavements. These are discussed below.
1.2.1. Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, deforms or
flexes, under loading. Flexible Pavement resists traffic loading through “internal friction”(

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grain-to-grain contact). An unpaved road with a compacted crushed stone course is a pure
flexible pavement. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of
material each of which receives the loads from the layer above, spreads them out, and then
passes them on to the layer below. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a
particular layer is, the less loads (in terms of force per area) it must carry. A flexible pavement
can be of: Full-Depth Hot Mixed Asphalt, Hot Mixed Asphalt, Base, Sub-grade, Hot Mixed
Asphalt, Base, Sub-base, and Sub-grade

Figure 1-1: Load transfer in granular structure

Material layers are usually arranged within a pavement structure in order of descending load
bearing capacities with the highest load bearing capacity material (and the most expensive)
on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and the least expensive) on the
bottom. The basic idea for building a road or parking area for all-weather use by vehicles is
to prepare a suitable sub-grade or foundation, provide necessary drainage and construct a
pavement that will:
 Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads,
 Prevent penetration or internal accumulation of moisture and,
 Have a top surface that is smooth, skid resistant, and resistant to wear, distortion,
and deterioration by weather and chemicals
The sub-grade ultimately carries all the traffic loads. Therefore, the structural function of a
pavement is to support a wheel load on the pavement surface and transfer and spread that
load to the sub-grade without overtaxing either the strength of the sub-grade or the internal

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strength of the pavement itself.

Figure 1-2 below shows a basic pavement structure. The flexible pavement, having less
flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet.

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Figure 1-2: Basic Flexible Pavement Structure

Surface Course. This is the layer in contact with traffic loads. It provides characteristics
such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut resistance and drainage. In addition,
it prevents ingress of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grades.
This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers especially
on heavily trafficked roads: the wearing course (top) and base course (bottom). These
layers are laid in separate operations. Surface courses are most often constructed out
of Hot Mixed Asphalt. The Surface of an asphalt pavement must be sloped to shed
surface water to the road side, and thus protect the entire asphalt pavement structure
and the sub-grade from erosive effects of moisture. It must also be bonded to the
layer or course beneath it.

The wearing course forms the uniform carriageway surface upon which vehicles run.
Ideally, it should:
i. offer good skid resistance,
ii. allow for the rapid drainage of surface water,
iii. minimize traffic noise,
iv. resist cracking and rutting,
v. withstand traffic turning and braking forces,
vi. protect the underlying road structure,
vii. require minimal maintenance,
viii. be capable of being recycled or overlaid, and
ix. be durable and give value for money.
No one material meets all of these requirements so, in practice, the selection of a
wearing course material depends on the design needs at each site. The basecourse
(in mainland Europe this is called a binder course) is a structural platform which
regulates (i.e. makes even) the top of the underlying roadbase, thereby ensuring that
the wearing course has a good riding quality when built; it also helps to distribute
the applied traffic loads. If the wearing course is impervious, the basecourse can be
composed of a more permeable material.
 RoadBase: The roadbase, which provides the platform for the surfacing, is the main
structural layer in a flexible pavement. As the stresses induced in a flexible pavement
by the applied wheel loads decrease with depth, the main function of the roadbase

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is to distribute the loads transmitted to it so that the strength capacities of the weaker
subbase and subgrade are not exceeded. Roadbases in flexible pavements are
normally designed to be very dense and highly stable, and to resist fatigue cracking
and structural deformation.
 Sub-base Course. This is the layer between the base course and sub-grade. It
functions primarily as structural support but it can also minimize the intrusion of fines
from the sub-grade into the pavement structure and improves drainage. The sub-
base generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better
than the sub-grade soils. A sub-base course is not always needed or used. Sub-base
courses are generally constructed out of crushed aggregate or engineered fill, e.g.
gravel and red soil.
Another major function of the subbase is to act as a working platform for, and protect
the subgrade from, site and construction vehicles as a pavement is being built. This
is especially important when the subgrade is of poor quality, e.g. clayey or silty, as
the critical load-carrying period is when the heavy wheel loads used in the laying and
compaction of the roadbase are applied to the subbase during construction. Whilst
they are few in number the magnitude of these loads may be great. If the subgrade
is strong, e.g. granular, a subbase may not be needed.
 Sub-grade: The sub-grade ultimately carries all the traffic loads. Therefore, the
structural function of a pavement is to support a wheel load on the pavement surface
and transfer and spread that load to the sub-grade without overtaxing either the
strength of the sub-grade or the internal strength of the pavement itself.

