MODULE 3

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, you should be able to

1. Define and draw trusses.

2. Indicate and identify the different supports and the reaction forces in these
supports in trusses.
3. Analyse trusses and how to solve them.
4. Know when to use method of joints or method of sections.

LESSON 7: Introduction

A plane truss or frame consists of several bars laying in one plane and connected by
hinges or pins at their ends so as to provide a stable configuration. Frames are used in
the roofs of sheds at Railway platform, workshops and in industrial buildings, bridges
etc. Plane trusses are made of short thin members interconnected at hinges into
triangulated patterns.

 The truss can have only hinged and roller supports.

 In field, usually, joints are constructed as rigid by welding.

For analysis purpose we assume that the following conditions are satisfied.

a. All the members are connected together at their ends by pin joints which are
absolutely frictionless.

b. All loads and reactions act on the truss only at the joints.

c. The longitudinal centroidal axes of the members are absolutely straight, coincident
with the appropriate lines joining the joint centres and lie in the same plane of the lines
of action of the loads and reactions.

The simplest frame is a triangle, consists of three members pin-jointed to each other.
This can be easily be analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. This frame is called the
basic perfect frame. It has three members AB, BC and CA and three joints A, B and C.
Suppose we add two members AD and CD and a joint D to this basic perfect frame, we
get a frame which can also be analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. This frame is
called a perfect frame.

Suppose we add two members and a joint to this frame as shown in, we again got a
perfect frame.

In this way we can go on adding any number of sets and can obtain a perfect frame.

7.2 TYPES OF FRAMES

Following are the types of frames:

(a) Perfect Frame

(b) Deficient or Imperfect Frame

(c) Redundant Frame

(a) Perfect Frames : Simplest perfect frame is a triangular assemblage of three

member AB, BC, CA meeting at joints B, C and A as shown.

Mathematically,

m = number of members

j = number of joints

Then m = 2 j – 3 is the condition for the frame to be a perfect frame.

 Hence for a stable frame the minimum number of members required = Twice
the number of joints minus three.

 If the number provided is less than the above requirement equation then
frame will not be stable.
For the Fig.15.4, m = 3, j = 3

m = 2j – 3

3=2×3–3

3=3 condition is satisfied.

Now consider the frame in Fig.15.5

Here m = 7, j = 5

m = 2j – 3

7=2×5–3

7=7

Hence the frame is perfect frame.

(a) Imperfect Frames :- (a) When the numbers are less than that required by equation
m = 2j – 3 then frame is called imperfect or deficient frame. Such frame, cannot resist
geometrical distortion under the action of loads.

(b) Redundant Frames :- If the number of members are more than that required by
equation m = 2j -3, then such frames will be called as redundant frames.

In Fig.15.6,

m = 12, j = 7

m = 2j – 3

12 = 2 × 7 – 3

12 = 14 – 3 = 11

Hence, the frame is redundant to a single degree, because one member is more.

In general let a frame have j joints and n members.

 If n = 2j – 3, then the frame is perfect frame.

 If n < 2j – 3, then the frame is deficient frame.

 If n > 2j – 3, then the frame is redundant frame.

A perfect frame can always be analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. While a
redundant frame cannot be fully analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. We will
discuss the analysis of perfect frames only.

7.3 REACTIONS AT SUPPORT

Frames are usually provided with either

a. Roller Supports

b. Hinged Support

c. Fixed Support

(i) Roller Support: It consists of support which is known as roller support. It is always a
normal reaction R perpendicular to the surface of rolling. This support always gives one
reaction component in perpendicular direction.

(ii) Hinged Support: This is the support at which inclined reaction R is developed. It
has two components one is in vertical direction i.e. V and other is in horizontal direction
which is H. Hence, hinged support always offers two reaction components V and H.
 Fixed Support: It is a fixed support at which three reaction components are
developed. One is in vertical direction i.e. V, one is in horizontal direction i.e. H and one
is a moment M.

In the cantilever frame shown, the roller base at B is vertical and hence the reaction at
this support is horizontal.

At a hinged support, the direction and the line of action of reaction will depend upon the
load system on the structure.
To determine the reactions

Reactions at the supports of a structure can be determined by the conditions of

equilibrium. The external load system applied on the structure and the reactions at the
supports must form a system in equilibrium.

Consider the cantilever truss shown. The truss is provided with a hinged support at A
and a roller support at E. The roller base at E being vertical the reaction at E is
horizontal. Hence there will be no vertical reaction at E.

Taking moments about A.

He × 4 = (60 + 40) 3 + (30 × 6)

He = 120 KN →

Total applied vertical force = 60 + 40 +30 = 130 KN ↓

Therefore, vertical reaction at A = Va = 130 KN ↑

Resolving the forces horizontally, we get

Ha = 120 KN ←

Thus the reaction at A consists of a vertical component Va = 130 KN ↑ and a horizontal

component

Ha = 120 KN ←

Now consider the truss provided with a hinged support at A and a roller support at G.
The roller base at G is horizontal and hence the reaction at G is entirely vertical. There
will be no horizontal reaction at G.

Taking moments about A

Vg× 8 = ( 20 × 3) + ( 30 × 2) + ( 40 × 4) + ( 60 × 6)
Therefore, Vg = 80 KN ↑

Total applied vertical force = 30 + 40 + 60 = 130 KN ↓

Therefore, vertical reaction at A = Va = 130 – 80 = 50 KN ↑

Total applied horizontal force = 20 KN →

Therefore, Horizontal reaction at A = Ha = 20 KN ←

To determine which member of a truss do not carry forces

In a truss carrying a load system some members may not carry forces. Such members
can be identified by using the following principles.

a.A single force cannot form a system in equilibrium. Means if there is only one force
acting at a joint, then for the equilibrium of the joint, this force will be equal to zero

P=0

a. If two forces act at a joint, then for the equilibrium of the joint these two forces
should act along the same straight line. The two forces will be equal and
opposite. If these two forces are not along the same line. Then for equilibrium of
the joint each force equals to zero

P = 0 and Q = 0
 (c) If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the same straight line, then
for the equilibrium of the joint, the third force should be equal to zero as shown

R=0

Given:
Consider the joint H. Forces at this joint are

Pha in the member HA.

Phg in the member HG.

Phb in the member HB.

Since Pha and Phg are in the same straight line, Phb = 0. Similarly, Pcg = 0 and Pfd = 0.

Assumptions in truss analysis

Trusses are analysed based on the following assumptions:

a. Each member of the truss is connected at its end by frictionless pins.

b. The truss is loaded as well as supported only at its joints.

c. The forces in the members of the truss are axial.

d. The weight of the member is neglected.

 These assumptions only lead to idealization of a truss.

 In reality the steel trusses are not exactly pin-jointed. They are fabricated by
riveting, bolting or welding the ends of the members to gusset plates.

 The truss joints are semi-rigid in reality and can transmit moments unlike
frictionless pinned joints.

 In many situations the loads are not applied exactly at the joints.

 It should be remembered that in an actual truss, the centroidal axes of the

members are not really concurrent at a joint thus inducing bending moments
in the member.

LESSON 9.

9.1 ANALYSIS OF A TRUSS

The analysis of a truss consists of determination of reactions at supports and forces in

the members of the truss.

 The reactions are determined by the condition that the applied load system and
the induced reactions at the supports form a system in equilibrium.
  The forces in the members of the truss are determined by the condition that the
every joint should be in equilibrium and so, the forces acting at every joint should
form a system in equilibrium.

A truss can be analysed by the following methods:

 Method of Joints

 Method of Sections

 Graphical Method
9.2 METHOD OF JOINTS

After determining the reaction at the supports, the equilibrium of each joint is considered
one by one.

 Each joint will be in equilibrium if ∑ V= 0 and ∑ H = 0, these two conditions

are satisfied.

 Forces in the members will either be tensile in nature or compressive in

nature.