Load W

Pavement
Structure
Sub-grade

Pv
Pv

P1

P1

Figure 1-3 : Spread of Wheel-load through pavement structure

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Figure 1-3 shows wheel load, W, being transmitted to the pavement surface through the
tyre at an approximately uniform vertical pressure, Pv. The pavement then spreads the wheel
load to the sub-grade so that the maximum pressure on the sub-grade is only P1. By proper
selection of pavement materials and with adequate pavement thickness, P1 will be small
enough to be easily supported by the sub-grade
Base and Sub-base are structural elements of the pavement. In conjunction with the overlying
asphalt surface, their purpose is to distribute traffic wheel loads over the sub-grade or
foundation. To perform this function, bases and sub-bases must be built with necessary
internal strength properties. The internal forces are both tensile and compressive and thus
asphalt bases offer better performance due to their possession of properties that resist the
two forces.

Failure in Flexible Pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile
strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete
specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent
deformation or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to
control rutting: one to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other
to limit rutting to a tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-
temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.
1.2.2. Rigid Pavements

The cross-section of a rigid roadway comprises a pavement superimposed upon the

subgrade, and most usually this pavement is composed of a cement concrete slab on top of
a subbase. Rigid Pavements resist traffic loading by resistance to bending or flexure of
concrete, i.e. via beam action. Its design correlates with that of a conventional reinforced
concrete slab but steel reinforcement is used to counter concrete cracking rather than for
load carrying. Rigid pavement can be of: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP), Jointed
Reinforced (JRCP), Continually Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP), and Pre-stressed
Concrete Pavement (PCP)
a) Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
Jointed plain concrete pavement, or JPCP, consists of unreinforced concrete slabs 3.6–6.0
m in length with transverse contraction joints between the slabs. The joints are spaced
closely enough together so that cracks should not form in the slabs until late in the life of
the pavement. Therefore, for JPCP, the pavement expansions and contractions are addressed
through joints. One important performance issue with JPCP is load transfer across the joints.
If joints become faulted, then drivers encounter bumps at the joints and experience a rough
ride. Two methods are used to provide load transfer across JPCP joints – aggregate interlock
and dowels.
Aggregate interlock joints are formed during construction by sawing 1/4−1/3 of the way
through the pavement to create a plane of weakness. A crack then propagates through the
remaining thickness of the pavement as the concrete contracts. This crack has a rough
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surface because it propagates around the aggregates through the green cement paste, and
as long as it remains narrow the joint can transfer load from one slab to another through
bearing stress of the aggregate particles against each other across the crack. Load transfer
is compromised if the joint opens too widely or if the aggregates wear away. The quality and
erosion resistance of the material supporting the slab at the joint also affect load transfer.
When the pavement carries heavy vehicle traffic, particularly at high speeds, aggregate
interlock will break down over time and will not prevent faulting over the life of the
pavement. In this case, dowels are provided across the joint for load transfer. Dowels are
smooth rods, generally plain or epoxy-coated steel, which are usually greased or oiled on
side to allow the joints to open and close without resistance. JPCP is the most commonly
used type of concrete pavement because it is usually the cheapest to construct. It is
economical because there is no need to pay for any reinforcing steel in the slabs or for
labour to place the steel. In most regions, also, contractors will have more familiarity with
JPCP than with other types of concrete pavement. In those regions where corrosion of steel
is a problem, the absence of steel reinforcement means an absence of steel corrosion issues,
although the steel dowels can still corrode.
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements, like other conventional concrete pavements, often use tie
bars to connect adjacent traffic lanes. Tie bars are deformed reinforcing steel and, unlike
dowels, are not intended to allow the joints to open and close. Tie bars are used to separate
lanes for highway pavements. In contrast, airfield JPC pavements generally use dowels at all
joints. Key performance issues of JPCP include:
 Initial pavement smoothness, which is a function of construction practices;
 Adequate pavement thickness to prevent mid-slab cracking;
 Limiting the joint spacing, also to prevent mid-slab cracking; and
 Adequate joint design, detailing, and construction.

Figure 1-4 : Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement

b) Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Jointed reinforced concrete pavement, or JRCP, is distinguished from JPCP by longer slabs
and light reinforcement in the slabs. This light reinforcement is often termed temperature
steel. JRCP slab lengths typically range from 7.5 to 9 m, although slab lengths up to 30 m

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have been used. With these slab lengths, the joints must be doweled. The slab steel content
is typically in the range of 0.10–0.25 percent of the cross-sectional area, in the longitudinal
direction, with less steel in the transverse direction.
Either individual reinforcing bars or wire fabrics and meshes may be used. Because the steel
is placed at the neutral axis or midpoint of the slab, it has no effect on the flexural
performance of the concrete and serves only to keep cracks together. Although JRCP was
widely used in the past, it is less common today. The only advantage that JRCP has over
JPCP is fewer joints, and this is outweighed by the cost of the steel and the poor performance
of the joints and the cracks. Because the joints are spaced further apart than JPCP, they open
and close more, and load transfer suffers as joints open wider. JRCP joints always use dowels.
Furthermore, even though the slabs are longer, the cracks still form at the same interval as
JPCP, and therefore JRCP slabs generally have one or two interior cracks each The light steel
reinforcement across these cracks is generally not enough to maintain load transfer, and
therefore the cracks fault as well as the joints.