 The joint is selected in such a way that at any time there are not more than
two unknowns.
The direction of an unknown force is assumed.

 If the magnitude of force comes out to be positive than assumed direction

will be correct.

 If the magnitude of force comes out to be negative than assumed direction

will be incorrect.
The process is continued until all the joints are considered thereby calculating the forces
in all the members of the frame.

Example: Find the forces in the members AB, BC, AC of the truss shown below in.
End A is hinged and B is supported on rollers.
 Fig. 9.1

Solution: A roller offers a reaction perpendicular to plane of rolling. Let RB is reaction

at B. A hinge offers two reaction components one in vertical direction and another in
horizontal direction. Since the load of 5O kN acts vertically downward, therefore only
vertical direction RA is developed and no horizontal reaction.

From the geometry of the figure, the distance of 50 kN load from A in horizontal
direction along AB is AC cos60°.

Fig.9.2 Fig.9.3

In ΔACB,

Angle at ACB = 90°

AC = AB cos 60° = 6 × \[{1 \over 2}\] = 3 m

BC = AB sin 60° = 6 × \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 3 \[\sqrt 3\] m

Distance of 50 kN load from A = AC cos 60° = 3 × = 1.5 m

Taking moments about A, we have

RB × 6 = 50 × 1.5

RB = \[{{50 \times 1.5} \over 6}\] = 12.5 kN

For equilibrium ∑ V = 0, i.e.

RA + RB = 50

RA + 12.5 = 50

RA = 37.5 kN

Considering equilibrium of joint A, first because RA is known and only two unknown
forces F1 and F2 are there. At each joint two equations of equilibrium are available i.e.

∑ V = 0 and ∑ H = 0.

Let F1 is force produce in the member AC and F2 is the force produced in the
member AB as shown in Fig.2. Joint A has to be in equilibrium. Component of
force F1 in vertical direction will balance vertical reaction RA. Therefore, the arrow is
marked in member (1) in down direction. Applying condition ∑ V = 0 at joint A.

F1 sin 60° = 37.5

F1 = 37.5 × \[{2 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] = \[{75 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] = \[{75 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] ×
\[{{\sqrt 3 } \over {\sqrt 3 }}\]

= + 25 \[\sqrt 3\] kN (+ve sign indicates that as assumed direction is correct)

= 43.30 kN

As the force F1 is pushing joint A, therefore F1 is compressive force. Mark arrow at

joint C as pushing it to show that member AC is compression member (Fig.9.2)

Now applying condition ∑ H = 0 at joint A,

F1 cos 60° = F2

Therefore, F2 = 43.30 × \[{1 \over 2}\] = + 21.65 kN

(again +ve sign indicated that the arrow marked in member AB is correct)

As the force F2 is pulling the joint A, therefore F2 is a tensile force. At B, place arrow
marking away from B to show that member AB is a tension member.
Next consider joint B, as shown in Fig.9.3

Let F3 is the force produced in the member BC. The joint B has to be in equilibrium. It
must satisfy the two conditions of equilibrium viz. ∑ V = 0 and ∑ H = 0. Let us assume
the direction of arrow towards B.

Applying ∑ V = 0 at joint B.

F3 sin 30° = 12.5

Therefore F3 = + 25 kN (+ve sign indicates that direction of F3 is correct)

As F3 pushes the joint B, Therefore it is a compressive force.

Now applying second condition ∑ H = 0 at the joint B,

F3 cos 30° = F2

25 × \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 21.65

21.65 = 21.65 (Check)

Now the forces in the various members are tabulated in the following table.

Member Force

AB Tensile = 21.65 Kn

BC Compressive = 25 kN

AC Compressive = 43.30
kN

Forces are marked in the truss, as shown in Fig.9.4. If we take tensile forces as +ve,
then compressive force will be –ve.
 Fig.9.4

Example: Determine the forces in the members of the truss loaded as shown in the
Fig.9.5. Also indicate the nature of the force (tensile or compressive).

Fig.9.5

Solution: The truss is symmetrical and also loaded symmetrically therefore,

reactions RA and RB will be equal. From the condition of equilibrium

∑V=0

i.e. RA + RB = 10 + 20 + 20 + 20 +10

2RA = 80

RA = 40 kN, RB = 40 kN

Draw BM and CN perpendicular to AE.

In Δ CAN, tan CAN = = 33.69°

Q = angle at CAN = 33.69°

ΔCFN, tan α = = 2

α = 63.43°

AC = \[\sqrt {A{N^2} + C{N^2}}\] = \[\sqrt {{6^2} + {4^2}}\] = 7.2 m

AB = 3.6 m, BM = 3.6 sin 33.69° = 1.99 m

AM = AB cos Ө = 3.6 cos 33.69° = 2.99 m

MF = AF – AM = 4 – 2.99 = 1.01 m
tan β = \[{{BM} \over {MF}}\] = \[{2 \over {1.01}}\] = 1.98

β = 63.20° = α

Considering joint A, (Fig.9.6). At this joint four forces are acting, out of which two
forces AB and AF are unknown. Applying condition of equilibrium at joint A, ∑ V = 0.
Resolving all forces in a vertical direction, we have

Fig.9.6

10 + AB sin Ө = 40 ..........................(i)

∑H=0

Resolving all forces horizontally, we have

AB cos Ө = AF................................(ii)

(Here AF is assumed to be in tension and AB is assumed to be in compression)

From (i), AB × sin 33.69° = 30

Therefore, AB = \[{{30} \over {\sin 33.69^\circ }}\] = \[{{30} \over {0.5547}}\]

= + 54.08 kN (compression)

From (ii), AF = 54.08 cos 33.69°

= 44.99 kN (tensile)

Considering joint B, (Fig.8.7)

 Fig.9.7

Angle ABF = 180° - Ө – β

= 180° - 33.69° - 63.20°

= 83.11°

Resolving all forces perpendicular to ABC,

BF sin 83.11° = 20 sin (90 – Ө)

BF × 0.9928 = 20 cos Ө = 20 × 0.8320

BF = 16.76 kN (compressive)

Resolving all forces along the line ABC,

AB + BF cos 83.11° = BC + 20 cos (90 – Ө)

54.08 + (16.76 × 0.1199) = BC + (20 × 0.5547)

56.089 = BC + 11.094

BC = 44.49 KN (compressive)

Considering joint F, (Fig.9.8)

 Fig.9.8

Resolving all forces vertically

BF sin α = CF sin α

Therefore, CF = 16.76 kN (tensile)

Resolving all forces in horizontal direction.

FG + CF cos α + BF cos α – AF = 0

Therefore, FG + 16.76 cos 63.20° + 16.76 cos 63.20° - 44.99 = 0

Therefore, FG + 7.56 + 7.56 – 44.99 = 0

FG + 15.12 – 44.99 = 0

FG = 29.87 KN (tensile)

We have analysed half the truss, other half is symmetrical, therefore

AF = EG, AB = ED, BC = DC, BF = DG, CF = CG

Member Force Nature

AB 54.08 KN Compressive

BC 44.99 KN Compressive

CD 44.99 KN Compressive

DE 54.08 KN Compressive
 AF 44.99 KN tensile

FG 29.87 KN tensile

GE 44.99 KN tensile

FB 16.76 KN Compressive

FC 16.76 KN tensile

GD 16.76 KN Compressive

GC 16.76 KN tensile

Lesson 10: Method of Sections

A member near the supports can be analysed with the help of method of joints and
for members remote from supports can be quickly analysed by method of sections.

 In this method, a section line is passed through the members, in which forces are
to be determined in such a way that not more than three members are cut.
 Then any of the cut part is then considered for equilibrium under the action of
internal forces developed in the cut members and external forces on the cut part
of the truss.
 The condition of equilibrium, i.e \[\sum V = 0,\sum H = 0,\sum M=0\] are applied
to the cut part of the truss under consideration. As three equations are available,
therefore, three unknown forces in the three members can be determined.
 If the magnitude of a force comes out to be positive then the assumed direction is
correct. If the magnitude of a force is negative then reverse the direction of that
force.
Example: Find the forces in the members PR and PQ of the truss loaded as shown in
Fig.10.1, using method of sections.