Figure 1-5 : Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement

c) Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Continuously reinforced concrete pavement, or CRCP, is characterized by heavy steel
reinforcement and an absence of joints. Much more steel is used for CRCP than for JRCP,
typically on the order of 0.4–0.8 percent by volume in the longitudinal direction. Steel in the
transverse direction is provided in a lower percentage as temperature steel. Cracks form in
CRCP approximately 0.6–2 m (2–6 ft) apart. The reinforcement holds the cracks tightly
together and provides for aggregate interlock and shear transfer. CRC pavements require
anchors at the beginning and end of the pavement to keep the ends from contracting due
to shrinkage, and to help the desired crack pattern develop. Because of the steel
reinforcement, CRCP costs more than JRCP, and is thus used less frequently in most regions.
However, it provides a smoother ride and a longer life than any other type of pavement. Key
performance considerations for CRCP include:
 Initial pavement smoothness;
 Adequate pavement thickness to prevent excessive transverse cracking;

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 Adequate reinforcing steel to hold cracks together and prevent punch outs.

Figure 1-6 : Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Failure in Rigid pavements
Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking
depends on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture.
Of late, pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil
slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused during the
downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in
rigid pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.
1.2.3. Composite Pavements

If a pavement is formed with layers of bituminous materials, supported on lower layers of

cement-bound materials, the structure is often referred to as a ‘composite’ pavement. The
rationale for building a composite pavement is to combine the better qualities of both
flexible and rigid pavements.
A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most
desirable characteristics. These pavement systems are also known as “semi-rigid pavement
structures”. A composite pavement may consist of: Hot Mixed Asphalt over Portland Cement
Concrete, Un-bonded Portland Cement Concrete Overlay or Bonded Portland Cement
Concrete Overlay. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction because of
high cost and complex analysis required.
1.3. Other Pavement Terminology

 Formation is the surface of the ground, in its final shape, upon which the pavement
structure, consisting of subbase, base and surfacing is constructed.

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 Fill is approved imported material used below formation level to construct

embankments or replace unsuitable natural material. Most types of soil and broken
rock can be used but highly plastic soil, expansive soil and organic soil should be
avoided.
 Improved (or selected) subgrade is a layer of selected fill material, the top of which
is at formation level, placed where the natural in-situ or fill material is unsuitable for
the direct support of the pavement. Its purpose is to increase the strength and
stiffness of the insitu material and thus reduce the pavement thickness.
 Borrow Area is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is removed
for construction of the works. (The term borrow pit is also used.)
 Quarry is an open surface working from which stone is removed by drilling and
blasting, for construction of the works.
 Stabilized Materials are naturally occurring gravels and clayey sands, or crushed
stone, to which either cement or lime, or both, have been added, in order to improve
their engineering properties.
 Lean Concrete is a high quality, well graded aggregate and Portland cement mixture,
mixed in a stationary plant and laid by a paver. It is used as a high quality base.
 Rockfill is rock material of such particle size that the material can only be placed in
layers of compacted thickness exceeding 300mm. Boulders with volumes greater
than 0.2m³ are not normally used.
 Graded Crushed Stone consists of quarried stone which has been crushed to a range
of sizes, conforming to a high quality specification for grading, cleanliness, strength,
shape and soundness. Normally graded crushed stone is used for roadbase or as the
aggregate in bituminous bound material.
 Gravel Wearing Course consists of a surfacing applied to a road formation where no
bituminous surfacing is to be placed. The gravel can include one or a combination of
the following materials: lateritic gravel, quartzitic gravel, calcareous gravel, some
forms of partly decomposed rock, soft stone, coral rag, clayey sands and crushed
rock.

1.4. Summary

What is the purpose of a pavement?

 To protect the sub grade from excessive permanent deformation
 To resist loss of structural capacity from fatigue produced by repeated traffic loads
 To provide adequate serviceability to users, without repair, for a given period of time
What is the goal of pavement design?
 To provide the most cost-effective structure while optimizing the level of service
provided to road users.
Roman Roads
 The Roman Empire built over 3000 miles of roads in Britain alone by 200 A.D.
 These roads had ditches to aid in drainage and their thickness varied over weaker
soils. This indicates that the Romans had some understanding of basic soil mechanics

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1.5. Pavement Design Factors

The following are the common factors affecting pavement design:

 Traffic and Loading
 Environmental Factors
 Material Characteristics
 Failure Criteria

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