Fig.10.1

Solution: PR = 6 cos60° = 3 m

QR = 6 sin60° = 6 . \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 3 \[\sqrt 3\] = 5.19 m

Determination of reactions.

Let RP and RQ be the reactions at P and Q.

Taking moments about P,

RQ × 6 = 50 × PR. cos60°

6 RQ = 50 × 3 × \[{1 \over 2}\]

RQ = 12.5 kN

RP + RQ = 50

RP = 50 – 12.5 = 37.5 kN

Passing a section 1-1, thereby cutting the truss in two parts.

 Fig.10.2

Considering equilibrium of the left part. The part part of the truss is shown in Fig.10.2.
This part is in equilibrium under the action of one external force RP = 37.5 kN and other
two internal unknown forces PR and PQ in the members PR and PQ respectively. The
directions of PR and PQ both are considered as tensile as marked in Fig.10.2

Determination of force PR

Taking moment of all forces about Q.

The moment of force PQ about point Q is zero.

Therefore, RP × 6 + (PR × QR) = 0 ( because QR is perpendicular distance between

force PR and point Q i.e 5.19 m)

(37.5 × 6) + PR × 6.sin 60° = 0

PR = - \[{{225} \over {6\sin 60^\circ }}\] = - \[{{37.5} \over {0.866}}\] = - 43.30 kN

-ve sign indicates that the assumed direction is wrong. This force is actually
compression force.

Hence, PR = 43.30 kN

Determination of force PQ

If we take the moments of all forces about point R, then PR will be eliminated and there
will be only one unknown force PQ.

Hence, taking moment about point R,

-(PQ × PR.sin60° ) + (RP × PR.sin60° ) = 0 (\[\sum
M = 0)\]

-(PQ × 3 × 0.866) + (37.5 × 3 × 0.5) = 0

2.598 PQ = 56.25

PQ = + 21.65 kN

Fig.10.3

The positive sign indicates that the assumed direction is correct. This force is tensile
force.

Now if the in member QR is also to be determined then we will have to take another
section 2-2 so as to cut the member QR and PQ, as shown in Fig10.3 Now considering
equilibrium of right part of truss, under the section of two internal forces QR , PQ and
one external force RQ = 12.5 kN, we can apply condition (\[\sum M = 0)\] , if we take
moment about P, then forces PQ will be eliminated and only one unknown force QR will
remain. Hence by taking moment about P, we get (QR × 3) + (12.5 × 6) = 0

QR = - \[{{75} \over 3}\] = -25 kN

Negative sign indicates the assumed direction is wrong. This force is actually
compressive. Similarly if we take moment about R, force QR is eliminated and PQ =
21.65 kN (tensile).

Example: Determine the forces in the members DE, BE and AB of the truss, shown in
Fig.10.4.
 Fig.10.4

Solution: Pass a section X-X in such a way so that three desired members DE, BE and
AB are cut. Now consider the right part of the cut truss as shown in Fig.10.5.Let F1,
F2 and F3 be the forces in the members DE, BE and AB respectively.

Fig.10.5

Determination of F1,

Taking moments about B, so that moments of the forces F2 and F3 are eliminated

We have, - F1 × 6 sin60° + (20×3) + (15×6) = 0

-5.196 F1 + 60 + 90 = 0

F1 = 28.868 kN (Tensile)

Determination of F3,

Taking moments about E

F3 × 6 sin60° + (15×3) + (20×6) + (15×9) = 0

5.196 F3 + 45 + 120 + 135 = 0

F3 = 57.737 kN (Compressive)

Determination of F2,

Applying equilibrium condition

F2 sin60° = 20 + 15 + 15 = 50

F2 = 57.735 kN (Tensile)